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AY average rariath eens eS tar ieevtee het < - > een +t 4 } 4 vt eur Watite! ¢ bs | PRET E LR Prd tla et eee) v oe ane tat “wits i ’ “ . eer niet Nara NT Si eAdRT UALS COTA SHEL TLSE) P8ere) SWtRg Hat bad AN ESY IP et weegh HL epee Ca ene Maladies butachetatalbe Sivesedoecests =e.» Leah otan al ’ ve Sc hate (H) MTD ma AaL tha Vane Oa ede at ed) aya ty OO ep WET) Bm bate OF) Coder 5) OPE Rer erat ws SO% ene at npr eae Ae we ltay hed yEPVA Cartels ) HT) hy phous Sie rhe eral e wird tent “get Uirhvy voy evene 39 ae 9s Hee gt RS wae Cake FR) SEES vee 5 ws Oates Se at noe \iiW he 6 wy wit TU okt k SRR LACT fess | Deer Ss Fen y eens eee ee Fe as ewe et reer a ao ae pete ge daly aa CHPPOQIE DE Qube te? eeleVhs vow DME REY Me re wn” ~ Senge bv" Oe] pnasn tec eene see SOREL: TEN Yeas tengcdint acd tant rte aa cal Pa ratraa) | sea Saget beat 4 Spr ives50 udh Sune enmhast Se teaea Geren heise 4 x + ek ; JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOLUME 382, 1942 KE es eee e, ae . if. fF Hae? ~~ a se” } 1ST, Sy, ~ ae oo fe bs i % y \ EF ag) Bi ,eg¥ 7 BOARD OF EDITORS RAYMOND J. SEEGER G. ARTHUR COOPER JASON R. SWALLEN GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY ASSOCIATE EDITORS W. EpwWARDs DEMING C. F. W. MuESEBECK PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY HaRALp A. REHDER Epwin Kirk BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY CHARLOTTE ELLIOTT T. DALE STEWART BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOLICAL SOCIETY Horace S. ISBELL CHEMICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED MONTHLY BY THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 450 AHNAIP St. AT MENASHA, WISCONSIN ACTUAL DATES OF PUBLICATION, VOLUME 32 _ 1, pp. . 2, pp. 3; PD. . 4 pp: 5 . 125-156, May 16, 1942. . 157-188, June 16, 1942. . 189-220, July 17, 1942. . 221-252, August 14, 1942. ; . 253-284, Sue 15, 1942. 10! pp. 285-320, October 28, 1942. . 11, pp. 321-352, November 16. 1942. : 12, pp. 353-376, December 22, 1942. 1-32, January 24, 1942. 33-64, February 17, 1942. 65-92, March 14, 1942. 93-124, April 16, 1942. ae es a ed ‘y _ } Peeve. 2). 4: January 15, 1942 No. 1 \ 1 ‘ 7 _ WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES BOARD OF EDITORS James H. Kempton _Raymonp J. SEEGER G. ArtHuR CooPER U. S. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY U. 8S. NATIONAL MUSEUM ASSOCIATE EDITORS Lewis V. JuDSON | Austin H. Ciarx PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY ie Haraup A, REHDER Epwin Kirx BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY : : GEOLOGICAL SOCINTY CHARLOTTE ELLiotTT T. DaLE STEWART BOTANICAL SOCIETY , } } ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY Horace S. IsBEuu CHEMICAL SOCIETY PUBLISHED MONTHLY BY THE MNS WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Me : 450 Aunarp Sr. AT MmNASHA, WISCONSIN Entered as second class matter under the Act of August 24, 1912, at Menasha, Wis. Acceptance for mailing at a special rate of postage provided for in the Act of February 28, 1925. Authorized January 21, 1933. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This JOURNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes (1) short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated societies; (3) notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The JourNaAt is issued monthly, on the fifteenth of each month. Volumes correspond to calendar years. Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors. 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Going fifty years ago from western New York to Liberia, and there observing the results of African colonization from the United States, was an experience that in retrospect appears very different from any noted in published accounts of African travel or racial history. The difference may be ascribed largely to the absence of pre- vious contacts, commitments, or teachings of a nature to affect, even unconsciously, the observation and study of racial characters and relations. A prolonged and intensive controversy had raged in the northern States before the Civil War, and echoed widely through the period of Reconstruc- tion, but it was possible in a rural commu- nity to grow up without acquiring any racial presumptions or knowing any Negroes. Visiting Africa with congenial associates was an opportunity that an interest in na- ture could not refuse. Negroes in numbers were seen for the first time at Monrovia and in the settle- ments along the St. Paul River in -Decem- ber, 1891. Two widely contrasting groups were apparent, the civilized ‘“Liberians”’ and the primitive ‘“‘natives,”’ living in sepa- rate communities with the customs and conditions of the native life but little dis- turbed. A racial viewpoint was provided in advance, before the Liberian people were studied, or Negroes in our southern States. Several visits were made to Liberia, and subsequent contacts with the Cotton Belt extended through many years. <Agricul- tural explorations in several tropical and subtropical countries, Puerto Rieo, Haiti, Panama, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico, Peru, Egypt, Palestine, and China afforded 1 Received May 10, 1941. <. H A 4gA2 JAN 94 JANUARY 15, 1942 No. 1 to African colonization.' O. F. Cook, a basis of judgment regarding the status of Liberia. Social elements must be admitted in ra- cial evaluations, since different ways of living may largely determine cultural devel- opment among primitive peoples. The African system of living in compact villages is a form of social organization that pro- vides only limited contacts between the children and the parents, and little oppor- tunity for experience to accumulate through successive generations, thus explaining the generally backward state of civilization among the natives of Africa. A few years after leaving Liberia I observed an essen- tially different system among primitive peoples in Central America, not living in villages but in scattered families. The two systems were described and contrasted in this JouRNAL, March 4, 1912, ‘“‘Definitions of Two Primitive Social States.” It seems remarkable that the need of knowing the native life of the Negroes in Africa seldom is recognized. Only one author has been found, a writer of letters from San Domingo before the French Revolution, who reflected that knowledge of native con- ditions would be required in order to esti- mate fairly the hardships or privations suf- fered by the Negroes in slavery. Hundreds of foreign missionaries, of course, have lived among the African tribes and have re- counted incidents of native life, but rarely have they attempted to interpret the racial character or to project a racial future. Mis- sionaries in Liberia often are devoted en- tirely to the natives, with little or no inter- est in the civilized Liberians, descendants of the colonists who returned to Africa from the United States. 2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Colonization was a constructive effort in the field of race relations and had a back- ground of scientific interest at the period of inception. The field operations often were mismanaged and many difficulties arose from lack of knowledge of tropical economic plants and tropical diseases; also from inter- est being diverted by the sectional tensions that brought us to the Civil War. The numerical result of colonization must ap- pear insignificant, less than 20,000 civilized people scattered in small settlements along 300 miles of the African coast. Yet the Liberians have attained their principal ob- ject of escaping the racial tensions that often were felt acutely in the United States. They feel sure that their people never will be contented in America and that the pioneer effort in civilizing and developing the African home-land eventually will be followed and appreciated. Thomas Jefferson and George Washing- ton were the traditional sponsors of the policy of colonization. Jefferson studied the racial problem from many sides, including the need of educating the more capable Negroes, in order that they might furnish the necessary skill and leadership for the new communities in Africa. Washington instructed his executors to provide such education for some of his freedmen. Many slaves and freedmen were educated during the early period of colonization and later were assisted in emigrating and establishing themselves in Liberia. The policy of forbid- ding the education of Negroes developed later, opposing the demand for immediate abolition and racial equality in the United States. The interest of Washington and Jefferson eventuated in the formation of the American Colonization Society, in December, 1816. The first president of the Society, elected in January, 1817, was Jus- tice Bushrod Washington of the Supreme Court, a nephew of George Washington. VOL. 32, NO. 1 Henry Clay, Andrew Jackson, William H. Crawford of Georgia, and several other eminent statesmen were elected as vice- presidents. Liberia has had its place on the map of Africa for more than a century, a challenge to historians to understand, explain, and evaluate the effort made and the experience gained in this unique colonial undertaking. Many historical or descriptive accounts of Liberia and the colonization movement have been written, but usually they disregard the basic interest that existed more than a cen- tury ago among both races in the southern States in working out a gradual and peace- ful emancipation of the slaves and restoring them to Africa on a civilized footing. The little book Liberia published in 1913 by Prof. Frederick Starr, of the University of Chicago, contains a detailed history of colonization and of resulting progress among the natives. A large, two-volume, richly illustrated work, Liberia, by Sir Harry Johnston, appeared in 1906. In view of the possibility of an eventual return to the plan of resettlement of Ameri- can Negroes in Africa, the nature of the pioneer undertaking should be better known —how such an interest developed, what the settlements in Africa accomplished, what the limiting requirements proved to be, and whether these requirements could now be met. It was supposed that the colonization project would lapse completely with the Civil War, but small numbers of Negroes have continued to go to Liberia and several movements for large-scale resumption of colonization have occurred, showing that an underlying interest still exists. A recent proposal in the field of colonization is that of Senator Bilbo of Mississippi, presented in a speech before the first session of the Seventy-sixth Congress, April 24, 1939. Colonization appedrs much more feasible now than it was in the former century. BOTANICAL FORERUNNERS OF COLONIZATION Two tropical botanists of the eighteenth century, Aublet and Smeathman, were pre- sented in this JouRNAL, July 15, 1940, as pioneers against slavery. Although these men have not figured in histories of the anti- slavery movement, they appear to have given the first scientific attention to African slavery as a racial problem, before the Jan. 15, 1942 French Revolution affected colonial policies and brought the racial questions into politi- cal controversy. It is not without interest that the plan of repatriating the Negroes in Africa arose in the early period of scientific exploration of the Tropics. Wadstrom’s monumental Hssay on coloni- zation, published in 1794, states that Smeathman was ‘‘the person who first pro- posed a specific plan for colonizing Africa, with a view to civilization.’”’ Wadstrom was a Swedish economist and had made a voy- age to Africa on a French vessel. He pro- jected an elaborate agricultural and com- mercial development that was expected to absorb the activities of the natives and thus put an end to the slave trade. -Smeathman’s plan of repatriating Ne- groes from England or from America was developed after several years had been spent among the natives in the vicinity of Sierra Leone. Emancipation served as a military measure in the Revolutionary War, as later in the Civil War. Thousands of refugee Negroes had been sent from Vir- ginia, South Carolina, and Georgia to the West Indies in the war period, while several hundreds of destitute and distressed people had drifted to London. These were to form the colony at Sierra Leone, but Smeathman died before the expedition sailed, and the settlement soon was abandoned. Yet reports of the undertaking reached America and served at least as suggestions in developing the project of colonizing Negroes from the United States. Wadstrom and many later historians overlooked a brief but significant paper on African colonization by Ferdinando Fair- COOK: AFRICAN COLONIZATION 3 fax, of Richmond, Va., that appeared in December, 1790, at Philadelphia in a short- lived pioneer journal of popular science and general literature, The American Museum or Universal Magazine. The statement by Fairfax provides a nexus between Smeath- man’s project at Sierra Leone and the de- velopment in the United States of the policy of returning the Negroes to Africa. No reference to this paper has been found, and it may not be accessible in many libraries. A photographic copy is reproduced in Fig. 1. Although Smeathman was not mentioned by Fairfax, the statement that “England, not long since, made an experiment of this kind, which was found not to succeed”’ undoubtedly refers to the effort at Sierra Leone. The proposal to repeat the experi- ment in spite of the initial failure leaves no doubt of an underlying approval of the plan. Fairfax sensed the danger of tensions and conflicts arising from arguments addressed ‘rather to the feelings than to the cool de- liberate judgment.” Letting the free Negroes go back to Africa prepared to live as civilized people appeared to Fairfax an acceptable solution of the racial problem. A failure of later generations to continue a project may not lessen the interest of the original suggestion. Return- ing the Negroes to Africa appeared before the Civil War as the only practicable alter- native of slavery, and many writers of the pre-War period rested in the belief that a practical solution would be worked out in Liberia. Daniel Webster and Abraham Lincoln looked to colonization as the even- tual adjustment. SMEATHMAN A BOTANICAL EXPLORER Aublet and Smeathman were botanical explorers, not actuated by the zeal of mis- sionaries or philanthropists but by the de- sire to see the plants and animals of the tropical countries and the human inhabi- tants as well. Earlier botanists, Plumier, Jacquin, and others, had discovered a new plant world in the West Indian Islands, but the forest floras of South America and Africa were still unknown. Adanson had botanized in Senegal from 1749 to 1754, and even in the previous century a little plant material had come from the Gold Coast, but vast regions remained untouched. Aublet in Guinea and Smeathman in Sierra Leone collected hundreds of new plants, but their interest was not restricted to the herbarium specimens. Smeathman has distinction among entomologists for first describing the specialized castes and oroys ear’ y aeyga pare fay 1 weg aouyfo AOI PUT AoYy Joy Yadjat pure woaya PrN} Dow! 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The date of Smeathman’s exploration given in the recently published Flora of West Tropical Africa, by Hutchin- son and Dalziel, is several years too late. ““SSmeathmann,”’ with the final letter doubled, is listed as ‘‘Agent—Conductor of the scheme for settling freed slaves at Free- town in 1787.” This is the date of the at- tempted colony and of Smeathman’s death, but his account of the termites was pub- lished in 1781, and his botanical collecting probably was done in the preceding decade. mecordime to KR. H. Fox, m Dr. John Fothergill and his friends, Smeathman was engaged in 1771 to spend three years in- vestigating ‘‘the natural history and prod- ucts of Spain and the West Coast of Africa.” Fox states that Smeathman went later to the West Indies, and Smeathman says: “My stay in the West Indies was with a view to inform myself of tropical cultiva- tion, previous to my return to Africa.’ The range of scientific interest in the Fothergill coterie was remarkable. One of Fothergill’s friends was Peter Collinson, known to American botanists for supporting the ex- -plorations of the Bartrams. Smeathman says that his plan of coloni- zation was based on ‘‘observations made in a 4 years residence,” doubtless referring to his stay in Africa, most of the time among the natives, learning their ways of living and working under the local conditions. The native foods and methods of produc- tion were considered, as well as the need of introducing crops from other countries. His views of the need and advantage of labor for continued health and enjoyment of life in tropical countries were far in advance of his time, or even of our present time, since traditional habits of social parasitism still vitiate our relations with other races. Smeathman seems to have been entirely free from the notion so prevalent in tropical countries, and doubtless of oriental origin, that physical labor is degrading and marks an inferior social caste. He says: If I was to conduct this enterprise, I would lift the first axe and the first hoe myself; and may say without vanity, since it is said from COOK: AFRICAN COLONIZATION 5 experience, set an example of labour and in- dustry in cultivation. For husbandry, far from being to me a drudgery, is the most delightful amusement. I attribute all the ex- treme good health I enjoyed by intervals in Africa, with the soundness of my constitution at this hour, to the hard labour I then sus- tained with infinite pleasure, often contem- plating with how much greater enjoyment I could labour, in prosecuting such an attempt of civilization. It would be our business to take not only the seeds common in the climates, but also all the seeds to be procured from warmer regions, of use in food or medicine. Our own hot-houses would furnish us with coffee, American indigo, aloes and other useful plants; and I should think the chocolate tree (theobroma cacao) might be procured. These are not indeed primary objects, but by the time they increase, will be very worthy of attention. Much of the subsequent history might have been different if Smeathman had lived and made the experiment that he had in mind. With all their difficulties and fail- ures, the colonies planted at Sierra Leone and in Liberia may be said to have demon- strated that communities of civilized Ne- groes could be established in Africa, but the significance of these pioneer undertak- ings was overlooked in the period of inten- sive controversy. The death of Smeathman may be said to have aborted the project, in the absence of any successor with compar- able experience and insight. The later operations in the United States developed no leaders with scientific interest and tropi- cal experience that would qualify them as normal successors of Smeathman. Smeathman’s plan may have been an echo or resumption of an earlier project by Fothergill as noted by Fox: Fothergill joined with his friends in the moral crusade against slavery and all its works. His practical mind, ever seeking ways to rem- edy the ills of men, projected a scheme for settling a colony of freed negroes in Africa to cultivate the sugar-cane, and he was ready, it is said, to subscribe 10,000 pounds towards the expense. He received a letter, however, from Anthony Benezet of Philadelphia, one of the most enlightened advocates of the slave, in 6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 1773, discouraging the plan: it was better, he thought, that the negroes should live together with whites in a mixed community. White people were not excluded from Smeathman’s plan, or from Wadstrom’s extensive scheme, which had hundreds of prominent patrons. A large agricultural and VOL. 32, NO. 1 commercial organization was planned in great detail. Wadstrom made an intensive study of the economic principles that should govern such undertakings, including precautions for preventing harmful specu- lation in “imaginary paper,” to keep his project from becoming another ‘‘South Sea Bubble.”’ BIOLOGY AND RACIAL STUDY The biological sciences provide us with methods and experience in observing and taking account of diversity and also furnish the actual backgrounds of conditions of life as settings for our problems of human wel- fare and racial adjustments. Ethnology, the science of race, admittedly is a branch of biology, and the same will be true of sociol- ogy and economics as soon as these sciences are developed beyond the philosophic stage of abstract terms and formal distinctions. A racial interest that is real and func- tional has to be a biological interest, a natural taste for seeing, appreciating, and understanding the diversities of nature. The complexity of biological facts places them beyond the range of merely verbal or ‘‘phil- osophical’’ minds, unaccustomed to obser- vation. Inferences are useful if they lead us to observe more closely, but not if they lead only to abstractions. Seeing what can be seen 1s the basic impulse of mental develop- ment. The dialectic philosophy of Plato and his successors 1s a serious impediment to science, as Bacon so clearly perceived. More general interest and understanding of plant and animal life is the best assurance of sub- stantial progress in the social or racial sciences. The diversities of people are of a piece with the diversities of plants and animals, a part of the same creation. The diversity of living forms and the complexity of the limit- ing factors are the most general and signifi- cant of all biological facts. We gain under- standing of life as we learn to appreciate and to take account of the infinite variety of adjustments made possible through diver- sity of form and function. Science is our effort to see clearly, which often is difficult, so that special precautions are required. Goethe gave us a general warning that “we see only what we know,” meaning that we have to become familiar with our facts before we reach the stage of effective vision. Casual observations and inferences may be thoroughly misleading, as often has oc- curred in the racial controversies. Naturalists have a basic social function in extending our view of the living world. Not only the facts that science substanti- ates, but also the careful tentative methods of scientific study, must be more widely diffused in order to be appreciated and ap- plied by a far larger proportion of the gen- eral public, before we may hope to deal con- structively with our human relations. The most important applications of the biologi- cal sciences in racial welfare are in the na- ture of community undertakings and re- quire full understanding by the functioning personnel as the basis of effective coopera- tion. IS SCIENCE ALOOF FROM RACIAL PROBLEMS? The charge of science holding aloof from human interests is echoed frequently in the discussion of racial relations. Problems of public information are vastly more difficult in fields of thought that have suffered from controversy, but to say that science eschews controversy may not be an adequate de- fense in an age of revolution. Controversies are said to prove nothing, but they show | that facts are obscure or deficient. Neglect- ing to bring a significant fact to public attention, leaving it concealed and disre- JAN. 15, 1942 garded in “‘technical literature,’ may ap- pear even more culpable from a standpoint of social responsibility than a failure to make original investigations. Science may need to admit a responsible function in popular knowledge. The actual state of public opinion or belief regarding any field of knowledge is a fact that science may determine and report. Freedom of con- troversy is abused when ascertained facts are disregarded or misrepresented in a man- ner to misinform the public. A traditional assumption has been that scientific facts may be left to speak for themselves, but often they are smothered by ‘‘the natural conservatism of all professional people.” Important discoveries may lie dormant for many years, like Mendel’s reports of his basic experiments in heredity. A published record may establish priority among scien- tific specialists, but may not be an adequate defense at the bar of social responsibility. The spirit of controversy is repugnant to science because controversy deals with ar- guments rather than with facts, and be- cause language is perverted, so that custom- ary forms of expression become too mislead- ing for scientific use. Thus scientific study is impeded or even inhibited during a period of intensive controversy. The entire field of racial thought was devastated during the last century to an extent that is hardly to be appreciated. But by going back to earlier writers it is possible to see that racial dif- ferences were observed and noted like other biological facts, without being complicated by the controversial intrusions of later periods. The small paper relating to Aublet was noticed in Science News Letter of October 6, 1940, in a manner to show how the tradi- tions of the antislavery crusade carry for- ward to the present day, even in the field of scientific reporting. Aublet had been pre- sented as an early example of an interest in human welfare on the part of a scientific explorer, hidden in an old book of technical botany that no conventional historian would be expected to consult. The scientific inter- est of this early reaction to slavery was com- pletely sidetracked in Science News Letter by dressing Aublet in the conventional COOK: AFRICAN COLONIZATION Z character of the petulant reformer, instant in protest: ‘‘His writings contain in addition to the customary Natural History descrip- tions and travel notes, frequent references of strong disapproval of the institution of negro slavery. He opposed the system, not only because of its inhumanity to the blacks, but because of the deterioration in character it brought about in the white owners and overseers.” This is not Aublet’s attitude, but an echo of the antislavery controversy, with the subversive implication that social reforms are possible only through sanguinary strug- gles, as with the many writers who assume that our Civil War was necessary. “It need- ed a great war and the convulsion of the nation to establish their principles in the mind of the majority.’’ A false philosophy of revolution is implied in this theory of social progress requiring intensive agitation by militant minorities, disregarding the scientific outlook to wider understanding of our human nature and the world we live in, “the increase and diffusion of knowl- edge.’ Progress means more understanding, not more irritation. Aublet was a reformer, but not an agita- tor. If he had a scientific sense of social responsibility it extended in the case that was cited only to placing on record an opin- ion reached through observation of Negro slaves in the French colonies, that they were people of peaceable temperament who for colonial purposes did not need to be held in slavery, which was proved by later events. Aublet’s four volumes on the plants of French Guiana, although titled as His- towre, are not a work of ‘‘natural history” in our modern sense, but of formal Latin and French descriptions of genera and spe- cies, hundreds of engraved plates, and thousands of drawings of structural details. Travel notes are not interspersed, nor are there protests against “the institution of negro slavery,” an expression of later usage. The separate short chapter of ‘‘Observa- tions on the Slave Negroes” is not contro- versial, and nobody is denounced. Aublet, Smeathman, Jefferson, and Fairfax were strongly opposed to slavery but sought understanding and constructive courses. 8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 32, NO. 1 JEFFERSON’S APPEAL TO “NATURAL HISTORY’’ The charge of science neglecting racial questions is not new, since it was rather directly implied in Thomas Jefferson’s Notes on Virginia written in 1781. It seemed to Jefferson that science should be able to give more definite answers to questions that even then were being debated from widely different standpoints: To our reproach it must be said, that though for a century and a half we have had under our eyes the races of black and of red men, they have never yet been viewed by us as subjects of natural history. I advance it therefore as a suspicion only, that the blacks, whether origi- nally a distinct race, or made distinct by time and circumstances, are inferior to the whites in the endowments both of body and mind. It is not against experience to suppose, that different species of the same genus, or varieties of the same species, may possess different qualifications. Will not a lover of natural his- tory then, one who views the gradations in all the races of animals with the eye of philoso- phy, excuse an effort to keep those in the de- partment of man as distinct as nature has formed them. This unfortunate difference of colour, and perhaps of faculty, is a powerful obstacle to the emancipation of these people. Many of their advocates, while they wish to vindicate the liberty of human nature are anxious also to preserve its dignity and beauty. Some of these, embarrassed by the question ‘What further is to be done with them?” join themselves in opposition with those who are actuated by sordid avarice only. Among the Romans emancipation required but one effort. The slave, when made free, might mix with, without staining the blood of his master. But with us a second is necessary, unknown to history. When freed, he is to be removed be- yond the reach of mixture. Although Jefferson in another place refers to the slave population as ‘‘this blot in our country,’ the system of slavery was in mind, not the racial color. The context re- lates to a law passed by the Legislature of Virginia to prohibit further importation of slaves. ‘‘This will in some measure stop the increase of this great political and moral evil, while the minds of our citizens may be ripening for a complete emancipation of our human nature.” Few writers, if any, with equal interest and opportunity of critical observation, have placed on record higher estimates of Negro ability and char- acter. The charge of pilfering is explained and excused, while essential moral qualities are recognized: Whether further observation will or will not verify the conjecture, that nature has been less bountiful to them in the endowments of the head, I believe that in those of the heart she will be found to have done them justice. That disposition to theft with which they have been branded, must be ascribed to their situa- tion, and not to any depravity of the moral sense. The man, in whose favor no laws of property exist, probably feels himself less bound to respect those made in favor of others. Notwithstanding these considerations which must weaken their respect for the laws of property, we find among them numerous instances of the most rigid integrity, and as many as among their better instructed mast- ers, of benevolence, gratitude, and unshaken fidelity. The opinion, that they are inferior in the faculties of reason and imagination, must be hazarded with great diffidence. To justify a general conclusion, requires many ob- servations, even where the subject may be submitted to the anatomical knife, to optical glasses, to analysis by fire, or by solvents. Moral qualities are found among Negroes, and mental abilities as well, beyond any development that could be expected from the usual exercise of such qualities in the native life of Africa, limited as it is by the universal village system. The Negroes had had no experience with our institutions of property. The ability of the race is much greater than its native attainments would indicate. Regarding the moral abilities being better developed than the mental abilities, the opposite opinion was strongly stated to me by Gen. 8. C. Armstrong, from his ex- tensive experience at Hampton Institute. Such questions obviously would be affected by opportunities of exercising and mani- JAN. 15, 1942 festing the various abilities. Jefferson saw that statistical study, as we now say, would be required as the basis of general conclusions on the nature and ex- tent of the racial differences, rather than rare examples of special talent, although he was interested in these. He considered Benjamin Banneker, the ‘Negro Astrono- mer,” as an authentic example of Negro ability, “the son of a black man born in Africa and a black woman born in the United States, who is a very respectable mathematician.’”’ This was in 1791, in a letter to Condorcet transmitting an almanac that Banneker had prepared while em- ployed at the instance of Jefferson “‘in lay- ing out the new Federal City on the Potomac.”’ But in writing to Joel Barlow in 1809 Jefferson reflects that Banneker doubt- COOK: AFRICAN COLONIZATION 9 less was prompted by Ellicot ‘““‘who was his neighbor and friend, and never missed an opportunity of puffing him. I have a long letter from Banneker which shows him to have had a mind of very common stature indeed.’”? Many other Jefferson letters touched on different phases of the racial problem and showed the same scientific avoidance of general conclusions, unless supported by facts of common knowledge. Thus Jefferson refers to racial crossing, but not in the manner of those who look to an ultimate fusion as a solution of the racial problem. ‘‘The improvement of the blacks in body and mind, in the first instance of their mixture with the whites, has been ob- served by everyone, and proves that their inferiority is not the effect merely of their conditions of life.” GENOLYTIC HYBRIDS The slower progress of ethnology on the side of genetics is shown in racial crossing still being debated on traditional lines, with no account taken of a fact now widely known among biologists, that later genera- tions of hybrid plants and animals often differ profoundly from the first generation. Even where the first generation of a hybrid stock is uniform, and regularly exceeds the parental types in vigor and productiveness, the later generations may show a wide range of diversity, including many sterile or otherwise abnormal individuals, some re- sembling the first generation, but few equal to the original parents. Diversity and de- terioration continue in successive genera- tions, even where selection for desirable characters is applied. This phenomenon of deterioration in later generations of hybrid stocks has received less attention than would be expected, pos- sibly because no distinctive name has been suggested. The term genolytic would be ap- propriate for this class of hybrids, uniform and fertile in the first generation, but di- verse and degenerate in the later genera- tions, as if the mechanism of heredity had become loose-jointed and only partially effective. The diversity is not limited to the range between the parental differences, but often is extraparental, a fact recognized in 1909 in Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 147, Suppressed and intensified characters in cotton hybrids. Genolytic bovine hy- brids were described in the American Naturalist for April, 1913, ‘“Mendelism and Interspecific Hybrids.’ Genolytic cotton hybrids were illustrated in the Journal of Heredity for February, 1915, ‘‘T'wo Classes of Hybrids.’’ Mendelian alternative inheri- tance of various contrasting characters is shown, of course, in all such hybrids and has received attention, but the genolytic diversity is a fact of even greater signifi- cance in racial crossing and is in need of separate study. Under the former theory of blended in- heritance it was supposed that the racial mixtures eventually would reach a stage of intermediate uniformity in all their charac- ters, but now it is known that the racial crosses yield patchwork populations through many generations. The extent of racial crossing in the United States often is greatly overestimated on account of a popu- lar belief that the only unmixed people are very black, with the skin as dark as the hair. In reality most of the natives of the interior of Liberia and the neighboring regions are brown rather than black, and often rather 10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES light. Only rare individuals among the Liberian natives are black like the Congo VOL. 32, NO. 1 people, a few of whom were settled in Liberia, from captured slave-ships. AUBLET AND JEFFERSON Aublet’s assay of the racial temperament of the Negroes as quiet, kindly people evi- denced a deeper insight than was attained by many others who sought to interpret the Negro character. Even to Thomas Jefferson it seemed reasonable to ascribe the atroci- ties of the revolution in Haiti to racial ani- mosity, without considering what the mobs had done in Paris, or the suicidal perfidies of Bonaparte and Le Clerc, or Rocham- beau’s despairing resort to Schrecklichkeit. The peaceful history of Liberia should figure in the racial reckoning, as well as the san- guinary history of Haiti. The effect of slavery on the white people was the critical fact with Aublet, without irrelevant debate on the loss or gain to the Negroes. Jefferson saw the social lesions of slavery as clearly as Aublet, and his state- ment is more specific: There must doubtless be an unhappy in- fluence on the manners of our people produced by the existence of slavery among us. The whole commerce between master and slave is a perpetual exercise of the most boisterous passions, the most unremitting despotism on the one part, and degrading submissions on the other. Our children see this, and learn to imi- tate it; for man is an imitative animal. This quality is the germ of all education in him. From his cradle to his grave he is learning to do what he sees others do. If a parent could find no motive either in his philanthropy or his self love, for restraining the intemperance of passion towards his slave, it should always be a sufficient one that his child is present. But generally it is not sufficient. The parent storms, the child looks on, catches the linea- ments of wrath, puts on the same airs in the circle of smaller slaves, gives a loose to the worst of passions, and thus nursed, educated, and daily exercised in tyranny, cannot but be stamped by it with odious peculiarities. The man must be a prodigy who can retain his manners and morals undepraved by such cir- cumstances. ... With the morals of the people, their industry also is destroyed. For in a warm climate, no man will labour for himself who can make another labour for him. This is so true, that of the proprietors of slaves a very small proportion indeed are ever seen to labour. And can the liberties of a nation be thought secure when we have removed their only firm basis, a conviction in the minds of the people that these liberties are of the gift of God? Thus with Jefferson as with Aublet, the question did not turn primarily on the Negroes being inferior, or being badly treated, but on slavery as a social institu- tion. Jefferson saw that the manners and minds of his people were affected uncon- sciously by the keeping of slaves, even as John Woolman had observed. The North did not know the Negroes, and the South was not aware of being affected by the Negroes. Both sections may learn eventu- ally what their forefathers overlooked. Charles Francis Adams, second of that name, a grandson of John Quincy Adams, speaking at the University of South Caro- lina in 1913, formally recanted the belief of New England abolitionists in political equality and race absorption: ‘In this all- important respect I do not hesitate to say we theorists and abstractionists of the North, throughout that long anti-slavery discussion which ended with the 1861 clash of arms, were thoroughly wrong.” Slavery as a social institution could not be defended, but emphasis on the wrongs and hardships of the Negroes carried the issue to debatable ground. “The basis of abolition is the wrongs of the Negro through slavery.’”’ Advantages for the Negroes could be urged with all who admitted a missionary responsibility for bringing “‘savages”’ out of heathenism. Jefferson, because he had deeper convictions of democracy than any other statesman, could feel a more radical aversion, and sought by every means to— remove such an obstacle to the development of free institutions in the United States. Jan. 15, 1942 COOK: AFRICAN COLONIZATION tt AN INHIBITORY SOCIAL SYSTEM Smeathman’s account of the native people near Sierra Leone is in line with Jefferson’s call for biological study of the racial characters. Features of native polity that bore upon the question of establishing civilized communities were noted by Smeath- man, and he was led to believe that no serious interference need be expected, as proved by later experience. Settlements were made among many native tribes in Sierra Leone and Liberia, not in all cases without friction, but on the whole with little difficulty, showing that this aspect of the native character had been correctly judged. It was observed that the native polity was based on slavery, and that it tended in several ways to limit development. ‘‘Hence it is evident that their government is neither calculated to promote the happiness, nor the increase of the community.” Jefferson noted as a limiting factor of so- cial organization among the Indians ‘‘their having never submitted themselves to any laws, any coercive power, any shadow of gov- ernment,” a state of mind with which he sym- pathized. “It will be said, that great societies cannot exist without government. The sav- ages therefore break them into small ones.” Smeathman was aware that the attain- ments of the African race were not a just measure of its ability and looked forward to a study of the factors that determined the exercise and development of ability, beyond merely physical conditions. ‘‘Whatever may be said of effects of local situations and the extremes of heat and cold, it probably will be found hereafter that all men, in their dis- positions and conduct of life, are formed more by artificial than by natural causes— in short, by custom and habit.’’ The power of custom and habit is firmly embedded in the native African system of living in compact villages, which plainly tends to restrict the mental development of the chil- dren, on account of the slight contacts with the parents. The waking hours of childhood are spent mostly with other children, run- ning about in little squads, only casually associated with parents or elders. The alternative system of social organi- zation, the children fully associated with their parents, living in separate families scattered upon the land, is exemplified among primitive people in tropical America, as already stated. Terms were suggested in the paper published in 1912 to carry the dis- tinction between the two social systems, sympedic for the African system with the children herding together and choripedic for the American system with the children re- maining apart. The children are socialized prematurely under the African system, while in America they develop as members of family groups. The village system has the social effect of restricting cultural progress, so that the racial carry-over and accumula- tion of experience does not extend to the stage of civilization. Neither the arts of civilized life nor the outlook on life that we call consciousness are attained under the African village sys- tem, only a state of perennial childhood. George Santayana, Plato of our present day, says that “‘society itself is an accident to the spirit,’’ but this is because we have not perceived the genetic relation of the parental contacts. The conscious mind is a social attainment, a structure formed by gradual accretion of experience through the overlapping generations, like a coral reef building up to the ocean level, not a sudden magical growth like Jack’s beanstalk reach- ing the sky. Limiting the individual devel- opment limits the racial development. The social system of the native Africans is es- sentially self-limiting. Smeathman observed that the natives have ‘‘a very singular juris- prudence ... which renders improvement unacceptable to the public, and ingenuity dangerous to the possessor.’’ Contacts with civilization have largely removed these limitations, as one appreciates in knowing personally a capable, cultured, considerate, thoughtful man, like Arthur Barclay, after- ward President of Liberia. The prompt return of civilized Negroes to barbarism, predicted by many writers, has not occurred, either in Liberia or in Haiti. 12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 32, No. 1 JEFFERSON AND FAIRFAX The paper by Fairfax may be considered as a sequel of Thomas Jefferson’s Notes on Virginia, reported to have been written in 1781 but not issued in America till 1787. Objections to slavery were strongly stated and several vivid passages might seem to be ‘‘addressed rather to the feelings than to the cool and deliberate judgment’’ which Fairfax sought. Jefferson was not uncon- scious of writing with heat against slavery. “Tt is impossible to be temperate and to pursue this subject through the various con- siderations of policy, of morals, of history —natural and civil. We must be contented to hope they will force their way into every one’s mind.” Yet Jefferson wished to avoid needless offense and may have delayed publication on this account. A small edition of the ‘‘Notes” was privately printed in France in 1784 or 1785, but Jefferson re- fused to have his “strictures on slavery” issued separately, ‘‘at least till I know whether their publication would do most harm or good.” Jefferson recognized the need of the races being separated and outlined a policy of gradual emancipation, education, and col- onization of the Negroes, but leaving the location indefinite, except that ‘“‘transpor- tation to Africa” was suggested for ‘‘slaves guilty of offences.’’ It remained for Fairfax to combine Jefferson’s policy with Smeath- man’s plan, and to perceive the underlying interest to the Negroes of coming again into contact with their own people, and of being thus enabled to appreciate and extend the civilization which they had acquired during their sojourn in America. To believe what American Negroes often are told, that they have been deprived of a valuable racial culture, is a mistake that is hardly to be corrected except by direct knowledge of native life in Africa. A limited circulation of the Fairfax paper may be inferred from the absence of any reference in The Virginian history of Afri- can colonization, by Rev. P. Slaughter, pub- lished at Richmond in 1855, a work that stresses the value of colonization as a mis- sionary enterprise, and even the value of slavery as a training in civilization. ‘‘Africa gave to Virginia a savage and a slave, Vir- ginia gives back to Africa a citizen and a Christian.’’ The entire credit of the coloni- zation project is claimed by Slaughter for Virginia. “If any scheme of policy is thor- oughly Virginian, it is the scheme of African colonization.”’ This claim would have had additional support from the interest of Fairfax as a member of the family distin- guished for its association with George Washington. The title of the paper by Fairfax, ‘‘Plan for Liberating the Negroes within the United States,” is somewhat misleading, since the return of the Negroes to Africa is an essential feature. In reality it was a plan for abolishing slavery in the United States through the resettlement of the Negroes in Africa. A scientific character may be claimed for a consistent effort like that of Fairfax to understand a complex and difficult prob- lem. The paper is short, of nearly the same wordage as the Declaration of Independ- ence, and gives an impression of the policy of African colonization as fairly ‘‘thought through.’’ Words may be said to “‘erystal- lize thought” if they bring the essential facts vividly before us. ‘‘The great quality of the mind is finality,’ by which it was possible for the Declaration of Independ- ence to create a new allegiance. COLONIZATION AND THE CIVIL WAR The plan of education, colonization, and gradual emancipation, as outlined by Jeffer- son in the Notes on Virginia, would not have led the nation to the disaster of the Civil War. The judgment of history is chal- lenged when a policy devised by a states- man like Jefferson is disregarded. No other subject appears to have had more of his attention than the racial problem. What other statesman was more scientific, or constructive, or devoted to human welfare? “The effectiveness of a social objective lies in the methods employed to achieve it and not in its noble intentions.” Jan. 15, 1942 Jefferson’s plan of colonization included the suggestion ‘‘to send vessels at the same time to other parts of the world for an equal number of white inhabitants.”’ The alterna- tive course was considered: “‘It will probably be asked, ‘why not retain and incorporate the blacks into the state, and thus save the expense of supplying by importation of white settlers the vacancies they will leave?’ ”’ To Jefferson it appeared that this course was not practicable. He was con- vineed that the two races should not be monegrelized, that they would not be recon- ciled to each other, and that they eventually would need to be separated, which coloni- zation would bring about. But Americans of that period would not let the Negroes go back to Africa. Aboli- tionists condemned colonization as in league with slavery, sectional feeling be- came more inflamed, and the youth of the Nation was sacrificed. Millions of new im- migrants were brought from Europe to re- place that “lost generation,” the wives they would have married, and the families of pioneer children they would have raised. Instead of replacing the Negroes as Jeffer- son had proposed, we destroyed one an- COOK: AFRICAN COLONIZATION 13 other. No question in America today is more in need of critical attention than our racial relations, not for emergency reasons, but because the racial questions occasion a general confusion of thought in our national problems. The only escape is by way of better understanding and of finding con- structive courses. The sacrifice to sectional feeling in the Civil War confers no permanent immunity from social disorders. Tensions now are being generated by the system of tenant farming, which is one of the sequels of slavery and emancipation, a form of ‘‘near- slavery” that incidentally replaced direct ownership. Slavery as a legal institution has been discarded, but commercial and indus- trial exploitations of backward or depend- ant people are reckoned as legitimate. Our ‘“advanced”’ nations are destroying each other in a struggle for control of primitive peoples as producers of raw materials and customers for manufactured goods, in order to support our competing industrial sys- tems. Eventually it may be seen that all the forms of social parasitism are self-limiting and dysgenic, as slavery proved to be. THE BIRACIAL PROSPECT A large population of free Negroes “form- ing a separate interest from the rest of the community” was foreseen by Fairfax as a social and political danger. The separation of the races was considered necessary by Jefferson and all the “founding fathers,” including Abraham Lincoln, for two essen- tial reasons, one biological, to avoid mon- grelizing, the other social, to avoid the con- dition of “separate interest” that gradually has developed and is now being recognized in textbooks of sociology in describing the United States as ‘a biracial nation.” Bi- racial is a recent word, dating from 1922 in the Supplement of the Oxford Dictionary, “Belgium is bilingual and biracial.’ Efforts to avoid biracialism may be traced far back. Economic dependency among the free Negroes attracted attention even in the eighteenth century. Statistics were collected showing more frequent crimes and diseases than among the slaves, and on these grounds several States passed laws regulating the emancipation of slaves, or excluding free Negroes. “‘It has ever been the policy of Virginia to allow the master to free the slave. But since 1806 her laws have required all slaves thereafter manu- mitted, to leave the Commonwealth.” Pennsylvania had a law requiring a bond to be executed, to protect the community from freedmen becoming public charges. Competition of free Negroes with white labor also was opposed by various expedi- ents, sharply protested by abolitionists, as William Jay in 1835. ‘‘The laws of Ohio against the free blacks are peculiarly de- testable, because not originating from the fears and prejudices of slave-holders. Not only are the blacks excluded in that State from the benefit of public schools, but with a refinement of cruelty unparalleled they 14 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES are doomed to idleness and poverty, by a law which renders a white man who em- ploys a colored one to labor for him for one hour liable for his support through life. By a late law of Maryland, a free Negro coming into the State, is hable to a fine of fifty dollars for every week he remains in it. If he cannot pay the fine, he is sold.” Colonization often was urged as a means of avoiding these economic obstacles to the emancipation of the slaves. The conclusion reached in South Africa, from intensive study and experience with THE WHITE Some of the underlying difficulties, not recognized when colonization was pro- jected, may be appreciated by taking ac- count of facts determined since the work began. Sierra Leone very early became known as ‘““The White Man’s Grave,” and other regions of the West Coast shared the same evil fame. The climate of West Africa was considered ‘‘deadly”’ to the European race, until it was found, near the end of the last century, that malaria and yellow fever were carried by mosquitoes. Few white people have been able to live and work in Liberia or other parts of West Africa long enough to be practically useful. Most of them did not survive the prelimi- nary period of becoming accustomed to the tropical life and gaining the experience that is necessary to deal with the local condi- tions. The effective field work was done largely by Negroes, Paul Cuffy, John Kizzel, Lot Carey and Elijah Johnson, father of President Hilary Johnson. The assistance that was needed from white men, as foreseen by Smeathman and Fairfax, could be furnished to only a slight extent. The same mortality was encountered in missionary undertakings. ‘“‘Let thousands fall, but Africa be redeemed.” A medical discovery that may have great importance is reported recently from South America, a simple and effective method of immunizing against yellow fever. This dis- ease, although not definitely recognized in Africa until the present century, probably has been the most serious hazard of life and VOL. 32, No. 1 the racial problems, is that neither race is advantaged by its contacts with the other race. The exploitive relations tend to de- terioration, since both races are deprived and inhibited. Limiting the range of ac- tivity for one race also establishes a limita- tion for the other race. Social parasitism is a condition of adverse selection, and is es- sentially antiracial. Measures of gradual separation are being attempted under the policy of “‘trusteeship” or ‘‘indirect rule,”’ reviewed in the Journal of Heredity, May 1930, ‘‘Race Segregation in South Africa.” MAN’S GRAVE progress. The malaria of West Africa is a severe ‘‘pernicious” type, with symptoms so closely parallel to those of yellow fever that the two diseases were not distinguished. The Negro colonists from America suffered severely, and many died. Members of the European race often lived only a few days or a few weeks after landing in Africa, although a few survived for many years and remained vigorous. Frequent replacements were the rule in colonial governments and commercial agen- cies along the West Coast. In the face of such hazards, merely living from day to day could be felt as an achievement, lending a ‘“‘charm”’ to life in Africa, which some pre- ferred, declaring England or Germany ‘‘too dull.” Liberia is a pleasant land, and its climate is better than in many tropical countries, the daily maximum often not exceeding 90° F., and seldom above 93°, moderated in the dry season by the “‘harmattan”’ winds from the north. Mosquitoes generally are scarce in Liberia, screening precautions are not difficult, and in many districts simple measures of drainage or grading may give complete protection. The natives had par- tial protection by clearing all vegetation from the sites of their villages and keeping fires all night in the houses. Explorers seem to have better health than missionaries or merchants, perhaps from being more vig- orous men and taking more exercise, which doubtless facilitates dermal excre- tion. Jan. 15, 1942 COOK: AFRICAN COLONIZATION ty AFRICA A DENUDED CONTINENT The notion of tropical Africa as in a “virgin state’ of unexploited agricultural resources is entirely fallacious. Primitive agriculture has been practiced for long pe- riods and has altered profoundly the natural condition of the plant world. Most of the forests are secondary growths, on land that has been denuded and abandoned after long periods of repeated clearing and burning. The same is true of other tropical regions, in America and in Malaysia. Doubtless Africa had in the prehuman period a com- plete forest cover, even of great areas that now are deserts, grasslands or ‘‘open bush.” The former presence of woody vegetation would account for the Sahara and the Arabian Desert not being provided with a true desert flora of plants adapted to open conditions, such as the cacti, Agave, Euphor- bia, Mesembryanthemum, or Stapelia, that have developed in the American deserts and in South Africa. The mountains of tropical Africa have highly specialized plants on the slopes above the forests. Forest vegetation forming a canopy of shade adjacent to naked desert is shown in a recent work by L. M. Nesbitt, Hell-hole of creation, 1931, describing the Abyssinian Danakil, a region of extreme conditions with many districts not inhabited. The original tropical forests, when such areas are found, have specialized plants that are tolerant of shade, but this undergrowth flora is entirely exterminated when the forest is destroyed and is only slowly re- placed in secondary growth. The tropical forests also have specialized faunas of milli- peds, insects, and other small animals that live on the surface or in the humus layer of the forest soil, but not in forests of recent growth. With repeated clearing and burning the humus layer is removed and the sterile subsoil exposed. Trees give place to stunted bushes, and eventually the stage of open fire-swept grass lands is reached, which sets a limit to the primitive system of agricul- ture, as explained in the Smithsonian Re- port for 1919, ‘‘Milpa Agriculture, a Primi- tive Tropical System.” Among pastoral peoples grasslands are utilized and denudation may be carried to the stage of complete desert. Goats and camels may destroy not only the grass but also the woody vegetation. Recent studies show that the desert of Sahara is advancing rather rapidly to the southward, in the French and British colonies. An active denudation of a densely inhabited district was witnessed 70 years ago in the interior of Liberia. Benjamin Anderson, a Liberian explorer, reached the Mandingo country in 1869, and wrote a report, A journey to Musardu, the capital of the Western Mandin- goes, which was published by his backers in New York, Henry M. Schieffelin and Caleb Swan. Referring to a locality called Vuccah or Yukkah, Anderson says: ‘““At Mahommadu, the south-east slope strikes the plain at a great angle; but at Vukkah, it rests upon a series of small table-lands that extend out a half-mile before they finally come down into the plains. The vast spaces of grass and reddish soil are relieved by patches of dense vegetation, marking the gullies and ravines. Heavy blocks of granite are set in the sides of the Vukkah hills, awaiting only to be loosened by the rains to roll from their places to the bottom. At night, the whole country seems on fire, from the burning of the grass.”’ Anderson in 1868 found at Boporu a large native town estimated at 3,000 people, and several adjacent towns, or a total estimate of 10,000 for the district. Thirty years later the site of Boporu, visited by the writer in April 1892, was a grassy expanse entirely uninhabited. PERMANENT AGRICULTURE WITH TREE CROPS The alternative of continued erosion and denudation in tropical countries is a general change from annual short-season crops to permanent tree crops. A vast range of food products is obtainable from trees, and eventually it may be considered that tillage 16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES agriculture, required for the annual field crops, is out of place in the tropics. A few of the tree crops, those that furnish commer- cial products, are widely known, while others have only local use and many po- tentially valuable species are still to be domesticated, as the several different trees that produce rubber. A permanent soil cover is made possible where tree crops are grown, with no occa- sion for plowing, weeding, or cultivating. Sloping lands are promptly injured by ex- posure of the soil surface, especially in re- gions of heavy rainfall. The native African. agriculture moves every year to a new clearing, oftén at a distance from the pre- vious “farm.” Only field or garden crops are planted, rice, sesame, and others, most of them ripening in a few weeks. Cassava and bananas continue bearing for several months, and remnants may be gleaned for two or three seasons, until the plants are completely smothered by ‘“‘the bush.”’ Ini various parts of Africa the natives made extensive use of edible fruits of forest trees, or of oil extracted from the seeds, but TROPICAL PLANT Developing permanent systems of tree- crop agriculture is a vast undertaking in the field of plant introduction and experimental study. Hundreds of different kinds of trees furnish food and other useful products in tropical countries. Many years will be re- quired for each series of experiments with tree crops and many decades or even cen- turies may elapse before such a project can be far advanced, although even slight prog- ress may be valuable. In each country the native tree crops, if any, should be utilized as far as possible and studied carefully as standards for com- paring with introduced trees, in cultural behavior or in economic utility. The wealth of potential tree crops may be judged by noting the range of possibilities in the single group of palms. Starch is obtainable from Metroxylon and Caryota; sugar from Arenga, Caryota, Borassus, Phoenix, Jubaea, and many others; edible oils from numerous kinds, as Cocos} Elaeis, Attalea, and Oeno- VOL. 32, NO. 1 no tree crops were domesticated, since this is feasible only among people settled per- manently on the same land. The natives of America allowed many useful trees, as sapotes, sapodillas, avocados, bread-nuts, anonas, and chirimoyas, to grow around their settlements, but only cacao in Guate- mala and coca in the valleys of the eastern Andes appear to have reached the stage of commercial cultivation. Date palms, olives, and figs were the traditional tree crops of the Mediterranean region. Under the African system of agriculture relatively small populations can be sup- ported. If people become numerous larger forest clearings must be made, the forest area is more rapidly exhausted, and crops become more precarious. Villages may move to other districts, or the people may scatter and starve in a season of famine. The problem of colonization in Africa is not to replace the native tribes, but to replace the destructive methods of primitive agri- culture and create conditions of permanent production from tree crops. INTRODUCTION carpus; edible fruits from Phoenix, Guili- elma, Butia, Hyphaene, and Mauritia; fibers from Raphia, Attalea, Astrocaryum, and Mauritia; and vegetable ivory from Phytelephas, Palandra, Coelococcus, and Hyphaene. Although no other order of plants may promise such utility as the palms, tree crops probably can be found to replace many of the tillage crops, if not all. Smeathman’s proposed introduction of cacao may seem prophetic, since cacao is the first of the commercial tree crops to be adopted by native Africans and carried to large-scale production, competing with America and Asia. The future of Liberia, as of other ‘“‘undeveloped”’ tropical countries, to a great extent will be determined by the introduction of tree crops from other re- gions. Tropical trees are localized to a re- markable extent, both the wild and the cultivated kinds, except the few commercial species that have been widely distributed. The slave trade provided early communi- > Jan. 15, 1942 cation between Brazil and West Africa, and many plant introductions took place in that period. America was rich in food plants, while Africa was poor. With the single ex- ception of the sorghums, all the important food crops of Africa are supposed to have been introduced—tice, taro, and bananas, from Asia; cassava, maize, tobacco, pine- apple, peanuts, and many others, from America. Even the so-called ‘‘African oil palm,” Elaezs guineensis, probably was in- troduced from Brazil to the Portuguese settlements on the coast of Africa. The most serious difficulties of coloniza- tion may not lie in introducing or develop- ing new products, but in readjustments of customs and habits, notably those relating to food, which have a special, instinctive inertia. The introduction of a potentially valuable new crop may be entirely ineffec- tive if people will not use it. The difficulty of inducing the French people to use the potato, and their refusal during the World War to eat any of our Indian corn, are familiar examples. The bread-fruit tree and the “‘African”’ oil-palm were introduced to the West Indies in the eighteenth century for feeding the slaves, but they were not COOK: AFRICAN COLONIZATION iui adopted. Some of the colonists in Liberia preferred to starve rather than eat cassava. People usually can be inducted to taste an unfamiliar food, and readily give an adverse opinion. Only a few are tolerant to the ex- tent of making a practical test. Diversified agriculture and varied diet are the modern ideals recently enforced from the knowledge of vitamins. In view of the many needs of special knowledge and training, capable American Negroes may go to Africa, not as outcasts or refugees, but as participants in a vast progressive undertaking, nothing less than a reconstruction of the African Continent. The widest expanses of livable land in the entire world are in Africa, now largely de- nuded and lying waste but capable of being reclaimed and utilized in permanent pro- duction. Liberia may be made what it originally was intended to be, a center of progress in the arts of civilized life. All the special talent that can be developed among the Negroes of America, in agriculture, biology, chemistry, conservation, sanita- tion, medicine, dietetics, or other sciences, may be used constructively. 18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 32, NO. 1 BIOPHYSICS.— Effect of temperature and time on the x-ray sensitivity of maize seeds.’ U.S. Bureau of Plant Industry. Temperatures of dry maize seeds? during the time of x-irradiation determine, to a certain extent, the size and number of sur- viving seedlings. Maximum x-ray sensitivity occurs for temperatures within the range 0°C. to about 25°C. ; values extending either above or below this range produce a greater resistance to x-rays; this includes cooling by Louis R. Maxwe tu, J. H. Kempron, and VERNon M. MosLey, the use of liquid air and heating to 66°C. The present investigation is concerned with simultaneity between temperature and x-irradiation, determined by heating or cooling before, during, or after irradiation. Time also may be a factor influencing re- covery. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE AND RESULTS Descriptions of the x-ray apparatus, dos- age chamber, procedures for cooling, heat- ing, and growing the seeds are covered by earlier papers.? Exposure times used for ir- radiation, heat treatments, and cold treat- ments were from 43 to 53 hours. The seeds were always placed on the same metal sur- face during exposure to the x-rays to insure a constant amount of back-scattering. The seed stock was taken from a large, carefully mixed lot of Funk Yellow Dent that had been stored at 2—4°C. A constant dosage of 35 kr? at 45 kv was used throughout in order to produce a high percentage of delayed deaths* at room temperature. - Seedling heights were recorded every 48 hours fol- lowing germination, and any plants that failed to increase in height between the second and third measurement were con- sidered dead. Height measurements were frequently continued to insure correctness of the number of dead and living plants. Mean heights reported are averages of height measurements of both living and dead plants taken on a given date, usually the third measurement. Not unexpectedly, however, it has been found that the number of survivors depends upon the growing con- ditions in the greenhouse. In some eases a dosage of 35 kr will result in the delayed * Received August 28, 1941. ? MaxweELL, Louis R., and J. H. Kempron. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 29: 368. 1939. Kempton, J. H., and Louis R. MaxwEtt. Journ. Agr. Res. 62: 603. 1941. ’ kr is the abbreviation for a unit of dosage, the kilo-roentgen, equal to 1000 ‘‘r.”’ ‘Couiins, G. N., and Louis R. MaxweEuu. Science 83: 375. 1936. death of all plants, a condition frequently found with winter plantings, while occa- sionally during the summer months most of the plants survive. This behavior con- stitutes a variable factor that must be superimposed on the following results as a systematic error. It has been reduced, how- ever, by limiting the planting dates to the period extending from October to May. X-ray sensitivity in relation to temperature changes before, during, and after x-ray treat- ment.—Effects of cooling with liquid air are shown in Table 1, which includes results obtained in two separate experiments. The first, conducted in April, 1940, resulted in no survivors; however, the height of the dead plants from seeds held at a tempera- ture of —187°C. during the time of irradia- tion was slightly greater than that of any of the other plants. Since no survivors were obtained in this instance, the experiment was repeated in May, 1940. Height meas- urements show a definite resistance to x-rays for the seeds held at — 187°C. during irradiation. In addition, the number of sur- vivors for this treatment is significantly greater than the number found for any of the other treatments. It is also evident that cold treatment following irradiation at room temperature has a detrimental effect both on the mean height and number of surviv- ors. Similar results were obtained by cooling with a mixture of CO. snow and alcohol, which gave a seed temperature of —66°C. Table 2 summarizes the results, which show that —66°C. during irradiation produces an Jan. 15, 1942 increased resistance to the effects of x-rays, as indicated both by the height of plant and the number of survivors. In addition, it is seen that this same degree of cooling after x-ray treatment also increased the sensitivity to x-rays. There is an increase of 3.62 mm in mean height of seedlings from seeds cooled before irradiation as compared to those seeds kept at room temperature, which is greater than the amount required for statistical significance. The difference in survival number, however, is not signifi- cant. increasing the temperature to 50°C. pro- vided another region of investigation. Table 3 shows the results of an experiment con- ducted in March, 1940, in which there were no survivors, but a significant increase in plant height for heating during irradiation as compared with the other treatments; the latter were not statistically different. In a repetition of this experiment in December, 1940, a large number of plants lived when the seeds were held at 50°C. during irradia- tion. Mean plant height of ‘during’ is definitely greater than in any of the other treatments, in agreement with the experi- ment of March, 1940. Furthermore, it is clear that seeds heated to 50°C. before x-raying ‘produced significantly smaller seedlings than any of the other treatments. Differences in seedling height between “after” and the “irradiated controls’ are not significant. The proportion of plants surviving was essentially alike in the “be- fore,’ ‘after,’ and “irradiated control” groups. Recovery with time.—As a means of deter- mining whether there is a recovery from X-ray injury with the time elapsing from irradiation to planting, four lots of seeds were x-rayed at different times and planted together. Heat treatments of 50°C. were given before, during, and after x-raying, and in addition there were corresponding x-rayed control samples at each irradiation period kept at room temperature through- out. These treatments were given in the four periods: September 16 to 19; September 30 to October 3; October 22 to 25; and Novem- ber 18-22. In each period 200 seeds were MAXWELL, KEMPTON, AND MOSLEY: X-RAY SENSITIVITY 19 x-rayed for each heat treatment, giving 800 x-rayed seeds for each of the four periods. Upon completion of the laboratory treat- ments the samples were stored at room temperature until the planting date. As the planting arrangement could accommodate only half the total number of seeds at one time, two separate plantings were made, the 30 +100 FIRST PLANTING Mean Height (mm) i uw re) Percentage Survival 3OF 8 Tie G= eae Mean Height (mm) fo | uo oO Percentage Survivol (e) 20 40 60 80 Meon Time Between X-raying and Planting (Days) Fig. 1.—Curves showing mean heights and percentage survival of maize seedlings from two plantings of x-rayed seed (35 kr) receiving vari- ous heat treatments (50°C.) and held at room temperature for different periods before planting. The controls were irradiated and held at room temperature throughout. Differences in mean height in excess of 2.20 mm have probabilities less than 0.01. first on November 26 and the second on December 10, immediately following the harvest of the first planting. The numerous lots were randomized, with all treatments appearing twice in each planting flat and with twelve flats in each planting period. The two plantings provided eight differ- ent mean elapsed times between x-raying and planting, extending from 6 to 83 days. 20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Only 100 seeds could be irradiated at a time, so that it required 4 days to complete one set of exposures, with 200 seeds used for each heat treatment. However, the variance introduced through this duplication proved to be no greater than was to be expected on the basis of chance, leading to the conclu- sion that the unavoidable time interval of 4 days within each x-ray period does not produce differences in seedlings behavior large enough to be detected by the methods here used. Table 4 gives the mean heights for the several treatments for the two plantings and Fig. 1 illustrates the results graphically. It is evident that the two growing periods, al- though separated in time by only two weeks, produced seedlings differing in size. Gross features of the environment were not noticeably different in the two periods. The planting technique controlled the available moisture, and the greenhouse temperatures were approximately controlled by thermo- stats, but the amount of sunlight was a free variable. Thermograph charts for the two periods are not dissimilar; however, very small differences in temperature may produce measurable results. At least the analysis of variance showed that the two clinostats on which the flats were rotated differed significantly, which may be inter- preted as a temperature effect as the benches on which they were mounted side by side also supported the steam radiators. Although the two growing periods re- sulted in seedlings significantly different in size, they did not result in differential re- sponses to the seed treatments. The single interactions of planting dates with the two treatment variables (1) elapsed time be- tween x-raying and planting and (2) high temperature before, during, or after irradia- tion were not significantly greater than the error term. Analysis of variance showed, furthermore, that both treatment variables produced significant differences in seedling size. Seeds treated at 50°C. during irradiation pro- duced the tallest plants for waiting periods up to and including 55 days in the first planting and through the 69 day period in the second planting. For longer periods the VOL. 32, No. 1 mean heights of “during” and “room tem- perature’ were not significantly different in either planting, and this is true also for “after” in the second planting. Mean height of plants from seeds heated before irradia- tion was consistently lower than for any of the other treatments, although not always significantly so. There was a significant interaction of x-ray dates with the time at which the tem- perature was applied to the seeds. This re- sulted from a differential recovery among the heat treatments with waiting period. For the seeds planted 20 days after x-raying, the several heat treatments gave rather wide differences in mean height, which be- came practically the same after 83 days elapsed before planting. The size of the seedlings from seeds heated during x-raying was rather constant for all waiting periods while the other heat treatments gave mean heights increasing with time. Seedling size for any given category depends upon the three elements, planting date, elapsed time, and temperature treatment, as the triple interaction of these variables was found to be significant. Table 5 gives the distribution of number of living and dead plants obtained as a func- tion of elapsed time between x-raying and planting, while in Fig. 1 the corresponding percentage survivals are shown graphically. The x2 test for the four temperature treat- ments, irrespective of time lapse from the date of x-raying, showed for both plantings that the difference between number of dead and living plants in the four groupings was not one of chance. For the first planting x2= 185.73; for the second, 156.87, both of which are clearly too great with seven de- grees of freedom to be considered chance departures. In both plantings the large con- tribution to x? was made by the group treated during irradiation because in each case the proportion of alive to dead seed- lings was relatively high in this treatment in agreement with the measurements of height. A continuous increase in survival is noted up to the fifty-fifth day for the first planting and the sixty-ninth day for the second planting, also in agreement with results observed for seedling height. The Jan. 15, 1942 second planting with its taller seedlings gave a significantly higher death rate of 76.0+1.10 per cent than the value of 65.7 +1.2 per cent, which was observed for the first planting. Thus it is evident from both the measure- ments of size and from the proportion of living to dead plants that the seedlings from the four x-raying periods were not alike. The nature of this experiment is such that the observed changes in seedling size and in survivors between successive x-rayed samples cannot be ascribed with certainty MAXWELL, KEMPTON, AND MOSLEY: X-RAY SENSITIVITY 21 only to the time elapsing between x-raying and planting. Undoubtedly there are other and unknown variables connected with the samples x-rayed at different times, but in the present design there is no way to sepa- rate the effects produced by elapsed time between x-raying and planting from other possible variables. Therefore, although the experiment discloses an apparent recovery from x-ray injury with time in these air dry seeds, it should be kept in mind that there may be a less esoteric explanation when the experiment has been repeated. DISCUSSION The observed reduction in x-ray sensitiv- ity brought about by cold treatments dur- ing the time of irradiation may be caused by the absence of certain thermal or low energy reactions that normally take place when the seeds are irradiated at room tem- perature, as suggested earlier.2, Svedberg and Brohult® have shown that under irra- diation by ultraviolet and a particles Helix haemocyanin will split into half molecules when held at either room temperature or liquid-air temperature. However, when haemoglobin and serum albumin were ir- radiated, they decomposed readily at room temperature and O0°C., but at liquid-air temperature no forms of low molecular weight were found for haemoglobin, while serum albumin showed only slight decom- position. These proteins apparently respond quite differently to irradiation; splitting of Helix haemocyanin is evidently produced by initial or primary high energy reactions which are independent of temperature. Haemoglobin and serum albumin, on the other hand, will decompose only when the temperature is high enough to permit ther- mal reactions to occur. The observed low temperature behavior of maize seeds is not so striking as in the case reported for haemoglobin and serum albumin, although certain similarities are apparent. Detrimental effects produced by cold treatments following irradiation can be ex- plained as simply an additive effect of x- 6’ SvepBERG, T., and S. Bronutr. Nature 143: 939. 1939. rays and cold treatments, for it has been shown earlier that cold treatments alone will cause a retardation in subsequent growth of maize seedlings. However, this simple theory fails for cold treatment at —187°C. before irradiation in which case no change in x-ray sensitivity was observed. Increased x-ray sensitivity induced by heating prior to irradiation was expected in view of former work’ where normal 8-per- cent moisture dry maize seeds oven-dried to 2-percent moisture before irradiation showed a considerable increase in suscepti- bility to x-rays. Moisture content of the seeds alone may be an important factor in determining the resistance to x-rays. Heat treatments following x-irradiation produced no appreciable changes in sensitivity, also confirming previous results. Temperature effects were the greatest when the heat treatment and x-ray absorp- tion occurred simultaneously causing a large reduction in x-ray sensitivity. No adequate explanation is offered for this phenomenon; however dry maize seeds are living systems that undoubtedly attempt to throw off or recover from the x-ray in- duced effects as soon as they appear. Abil- ity to recover is evidently strengthened by increasing the temperature during irradia- tion. The above discussion has been concerned with variations in response when seeds are planted soon after treatment. If the seeds 6 MAXWELL and KemprTon. Op. cit. 7 KemMpTon and MAXwELL. Op. cit. 22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES are held at room temperature before plant- ing for various periods extending up to 69 or 83 days, three noticeable effects occur: (1) There exists a general but a varying amount of recovery with time for all the treatments used; (2) the marked reduction in sensitivity of seeds heated during irra- diation as compared to those heated after VOL. 32, NO. 1 x-raying, or to the irradiated controls, finally disappears by the end of the 69- or 83-day period; (3) seeds heated before irra- diation although showing some recovery with time are consistently the most sus- ceptible to the radiation. The results seem to indicate also that a certain limiting amount of recovery with time is attainable. SUMMARY (1) Dry maize seeds held at temperatures ranging from —187°C. to 50°C. during ex- posure to x-rays, dosage 35 kr, showed a maximum sensitivity in the region 0 to room temperature, in confirmation of earlier work. (2) To decrease the x-ray sensitivity of dry maize seeds by hot or cold treatments the high or low temperatures must prevail during the time of irradiation. A possible exception occurred for a cold treatment at — 66°C. before irradiation where a slightly significant decrease in sensitivity was found. (3) Cold treatments following irradiation increase the effects produced by x-rays in an apparently additive manner. (4) Heat treatments prior to irradiation increase the x-ray sensitivity. (5) Time elapsed between x-raying and planting gives rise to the following results: (1) A general but varying amount of re- covery with time for all the treatments used, (2) the marked reduction in sensitiv- ity of seeds heated during irradiation com- pared to ‘‘after’’ or the “irradiated con- trols’ finally disappears by the end of 69 or 83 days, (3) seeds heated before irradiation although showing recovery with time are consistently the most susceptible to irra- diation. TABLE 1.—EFFECT OF A SEED TEMPERATURE OF —187°C. BEFORE, DURING, AND AFTER IRRADIATION WITH X-RAYS (35 kr) ON S1zE OF SEEDLINGS AND NUMBER OF SURVIVORS COMPARED WITH I[R- RADIATED CONTROLS AT ROOM TEMPERATURE THROUGHOUT. Number and Cold treatment (—187°C.) relative Irradiated con- trols at room mean height Date to time of x-raying temperature throughout 1940 Before} | During After Number of seedlings... April 173 175 176 178 Number of survivors... 0 0 0 0 Mean height (mm).... 13.42? toro 13.42 14.39 Number of seedlings... May® 173 170 166 174 Number of survivors... 73 115 12 63 Mean height (mm)..... 19.868 33 .02 10.45 20.41 1180 seeds planted for each treatment. 2 Differences in mean height must exceed 1.09 mm to be significant. 3 Differences in mean height must exceed 2.94 mm to be significant. 4 Elapsed time between x-raying and planting was 6 to 12 days. ‘Elapsed time between x-raying and planting was 7 to 12 days. JAN. 15, 1942 MAXWELL, KEMPTON, AND MOSLEY: X-RAY SENSITIVITY 23 TABLE 2.— EFFECT OF A SEED TEMPERATURE OF —66°C. BEFORE, DURING, AND AFTER [IRRADIATION WITH X-RAYS (35 kr) ON S1zE oF SEEDLINGS AND NUMBER OF SURVIVORS COMPARED WITH IR- RADIATED CONTROLS AT ROOM TEMPERATURE THROUGHOUT. | Irradiated con- Number and Dat Cold treatment (—66°C.) relative trols at room mean height ge to time of x-raying temperature throughout 1940 Before} During After Number of seedlings... April? 173 176 164 77 Number of survivors... 28 77 4 17 Mean height (mm).... Deoreiic 36.04 17.33 22ND 1180 seeds planted for each treatment. 2 Differences in mean height must exceed 2.88 mm to be significant. 3 Elapsed time between x-raying and planting was 3 to 6 days. TABLE 3.—EFFECT OF A SEED TEMPERATURE OF 50°C. BErorE, DURING, AND AFTER IRRADIATION WITH X-RAYS (35 kr) ON S1zE OF SEEDLINGS AND NUMBER OF SURVIVORS COMPARED WITH I[R- RADIATED CONTROLS AT ROOM TEMPERATURE THROUGHOUT. Irradiated con- Number and DE Heat treatment (50°C.) relative trols at room mean height ae to time of x-raying temperature throughout 1940 Before: — During After Number of seedlings... Marché 93! 95 95 93 Number of survivors... 0 0 0 0 Mean height (mm).... 14.27? 21.91 14.84 14.70 Number of seedlings...; | December® 1893 186 189 189 Number of survivors... 0 67 2 7 Mean height (mm).... 18.194 30.23 20 .66 20.55 196 seeds planted for each treatment. 2 Differences in mean height must exceed 2.22 mm to be significant. 3 192 seeds planted for each treatment. 4 Differences between means must exceed 1.62 mm to be significant. 5 Elapsed time between x-raying and planting was 1 to 3 days. 6 Hlapsed time between x-raying and planting was 8 to 22 days. TaBLE 4.—Meran Hetcuts (MM) or Maize SEEDLINGS FROM Two PLANTINGS OF SEEDS X-RAYED AT 35 kr REcEtvine Various Heat TREATMENTS AND HELD AT Room TEMPERATURE FOR DIFFER- ENT PERIODS BEFORE PLANTING. First planting, November 26, 1940 Second planting, December 10, 1940 Mea iz Heat treatment (50°C.) | Irradiated Weee Heat treatment (50°C.) | Irradiated elapsed elapsed : time relative to time of controls re relative to time of controls between xX-raying at room henneen x-raying at room x-raying rocrge x-raying | gga and plant- ure nate | . ; ure ing esa) Before | During} After | throughout an ee) Before | During} After | throughout Doo col] LICE SOcee) less) 19.25 Nee | he <oou|paorOe..| 20-00 21.85 Bee | LOSO oe slo. 240.04 26.65 £4. os) Sacks | oa Sk.| 2¢.31 26.80 DOM 2CeO2 S458) | 28.86 34.42 6Q2.4. + S¥42 139.81 | 29°04 32.22 Ceonzo son) oo. 16.) 28.06 31.28 SS... .cle29.78.| 34.75 | 36.11 34.35 1 Differences exceeding 2.20 have probabilities less than 0.01. 24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 32, No. 1 TABLE 5.—NUMBER OF LIVING AND Drap MalizE SEEDLINGS FROM Two PLANTINGS OF SEEDS X-RAYED (35 kr) at Various Heat TREATMENTS AND HELD aT Room EEE Ds FOR VAR- 10US PERIODS BEFORE PLANTING. First planting, November 26, 19-40 Second planting, December 10, 1940 ieee Irradiated || Irradiated | Mou Heat treatment (50°C. ) rela- | couieote:. (ote | Heat treatment (50°C.) rela- counted Total elapsed tive to time of x-raying | at room || elapsed | tive to time of x-raying | at room 1 time tempera- time | tempera- | between Before During After ture | between| Before | During After | ture x-raying through- | x-raying | through- and | out || and | out pe planting | Liv- Liv- iv- | planting Liv- ‘Liv- Liv- | | L4V-| Dead) Po (days) | ing Dead aa Dead a ead is | Ges Se Dead ng) Dead a | Dead i. ing | tal | | | “te ie| | | ae haa | 622 0 | 93 | 44 | 49 2| 92 | 4| 89 | 20 =| 0) 96 | 23 | "70'| O} 95 | 3 93 || 76) 677 753 255: 6 | 89 | 50 | 45 9485 300) J650 |" 4722) 4 | 821) 4S) 50 ado | 84 | 12 | 82 | 164) 592 |756 Gs 4 || Se: | 61 66 | 28 | 43 | 52 | 55 39 ] 69...| 26 | 70 | 60 | 35 | 20] 74 31 | 63 || 334] 422 |756 G92 4IC11 85 63 | 30 | 54 | 40 | 46 46 | 83. Or} Si | sOW 4G 132-268: 39 | 46 || 306| 442 |748 BOTAN Y.—Three new varieties and two new WALTER T. SwincLe#, U.S. Bureau of Plant genera of the orange subfamily. Industry. In preparing an extended treatment of the taxonomy of the aurantioid plants, en- titled ‘“The Botany of Citrus and its Wild Relatives of the Orange Subfamily (Family Rutaceae, Subfamily Aurantioideae),’’ which will be published shortly, I have found it necessary to describe a few new genera, new species, and new varieties as well as to make a number of new combinations. This paper, and five others previously published since April 1939,? have cleared the ground for my new classification of the entire sub- family. 1 Received November 28, 1941. 2 SwINGLE, WALTER T. A new taxonomic ar- rangement of the orange subfamily; Aurantioideae. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 28: 530-533. Dec. 1938. Clymenia and _ Burkillanthus, new genera, also three new species of Pleiospermium (Rutaceae-Aurantioideae). Journ. Arn. Arb. 20: 250-263, pls. 1-3. Apr. 1939. — Limnocitrus, a new genus, also new spe- cies of Wenzelia. Paramignya and Atalantia (Rutaceae-Aurantioideae). Journ. Arn. Arb. 21: 1—25, pls. 1-4. Jan. 1940. —— New varieties and new combinations in the genera Clausena, Oxanthera, and Triphasia of the orange subfamily Aurantioideae. Journ. Wash- ington Acad. Sci. 30: 79-83. Feb. 1940. Three new species of Citropsis, also new varieties of Atalantia and Fortunella (Rutaceae- Avrantioideae). Journ. Arn. Arb. 21: 116-188, pls. 1-4. Apr. 1940. combinations in Citrus and related Citrus macroptera var. Kerrii Swingle, n. var. Differt a specie fructu maiore, cortice fructus multe crassiore; vesiculis pulpiferis non solum ad parietes dorsales loculorum fructus sed etiam numerosissimis ad parietes laterales col- ligatis. Differs from the typical form in having larger ovoid fruits, up to 8 or 9 cm in diameter instead of 5-53 cm; pulp-vesicles attached in large numbers to the side (radial) walls of the locules for 2 to 2 of the distance from the dorsal walls of the segments to the core of the fruit; peel very thick, 12-14 instead of 5-6 mm, as in the typical form; flowers (known only from one collection, Kerr 11983) small, 4- or 5-merous with 16-20 stamens borne on slender, free fila- ments. Type specimen.—Thailand, Nakwan Sawan, Kampéngpat, Mé Lamung, alt. 540 m; lat. 16°15’ N.: long. 98°58’ E., Drs Al Bae Herb. Aberdeen University No. 6081. Remarks.—This interesting new orange is a member of the subgenus Papeda, the species of which have numerous droplets of acrid, bitter oil in the pulp-vesicles, because of which the fruits are inedible and are called bitter- oranges. This variety was discovered by Dr. Kerr in west-central Thailand. At the type locality he reports it to be a ‘common tree in the ever- green forest’’ and also notes that it grows “‘up Jan. 15, 1942 to 10 meters high.’”’? The type material and another collection, Kerr 11983, from Ban Kragé, Thailand, were kindly lent to me by Prof. J. R. Matthews, curator of the Her- barium, University of Aberdeen, Scotland. This Thailand bitter-orange has long, stout, sharp spines on the lower branches (Fig. 1, B) but shorter ones or none on the fruiting branches (Fig. 1, C). This variety differs strikingly from, the typical form of Citrus macroptera in having fruits with a much thicker, chalky-white peel covered by a thin, SWINGLE: VARIETIES IN CITRUS WL, 19877). This material differs from the Thai- land type specimens chiefly in having strongly acuminate leaves (Fig. 1, D), those of Dr. Kerr’s collections being narrowed to a blunt apex (Fig. 1, B). Citrus reticulata var. austera Swingle, n. var. Differt a specie suco acidissimo; fructibus minoribus. Differs from the typical form in having smaller fruits with intensely acid pulp. Ty pe.—Ch’ao-chou, Kwangtung Province. Fig. 1.—Citrus macroptera var. Kerri Swingle, n. var: A, Fruit in cross section; B, fruiting branch with very short spines; C, long spine on young shoot (A, B, C all from the type specimen); D, twig with acuminate leaves; E, entire fruit; F, part of a cut fruit (D, HE, F all from Tung Kung, Tonkin, Indochina, Groff 19877). One-half natural size. green, surface layer only about 1 mm thick, which has numerous very small oil glands. The segments of the half-grown fruits contain very small pulp-vesicles only 1.5-2 mm long, borne on stalks 1-3 mm long, which are attached both to the dorsal wall of the locule and also in large numbers to the lateral (radial) walls for two-thirds to three-fourths of the distance from the dorsal wall of the locule to the core. Apparently this same variety occurs at Tung Kung (lat. 22°15’ N., long. 102°50’E.) in north- ern Tonkin near the Chinese border (Groff China, Groff 233 (1918), Herb. Lingnan Uni- versity, Canton, China. Remarks.—G. W. Groff in 1918 wrote a de- tailed description for me of this variety, called swan chieh in Chinese (siin kat in Cantonese), and commonly grown in the Swatow region of southeastern China for use as a rootstock. As it is grown from seeds and not propagated by grafting it is evidently able to reproduce itself indefinitely from seeds and is not to be con- fused with any of the numerous Cifrus hybrids, mutations, and monstrosities, many of which 26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES can be propagated only by grafting. I have drawn up from Groff’s manuscript tabulations and outline figures wherein he compares the characters of 7 sour mandarin (kat) varieties the following description: Fruits slightly depressed globose, 2.9-3.3 em long, 3.8-3.6 em diameter, with smooth, loose peel about 4 mm thick, capucine yellow (Ridg- way’s pl. 3) when ripe; oil glands small, round, far apart, fragrant; segments 9, easily sepa- rated; segment walls thin, tender, white; core Fig. 2.—Ciztrus macroptera var. Kerrit Swingle, n. var. A, Cross section of half-grown dried fruit; B, longitudinal section of fruit, both fruits from the type tree showing thick white peel and minute pulp-vesicles. Natural size. VOL. 32, No. 1 6-8 mm diam. soft; pulp deep chrome (Ridg- way’s pl. 3) composed of small, short pulp- vesicles, clinging together but irregularly ar- ranged and easily broken; juice reddish yellow, very sour; seeds about 9, rounded at one end, pointed at the other, showing white parallel lines from base to tip; leaves lanceolate-ellipti- cal, blades 6.8-2.5 cm, rather acutely cuneate at the base and narrowed to a blunt apex, with about 10 pairs of lateral veins; petioles nearly wingless. This variety is widely grown about Swatow, China, where it is used as a rootstock upon which to graft the mi-tang-ka, honey-pot or- ange, and other famous varieties widely ex- ported from Swatow. . Probably some of the other sour mandarins called kat by the Cantonese are forms of this variety. Some of the so-called kat varieties with large fruits, which as they ripen may be- come sweet enough to eat, are probably hy- brids between this variety (austera) and sweet mandarins (Citrus reticulata Blanco) or sweet oranges (Citrus sinensis (Linn.) Osbeck). A hybrid between Citrus reticulata var. austera and some species of kumquat belonging to the genus Fortunella is commonly cultivated in Citrus collections under the name calamondin. Murraya alata var. hainensis Swingle, var. nov. Differt specie folioliis junioribus minute puberulentibus. Differs from the typical form in having the leaflets minutely pubescent on both surfaces when young, while the species itself has leaves always completely glabrous. Type.-—China, Hainan Island, Strand at Haichow, McClure 7611, Herb. Nat. Arbor- etum, Washington, D. C. Remarks.—Both this variety and the typical form are very small trees with leaves having a plainly winged rachis and are distinct from other species of the genus Murraya. Clausena heptaphylla var. Engleri (Tan.) Swingle, n. comb. Clausena Englert Tan. in Mededeel, van’s Rijks Herb. 69: 6. 1931. Murraya microphylla (Merr. and Chun) Swingle, n. comb. Clausena microphylla Merr. and Chun in Sunyatsenia 2: 251. 1935. JAN. 15, 1942 HARRIS: SPECIES OF HARMOSTES 2b ENTOMOLOGY .—Notes on Harmostes, with descriptions of some new species (Hemiptera: Corizidae).' Because the earlier descriptions dealt largely with color and because it is now rec- ognized that intraspecific variation in color is very great, entomologists in general have had great difficulty in identifying specimens of Corizidae. The present notes are offered in an attempt to make known structural features that it now appears may be of some worth in segregating species of the genus Harmostes Burmeister. For the privilege of studying the types of the species described by Berg I am indebted to Dr. Max Biraben, Jefe del Departmento de Zoologia (Invertebrados) del Museo de La Plata. Dr. Jose A. de Carlo has kindly sent me for study the specimens belonging to the collection of the Museo Argentina de Ciencias Naturales and H. G. Barber has sent the undetermined material in the col- lection of the U. 8. National Museum. Dr. Carl J. Drake and John C. Lutz have graciously permitted me to study the tropi- cal species represented in their extensive collections. Harmostes procerus Berg 1879. Harmostes procerus Berg, Hemip. Argen- tina: 91. 1922. Harmostes procerus Pennington, Physis 5: 166. 1924. Harmostes procerus Jensen-Haarup, Ent. Medd. 14: 329, figs. 10c, 10d. 1941. Harmostes procerus Torre-Bueno, Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc. 36: 86. I have had the privilege of studying the type series of this species. One of the specimens bears the pin label “‘T'ypus’”’ and a second label “Harmostes procerus Berg.’ This individual, a male in good condition, also carries the label “Banda Oriental.” I designate it lectotype and have added a label. The other specimens in the type series all bearing Berg’s ‘“Typus’’ label are designated paratypes. The species appears to be common in the Argentine. It exhibits a wide range in color variations and seems to bear a somewhat simi- lar relation to the South American Harmostini as fH. refleculus (Say) does to the North 1 Received August 21, 1941. H. M. Harris, Ames, Iowa. American forms. Gibson was wrong in his synopsis of the original description when he said of the pronotum, “lateral margins strongly crenulate,’ as was Torre-Bueno also in placing the species in that section of his key with lateral margins of pronotum smooth. As a matter of fact, the edge of the pronotal side margins is very minutely, obsoletely crenulate. The membrane is not spotted but is marked with a more or less distinct fuscous streak through its middle. This is sometimes distinctly divided by the pale veins. In addition to the type series I have seen a long series of specimens from Montevideo and various localities in the Argentine belonging to the La Plata Museum, the Museum of Buenos Aires, the U. 8. National Museum, and the Pennington collection. The size varies from 5.9 mm, small males, to 8.4 mm, larger females. Jensen-Haarup has figured the male genital segments. Harmostes prolixus Stal 1860. Harmostes prolixus Stal, Rio Janeiro Hemip. 1: 30. 1879. Harmostes prolixus Berg, Hemip. Argen- tina: 91. 1922. Harmostes prolixus Pennington, Physis 5: 165. 1924. Harmostes prolixus Jensen-Haarup, Ent. Medd. 14: 327, figs. 10a—b. 1934. Harmostes prolixus Blote, Zool. Meded. 17: 254. 1941. Harmostes prolixus Torre-Bueno, Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc. 36: 85. The.La Plata collection contains the speci- men recorded by Berg from ‘‘Corrientes’”’ and two additional specimens from Cérdoba. The Museum of Buenos Aires collection contains a specimen from La Paz, Dep. San Javier, Cér- doba, and another from Bolivia, Steinbach, 1916. I have seen other specimens from Grand Chaco, Paraguay; Cuatro Ojos and Santa Cruz, Bolivia; Prov. Buenos Aires and Puesta, Argentina; Sao Paulo and Nova Teutonia, Brazil. The species is closely related to Harmostes raphimerus Spinola but has a narrower, more elongate form, and the pronotal lateral margin is very narrow and sharply reflexed. The buc- culae end on or slightly before a line drawn 28 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES through front margin of eyes. The entire clavus and corium, except for a small area near apex of middle basal cell of corium (cell R or discal cell), is coarsely punctate. The male parameres are distinctly shorter and broader than depicted in Jensen-Haarup’s fig- ure and the rim of the genital capsule extends across the base of the median process and caudad to it. In procerus, however, it is the margin of the capsule that is produced as is figured. Harmostes apicatus Stal 1860. Harmostes apicatus Stal, Freg. Eug. Resa., Ins.: 238. Harmostes apicatus Berg, Hemip. Ar- gentina: 91. 1879. 1917. Harmostes apicatus Gibson, Ent. News 28: 444. 1922. Harmostes apicatus Pennington, Physis 52165: 1924. Harmostes apicatus Jensen-Haarup, Ent. Medd. 14: 327, fig. 10f. Harmostes apicatus Blote, Zool. Meded. We 253. Harmostes apicatus Torre-Bueno, Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc. 36: 86. The two specimens recorded by Berg from Buenos Aires and Corrientes are present in the La Plata collection. Other examples before me are from Buenos Aires and Tigre, Argen- tina; Horqueta and Grand Chaco, Paraguay; Villa Montes, Izozo, Cuatro Ojos, and Santa Cruz, Bolivia; and Para and Nova Teutonia, Brazil. The small size, the rather wide and punctate reflexed lateral margins of the pronotum, the transparent and impunctate (except for margi- nal rows) inner cells of the corium, and the short bucculae, which taper posteriorly to a point opposite front half of eyes, are distinc- tive features. The pronotal edge while not cal- loused and completely smooth can not be called crenulate (cf. Gibson). In all the specimens I have seen there is 4 more or less distinct infuscation in the apical cells of the corium. The hind margin of the male genital capsule is sinuately emarginate, with a small angular notch at its middle. 1934. 1941. Harmostes serratus (Fabricius) 1794. Acanthia serrata Fabricius, Ent. Syst. 4: io 1794. Coreus gravidator Fabricius, Ent. Syst. 4: en 1803. Coreus gravidator Fabricius, Syst. Rhyng. 199. VOL. 32, NO. 1 1852. Harmostes perpunctatus List Hemip. 2: 521. Dallas, 1868. Harmostes serratus Stal, Hemip. Fabri- ciana 1: 67. 1934. Harmostes serratus Blote, Zool. Meded. 17: 254. 1939. Harmostes serratus Barber, Sci. Survey Porto Rico 14 (3): 326. 1941. Harmostes serratus Torre-Bueno, Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc. 36: 83. I have seen specimens of what I take to be serratus from Antigua, Trinidad, Hayti, Co- lombia, and Panama. This form has a very wide range, and the complex consists of several incipient and as yet unfixed species or it is a highly plastic thing. As might be expected, the literature concerning it is involved. Lateral margins of pronotum pale, reflexed and with a row of 10 to 12 clean-cut teeth ex- tending well up on hind lobe and there giving way to coarse serrations. Tylus, as seen from the side, conspicuously angularly produced, reaching to distal fifth of antennal I. Spine of antenniferous tubercule much longer than in affinis, the distance from front of eye to apex of spine greater than length of an eye. Buc- culae about attaining a point opposite middle of eye. Antennal III distinctly longer than II, IV about one-half of III. Humeri of pronotum distinctly angular. Male paramere short, broad. Membrane spotted. Clavus and entire corium, except small area at apex of emboliar suture (median furrow), opaque, coarsely punctate. Harmostes affinis Dallas 1852. Harmostes affints Dallas, List Hemip. 2: 522. 1879. Harmostes serratus Berg, Hemip. Argen- tina: 90. 1907. Harmostes affinis Van Duzee, Bull. Buffalo Soc. Nat. Sci. 8 (5): 18. 1909. Harmostes affinis Van Duzee, Bull. Buf- falo Soc.-Nat. Sci. 9: 161. 1917. Harmostes affinis Gibson, Ent. News 28: 441, 442. 1922. Harmostes serratus Pennington, Physis 5: 164. 1939. Harmostes affinis Barber, Sci. Survey Porto Rico 14 (8): 326. 1941. Harmostes affinis Torre-Bueno, Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc. 36: 83. Specimens are at hand from Florida, Texas, Mexico, Panama, Colombia, Antigua, Brazil, Paraguay, and Argentina and a long series from various localities in Bolivia. The Argen- tina specimens are those recorded by Berg and Pennington as H. serratus (Fabricius). JAN. 15, 1942 The species shows considerable variation and at times is very difficult to separate from H. serratus (Fabricius). As pointed out by Van Duzee and by Barber, however, in their ex- tremes the two forms may readily be separated by the degree of development of the tylus, antenniferous spines, and denticulations of lateral edge of pronotum and by the length of the antennal segments and rostrum. It will re- main for future studies to show whether af- finis and serratus are distinct segments of a widely distributed and highly plastic species complex and therefore worthy of more than subspecific rank. Apex of tylus angularly rounded, not dis- tinctly produced, the distance from tip of jugum to tip of tylus distinctly less than length of an eye. Lateral edge of pronotum serrate in front and becoming crenulate posteriorly on hind lobe. Distance from front of eye to apex of antenniferous spine less than length of eye. Harmostes dorsalis Burmeister 1835. Harmostes dorsalis Burmeister, Handb. d’Ent. 2: 307. 1881. Harmostes dorsalis Distant, Biol. Centr.- Amer., Rhyn. Heterop. 1: 168. 1917. Harmostes dorsalis Gibson, Ent. News 28: 439, 444. 1934. Harmostes dorsalis Blote, Zool. Meded. 17: 254. 1941. Harmostes dorsalis Torre-Bueno, Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc. 36: 89. This species was described from Mexico and is the haplotype of the genus, yet it apparently has remained unknown to workers since the time of Burmeister. Distant, in working up the Mexican species for the Biologia, passed it over as unknown, and Gibson on the basis of deter- minations made by Heidemann placed it in synonymy with H. serratus (Fabricius). Blote has more recently recorded the species from Brazil without comment. Of the species I have seen from Mexico it appears to me that the form treated above as H. affinis is the one that will most likely prove to be dorsalis. A careful study of Burmeister’s generic diagnosis with particular attention to the characters of the head, antennae, antenniferous spine, and pro- notal margins, as well as the abbreviated color description of the species only serves to in- tensify my suspicion. Harmostes formosus Distant 1881. Harmostes formosus Distant, Biol. Centr. HARRIS: SPECIES OF HARMOSTES 29 Amer., Rhyn. Heterop. 1: 167, pl. 15, fig. 15 1917. Harmostes formosus Gibson, Ent. News 28: 442. 1941. Harmostes formosus Torre-Bueno, Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc. 36: 84. There is in the National Museum a male specimen labeled Atencingo, Mexico, June, 1922, E. G. Smyth, and determined as formosus by Mr. Barber. The species is very distinctive by reason of its irregularly dentate lateral margins of the pronotum, the strongly raised posterior lobe with broadly rounded somewhat flaring humeral angles, the long, convex head, the short antennae, and long rostrum. In tex- ture of hemelytra and type of clasper it is nearest croceus Gibson and bicolor Distant. Head longer than broad (40:35), distinctly longitudinally convex. Antennae not so long as head, pronotum and scutellum combined, seg- ment I just attaining apex of head, II enlarged at apex, IV not over 4 times as long as thick; proportions, 14:30:30:20. Bucculae tapering posteriorly and ending before a point opposite middle of eye. Rostrum reaching base of third segment of venter. Pronotum twice as wide as long (66:33), the disk coarsely punctate and rugose, the anterior angles prominent, the lateral margin wide and irregularly serrate in front, narrowing and be- coming crenulate backwards to humeri, the latter broadly rounded. Scutellum slightly longer than wide. Hemelytra coriaceous, not noticeably punctate. Membrane spotted, ap- pearing smoky due to dark wings beneath. Metasternum with prominent borders to rostral channel, these high and truncate in front. Venter sulcate at middle of two basal segments. Genital characters of refleculus type, but para- meres with characteristic proportions. Length, 9.0 mm. Width, across humeri, 3.0. The color is deeper than depicted by Distant. The apices of antennal II and III, all of IV, the apices of the tibiae, the tarsi, and the base of hind tibiae are more deeply colored. The hind tibiae are stout and distinctly compressed. Harmostes marmoratus Blanchard In his notes on the Argentinian species of Harmostes Jensen-Haarup treats as marmoratus a form that surely is not the true Chilean marmoratus of Blanchard. Perhaps as he him- self indicates he was dealing only with strik- 30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ingly colored examples of H. procerus Berg. I have given elsewhere notes on the structural features of specimens of marmoratus from the Reed Chilean collection. Harmostes imitabilis, n. sp. Size medium; form slender, elongate. Gen- eral color yellowish testaceous, with a roseate tinge, the veins of hemelytra distinctly reddish. Head distinctly longer than wide across eyes (29:24). Spines of antenniferous tubercules short. Tylus compressed, prominent, as seen from the side crenulate, reaching to middle of first antennal segment. Antennae long, longer than head, pronotum and scutellum con- joined; proportions, 18:24:26:17 (female, 20: 26:29:19). Bucculae fairly low and long, tapering posteriorly, reaching to a point about opposite middle of eye. Rostrum relatively short, just attaining metasternum, segment I not extending to line of hind margin of eyes; proportions, 15:18:10:12. Pronotum about one and one-half times as wide as long (37:25) only slightly raised posteriorly, the median smooth line obsolete in front and behind but quite conspicuous at the interlobe constric- tion; the sides straight, their margins narrow, reflexed and finely crenulate; the anterior angle acute, only slightly produced and placed be- hind the fine collar; humeral angles obtuse. Scutellum longer than broad. Hemelytra with clavus and exocorium coriaceous and coarsely punctate, the rest hyaline and impunctate ex- cept for an incomplete marginal row bordering the veins; membrane extending well beyond margin of abdomen, clear; venter pale, the trichobothria dark and conspicuous. Legs pale, the hind femora extending just to apex of ab- domen. Male genital capsule deeply, rectangu- larly excavated at apex, the parameres slen- der, their tips dark, recurved. Length, 6.2-7.7 mm. Width across humeri, 1.7-2.2 mm. Holotype, male, and allotype, female, Lujan, Prov. Buenos Aires, Argentina, December 8, 1938, C. J. Drake, collector (my collection). Paratype, one male taken with type. This species has the size and form of H procerus Berg, with which it is very closely al- lied. From procerus it is differentiated by the more convex and laterally sloping disk of pro- notum and the narrower pronotal side margins, as well as by the character of the male genital VOL. 32, No. 1 capsule which in procerus is roundly produced at the middle beneath. As in procerus the punc- tures of the pronotum and clavus are very large and coarse. In the male there is visible through the membrane two sublateral elongate dark spots on the last dorsal segment. The second antennal segment is somewhat enlarged and flattened at the base as in procerus. Harmostes petulans, n. sp. Size medium for the genus; body oblong. General color yellowish to greenish testaceous, marked with dark testaceous to brown; the head, front lobe of pronotum and scutellum at times varying toward orange. Head faintly broader across eyes than its median length (23: 22), above rather horizontal and somewhat longitudinally convex; clypeus compressed laterally, raised, its edge only slightly granu- late, in front more or less rounded and not produced, reaching to distal third of first an- tennal. Spines of antenniferous tubercules as seen from above short, slender, slightly in- curved; from the side, almost triangular. Buc- culae short, rather high and of equal height throughout, ending abruptly at a line drawn through front margin of eyes. Antennae short, about as long as head, pronotum and scutellum combined, length of segment I faintly less than width of head between eyes (12:13); propor- tions, 12:20:21:17 (female, 13:22:22:19). Rostrum extending to middle of metasternum, segment I reaching only to a point about op- posite hind margin of eyes; proportions, 15: 14:11:13. Pronotum nearly twice as wide as long (male, 40:22; female, 46:24), distinctly raised posteriorly, with a median smooth line which is most prominent between the lobes; the lateral margins moderately wide, sharply reflexed, punctate, the edge almost smooth (obsoletely granulate) and forming a straight or barely sinuate line; anterior angles only slightly produced, placed a little behind the very narrow collar; humeral angles obtusely rounded. Scutellum equally as long as wide, the apex broadly rounded. Hemelytra with clavus and exocorium thickly punctate, the other cells transparent and impunctate except for a marginal row around their borders. Mem- brane clear, without darker markings, ex- tending well beyond apex of abdomen. Pro- thorax as seen from the side with the reflexed upper edge shiny, smooth, with only a few Jan. 15, 1942 punctures. Metapleuron strongly sinuate along its hind margin. Hind femora projecting dis- tinctly behind apex of abdomen. Hind tibiae without a distinct dark annulus at apex. Venter with the usual trichobothriae which are pale and inconspicuous; sixth segment rather strongly laterally compressed in the female. Male genital capsule with its hind margin almost straight, or widely truncate, between the prominent lateral angles. Male clasper slender, the apex dark, recurved and bifid. Length, 5.1-6.2 mm. Width (across humeri), 1.9-2.3 mm. Holotype, male, and allotype, female, Cuatro Ojos, Bolivia, September 1917 Gn my collec- tion). Paratypes, one male, taken with types; one female, Villa Montes, Bolivia, November, 1917; one male, Lima, Peru, February 2, 1939, Carl J. Drake; one female, Argentina, 1939. This species is perhaps nearest Harmostes minor Spinola which it superficially resembles very much. In minor, however, the bucculae taper posteriorly and the pronotal margin is broader and not so strongly reflexed. The spec- imens at hand show considerable color range. At times the clavus is darkened basally and the veins of hemelytra and the pronotum are flecked with reddish. The small distal cell of the corium is smoky in all specimens at hand. Harmostes insitivus, n. sp. Moderately small, elongate-oval, rather strongly flattened. Pale testaceous, conspicu- ously speckled with reddish brown. Head about equally as long as broad (21:22), not noticeably arched above; tylus low, not pro- duced anteriorly, extending faintly beyond middle of first antennal segment. Spines of antenniferous tubercules short, from above very slender, from the side almost triangular. Antennae short, subequally as long as head, pronotum, and scutellum conjoined, length of segment II equal to distance between eyes, IV stout, dark, thickest beyond the middle; proportions, 11:13:17:12. Bucculae low, grad- ually sloping posteriorly, reaching about to a point opposite hind margin of eyes. Rostrum extending to middle of metasternum, segment I very slightly exceeding bucculae. Pronotum flat for the genus, twice as broad as long (35:17), the lateral edges straight, the side margins rather wide and only slightly sloping; base not broader than hemelytra. Scutellum HARRIS: SPECIES OF HARMOSTES AA | equally as broad as long (15). Hemelytra with clavus and exocorium strongly coriaceous and thickly punctured, of corium not so strongly coriaceous and less profoundly punctured; mem- brane speckled with brown. Hind femora not attaining apex of abdomen. Venter rough, speckled with brown. Male genital capsule, strongly produced at middle of hind margin, produced portion broadly rounded. Length, 4.5 mm. Width, across humeral angles, 1.6 mm. Holotype, male, and allotype, female, Cau- quenes, Chile, September, my collection. Para- type, one male taken with type. This species is probably nearest marmoratus in the nature of the antennae, bucculae, hemelytra, and genital capsule but is very dis- tinct by virtue of its more oval.and more flattened form, the nature of the pronotal mar- gins, the spotted membrane, the more greatly produced median portion of male genital cap- sule and the lower bucculae. The front angles of the pronotum are not especially sharp and the distance across humeri is not greater than width across base of hemelytra. Harmostes gemellus, n. sp. Size small to medium for the genus; form rather oblong-oval, quite broad behind the head. Greenish to yellowish testaceous, the pronotum, scutellum, clavus, and distal por- tion of corium tinged with brown, the expanded margin of pronotum and exocorium spotted with brown. Head rather flat above, slightly longer than broad (male, 23:21; female, 26:24). Tylus rather narrow and high, granulate or obsoletely crenulate, reaching slightly beyond middle of first antennal segment. Spines of antenniferous tubercule very slender from above. Antennae short, not longer than head, pronotum and scutellum combined, and seg- ment II about equal to width of frons plus one eye, slightly swollen at apex; IV stout, sud- denly enlarged at basal third, not over 4+ times as long as thick; proportions, 12:15:16:13 (fe- male, 14:17:18:15). Bueculae rather high. sloping sharply, ending before middle of eyes, Rostrum extending to rear of metasternum. Pronotum twice as wide as long at median line (male, 40:19; female, 51:22), the sides sinuate, their margins very wide and broadly reflexed, the edge almost smooth; front lobe short and narrow, the hind lobe prominently on JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES raised and strongly widened; median line present; disc granulate as well as punctate; front angles obtuse, humeral angles broadly rounded. Scutellum subequally as long as broad. Hemelytra as broad as pronotum, the clavus and corium, except for cell enclosing embolial fracture (discal cell), thinly coriaceous and thickly punctate. Membrane clear, with- out darker markings. Metapleuron concave along hind margin. Hind femora just attaining tip of abdomen. Venter broad, the trichoboth- riae pale, inconspicuous. Male genital capsule short, its hind margin beneath widely excavate and bi-sinuate. Male clasper slender, the tip darkened and recurved. Length, male, 4.4 mm; female, 5.6 mm. Width, at base of pronotum, male, 1.8 mm; female, 2.3 mm. Holotype, male, Lujan, Buenos Aires, Ar- gentina, December 18, 1938, Carl J. Drake (author’s collection). Allotype, female, Lima, Peru, February 2, 1938, Carl J. Drake. Harmostes confinis, n. sp. Form elongate oval, the humeri projecting. Yellowish testaceous, the pronotum, scutel- lum, and hemelytra with brownish markings. Head slightly longer than broad (23:25), rather flat above, the spines of antenniferous tubercules as seen from above long and slender, the tylus high, slightly produced, but not at- taining middle of first antennal segment. An- tennae longer than head, pronotum and scu- tellum combined, the second segment in length subequal to width of head, about 6 times as long as thick; proportions 17:21:20:20 (fe- male, 19:24:26:23). Bucculae rather high, gradually tapering backward, ending a little before hind margin of eye. Rostrum reaching on metasternum. Pronotum twice as wide as long (male, 50:22; female, 60:30), with median smooth line pale and prominent, hind lobe raised and strongly widened so that the lateral edges are concave, side margins quite wide, the anterior lateral angles sharp, distinctly produced; the humeral angles broadly rounded, flaring. Scu- tellum about as long as wide. Hemelytra with clavus and exocorium coriaceous and strongly punctate, the remainder of corium thin, trans- lucent, and smooth except for a marginal row of punctures bordering the veins. Membrane VOL. 32, NO. 1 without darker markings and with only 8 to 10 long veins. Metapleuron with hind margin concave. Venter pale, trichobothria inconspicu- ous. Hind femora extending beyond apex of abdomen. Male genital capsule somewhat flat- tened beneath, hind margin almost straight, only slightly and very widely emarginate. Length, male, 6.0; female, 6.7 mm. Width, across humeri, male, 2.3 mm; female, 2.7. Holotype, male, Valparaiso, Chile, my collec- tion. Allotype, female, El Salto, Santiago, Chile. Harmostes fusiformis, n. sp. Small, elongate-oval, widest slightly behind the middle. Head testaceous, slightly reddish above, longer than broad (28:24), longitudi- nally convex, the tylus reaching slightly beyond middle of first antennal segment. Antennifer- ous spines slender, projecting forward, distance from eye to apex of spine equal to length of eye. Bucculae long, tapering, extending about to base of head and to apex of first rostral seg- ment. Rostrum reaching on metasternum. Antennae short, segment I stout, surpassing tylus by less than half its own length, the three basal segments subequal in length, each equal to width of head between eyes (15). Pronotum yellowish testaceous, flat, coarsely punctate, with a median, smooth raised line on anterior two-thirds, the sides almost straight, converging anteriorly, their edges minutely crenulate, the front angles produced and prom- inent. Scutellum concolorous with pronotum, one-third longer than broad (20:15). Hemely- tra, greenish, the clovus and endocorium red- dish, entirely coriaceous, the clavus and exocorium coarsely punctate, the endocorium with punctures bordering the veins. Membrane narrow, twice as long as wide, reaching slightly beyond apex of abdomen, clear hyaline. Legs short, reddish testaceous, hind femora not ap- proaching apex of abdomen. Venter swollen, sixth segment in female compressed laterally. Length, 5.56 mm. Width, at base of pronotum, 1.52 mm; at widest point, 2 mm. Holotype, female, Quintin, Peru, Dr. P. Weiss, collector (U. S. N. M.). The small size, coriaceous hemelytra, flat- tened pronotum, uniform length of the three basal antennal segments, and the almost fusi- form shape combine to make this species unique in the genus. Its general habitus is sug- gestive of brachypterism. PROGRAMS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES? Tue AcapEemy (Cosmos Club Auditorium, 8:15 p.m.): Thursday, February 19. The Aztecs of Mexico. Grorce C. VAILLANT. Natrona, Grograpuic Society (Constitution Hall, 8:15 p.m.): Friday, January 16. America flies. J. PARKER VAN ZANDT. Friday, January 23. Java prepares. Davip GRIFFIN. CotumBiA Historica Society (The Mayflower, 8:15 p.m.): Tuesday, January 20. Mrs. John H. Eaton (Peggy O’Neal). AwuLEN C. CLARK. Boranica Society (Cosmos Club Auditorium, 8 p.m.): Tuesday, February 3. Medicinal plants of the Iroquois. WutL1aM N. FENTON. AMERICAN SocteTy oF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, Washington Section (Pepco Auditorium, 8 p.m.): Thursday, Hebraacy 12. Adventures in electricity. PHILLips THOMAS. Society or AMERICAN Bacreriouocists, Washington Branch (U. 8. Naval Hos- pital, 26th and E Streets, NW., 8 p. m.): Tuesday, January 27. Fate of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Pseudomonas aeroginesa, and Salmonella typhimurium in scavenger birds. Don R. Cozurn and Psycot W. WETMORE. Aerobacter aerogenos and Escherichia acidi lactici as causes of aartcaing in turkeys. Husert Bunyrea and Aneus D. MacDona.p. Tuberculosis case findings in George Washington University students, with reference to variations in susceptibility and resistance. LELAND W. PaRR. Mepicau Society or THE District or Cotumspia (1718 M Street, NW.): Wednesday, January 21. Panel discussion on Peripheral vascular diseases. Moderator: Watuacre M. Yarer. Participants: Norman E. FREEMAN, A. Witsur Durysez, J. Ross VEAu. Wednesday, January 28. Pediatrics Section symposium on Evaluation of some common diagnostic pediatric procedures: (1) Shick test, ERNesT L. STEB- BINS; (2) Tuberculin skin test, Hucu J. Davis; (3) Differential blood count in pertussis, Spinal puncture in poliomelitis, Dick test, ard Sig- nificance of blood findings in chemotherapy, E. CLARENCE Rice. Dis- ‘cussion by H. H. Donnatty, JospPH &. Watt, V. L. Eviicorr, GEORGE C. RUHLAND. 1 Notices to be published in this space must reach the Senior Editor, Raymond J. Seeger, not later than ‘the 28th of the month, 4 Lectures open only to members of the National Geographic Society who have subscribed to season tickets. CONTENTS. ErunoLtocy.—A scientific approach to African colonization. O. F. AOI Ga BUN tet ERAN MAR CUA eeBid aman A UA ena aa a A a Biopnysics.—Hffect of temperature and time on the x-ray sensitivity of maize seeds. Louis R. Maxwetu, J.H. Kempton, and VERNON VE: MEO RTE TU Se I a Eh SR Gerd Aa Pe ly Borany.—Three new varieties and two new combinations in Citrus and related genera of the orange subfamily. Wa.tEer T. SWINGLE. ENntTomMoLogy.—Notes on Harmostes, with descriptions of some new spe- cies (Hemiptera: Corizidae). H. M. Harris...............-. $ This J ournal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals Page 18 24 ‘ >. I» ; Z 4 ? ee ¥ J M > A ; . ; 3 £ a | % ay SHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ee a BOARD OF EDITORS G. Artuur CoorErR U. 8. NATIONAL MUSHUM — Jason R. SwWALLEN BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY ASSOCIATE EDITORS C. F. W. Mureseseck Va ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY _Epwin Kirx« GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY T. Dats STEwartT ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY Horace 8S. 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Secretary: FREDERICK D. Rossini, National Bureau of Standards. Treasurer: Howarp S. RappLteys, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Archivist: NATHAN R. Smitu, Bureau of Plant Industry. Custodian of Publications: W1tt1amM W. Dieuat, Bureau of Plant Industry. wat. en es, ee ee aes ee Ee ea, JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Wow. 32 FEBRUARY 15, 1942 No. 2 Science and War Austin H. CiarK, U.S. National Museum. In times of national emergency it is in- cumbent upon all of us, both as individuals and as members of any organization to which we may belong, to do everything within our power for the public good. We who are engaged in science are no longer justified in appraising the world and our fellow men in the light of their bearing upon our specialty, as in times of peace we are inclined to do. We must broaden our out- look and integrate our activities and our thoughts with that will-to-victory that animates us all. Victory, as we all know, will be achieved ‘primarily by our armed forces working in cooperation with those of our allies, and in collaboration with our diplomats. An all-out victory, however, demands that we give thought to certain social and economic aspects of present-day and future existence that lie beyond the scope of military and diplomatic activities. Most of these social and economic aspects are already being cared for by various agen- cies either directly under, or more or less closely connected with, Governmental agencies. There are, however, a few of out- standing importance, though involving a relatively small number of individuals, that can better be carried on, or at least super- vised or encouraged, by organizations such as the Washington Academy of Sciences or similar bodies than by any Governmental agencies. Academies of science are representative of the scientific activities in the communi- ties in which they are situated. The Wash- + Address of the retiring president of the Washington Academy of Sciences delivered at the 309th meeting of the Academy, January 15, 1942. Received January 15, 1942. FEB 95 19g 33 ington Academy of Sciences includes within its membership representatives of all the branches of science in the Government service and in the local educational institu- tions. Each member has his special affilia- tions, but the Academy as a whole is capable of independent action insofar as such action does not interfere with the work, or run counter to the policies, of the various agencies with which its members are affiliated. As a preface to the discussion of the needs of science in the present emergency may I, at the risk of being boresomely repetitious, tax your patience for a few minutes by reviewing briefly the history of science in relation to human society? From the earliest times of which we have a record to the present day, the history of man has been marked by constant changes in the social systems, changes that often were abrupt and violent. One form of social structure or of government has succeeded another. Small but powerful social or politi- cal units have grown by accretion or by conquest into great kingdoms or empires. These kingdoms or empires eventually have decayed or fallen apart, the fragments maintaining a longer or shorter separate existence, or becoming merged into other larger units. Together with these frequent social, political, or economic readjustments of the past we see a constant and fairly continu- ous development of other forces which to a large extent are independent of transient political conditions. We note a growing interest in and understanding of the prod- ucts of the earth and their uses. We also are able to trace the ever-increasing sub- jugation of the forces of nature, which 34 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES more and more come to be the servants instead of the enemies of man. The greatest of all human achievements was the control and use of fire. We have no knowledge of when or how fire was first transformed from a terrifying natural phe- nomenon into man’s most useful servant, for no human race exists that does not know, to some extent at least, the use of fire. Second among human achievements was the fashioning and use of tools and weapons. The origin of the use of tools is lost in the far distant past. The earliest tools we know were crudely fashioned from stone. The technique of making tools grad- ually improved, and many of the stone axes, choppers, projectile points, and other ob- jects fashioned by early human types are marvels of technical skill. Then came the weaving of textiles from plant or animal fibers and the molding of pottery vessels, followed by the appearance of bronze. Not long after the appearance of bronze uten- sils of various sorts, the wheel and axle appeared in Asia, soon spreading to Europe. From the Bronze Age onward the knowl- edge of the use of natural products and the control of natural forces have shown a fairly continuous development, and to an ever-increasing extent have become an integral part of the fundamental basis of progressive human societies. Since the beginning of the present cen- tury the advance in the knowledge and understanding of the products and forces of nature has been greater than in all the thousands of years preceding—or at least since the subjugation of fire, the first fashioning of tools, and the domestication of animals and plants. Whether we like the idea or not, we are now living in an age, and under condi- tions, in which science plays a dominant part, and the established scientific prin- ciples that underlie many of the most famil- iar of our present-day improvements were unheard of, or considered fallacious, no longer than a generation ago. Our children regard as commonplace necessities all sorts of things that to us of the older generation still seem to be more or less miraculous in- novations—the talkies, the radio, the air- VOL. 32, NO. 2 plane, the wire-photograph, the neon light, the modern motor-car, and many others. This is self-evident to all; but the implica- tions inseparable from a culture based ever more intensively and extensively on in- creasingly abstruse science are not as yet fully appreciated. The progress that through the ages has been made in the understanding of natural phenomena and in the utilization of natural products is continuing at an accelerated pace, and will continue in the future, in spite of what may happen in the next few years. It may be locally obstructed, or even brought to an end, but somehow, somewhere, it will carry on. The present struggle is no more a contest in the military field than it is in the field of science. It is quite possible to win the war on the battle front, but lose it in the laboratory. The Germans and the Japanese both are well aware of this. So are our friends the Russians. They are waging their battles in their laboratories as vigorously as on the firing line. We in this country must see to it that, so far as possible, the steady advance of sci- ence is maintained. At the present time we are utilizing to the maximum extent our scientific resources and our scientific per- sonnel to aid in our war effort. We are doing this, I have reason to believe, more ex- tensively, more efficiently, and more ef- fectively than any other country. But this is not enough. Various branches of science not of immediate military appli- cation are in the long run quite as essential for our progress and our welfare as are those forms of engineering, of physics, and of chemistry that underlie the construction and the use of modern implements of war- fare. These are the many and varied types of pure science, lines of work leading to results seemingly of no importance that all too often are regarded merely as a form of mental exercise undertaken solely for the personal satisfaction and gratification of the person concerned. What we call pure sci- ence is simply a branch of science for which no economic application has as yet been found. But at any time a body of uncoordi- nated facts may suddenly and unexpectedly Fes. 15, 1942 fit into an integrated whole, to our great advantage. Without its advance fringe of competent workers in pure science con- stantly probing the great unknown and accumulating masses of data with no ap- parent immediate application, the broader aspects of scientific progress soon would languish, and we would eventually lose heavily. Pure science is likely to suffer se- verely in times like the present—in times when it would seem to be the wisest course to give it the maximum encouragement. Recently I have received, passed by the German censor and wrapped in several unfolded signatures of an edition of Horace, an elaborate memoir on the Isopoda, a group of wretched little crustaceans com- monly called wood-lice or sow-bugs. The last publication received by the National Museum Library from the Institute of Scientific Research, Manchukuo, was de- voted to a detailed account of the butter- flies of Yablonya, Pin-chiang Province. Evi- dently the Germans and the Japanese con- sider it worth while to encourage work in lines of pure science apparently quite un- connected with military affairs. If it is worth while for them—and we must admit that both nations are military-minded— why is it not worth while for us? In Germany and in Japan things are done in ways that are not practicable with us. If Der Fuhrer considers the detailed study of wood-lice worth while from the point of view of furthering the Nazi aims, wood-lice will be studied, and the people will accept as of value to themselves, even if they do not applaud, the results of the studies. In Japan, science has been brought to high popular favor in the past 40 years through the example and excellent leader- ship of a group of powerful and highly re- spected noblemen, and a number of these noblemen, including some members of the Imperial Family and the grandson of the last Shogun, are enthusiastic entomologists. There is a natural tendency to say, ‘Well, if the Germans and the Japanese choose to squander their slender resources by sup- porting and publishing trivialities of this sort, let them go ahead and do it.’”’ But let us look at the matter from a different view- CLARK: SCIENCE AND WAR 35 point. In the future, if any American student wishes to study the Isopoda of the Philip- pines and the Netherlands East Indies, he must base his work on the memoir referred to, and in the same way students of the butterflies of eastern Asia must follow the Japanese lead. No scientific man objects to working with his colleagues in any country. To that extent science is international. What patriotic scientific men do object to is the possibility of having in the future to play second fiddle to scientific men in other lands, not because they are in any way inferior, but because they were unable to carry on their work. In this country we do not have a Fiihrer who can dictate what science may or may not do, and we do not want one. Neither do we have a group of powerful noblemen to chart a course for us. We do not want them either. At the same time, we have no desire to be outdone by countries domi- nated by these human phenomena. In this country, progress in any line of science is mainly dependent upon the will- ingness of the people to support work in that particular line which, in turn, is de- pendent upon popular interest and appreci- ation. We have among us at the present time very many people who are by no means science-minded. Their attitude varies all the way from passive superciliousness to outspoken hostility. Not a few go so far as to say that science is the cause of the present war, such people being the spiritual descendents of those who, a little over a hundred years ago, tried to suppress the friction match on the ground that it would stimulate the activity of fire-bugs. Many in our country districts have their own pecul- iar ideas about the moon and stars, ideas in regard to which they are exceedingly sensitive, while in the cities many are very supercilious regarding the value of ento- mology except, perhaps, when it comes to discouraging the activities of bed bugs. We who are engaged in scientific work, and who understand its importance in the general complex of present-day human af- fairs, often fail to realize how recently science has been able more or less success- 36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES fully to overcome various forms of popular prejudice and to secure the favor of a very large section of the general public. The present popular attitude toward sci- ence can not properly be understood with- out some knowledge of the public attitude in the more or less recent past. I propose therefore to digress for a moment in order to indicate briefly the changes that have taken place here and in England since the early days of the settlement of the country. At that time, in the reign of Queen Eliza- beth, Galileo was still a student at the University of Pisa, Tycho Brahe had just completed his observatory, and Paracelsus and Agricola only recently had died. In those days science was almost wholly in- cluded in the subject of theology, and scientific work was restricted within narrow bounds by the dogmas of the theologians. In the words of the Marquess of Salisbury science was “the knowledge gained not by external observation, but by mere reflection. The student’s microscope was turned in- ward upon the recesses of his own brain; and when the supply of facts and realities failed, as it very speedily did, the scientific imagination was not wanting to furnish to successive generations an interminable series of conflicting speculations.” For some time there had been a growing restiveness against the restrictions placed on scientific investigations by the theo- logians. This restiveness began to take the form of concerted action in the first half of the seventeenth century. As early as the reign of Charles I, about 1645, there ex- isted in England an organization referred to by the Hon. Robert Boyle, seventh son of the first Earl of Cork, as the “Invisible College.’ This “‘Invisible College’’ was first suggested by Theodor Haak (or Hank), a German from the Palatinate, then resident in London. It consisted of weekly meetings at which the results of experimental work in philosophy, in its broad sense, were dis- cussed. This was rather an unorthodox procedure for the time, but those who attended the meetings were among the ablest men of England, and included theo- logians as well as others. One of the theo- logians was Dr. John Wilkins, afterward VOL. 32, NO. 2 Bishop of Chester, who had married Rob- ena, sister of Oliver Cromwell. Another participant was Sir Christopher Wren, who later laid down the plan for the College of William and Mary. According to Dr. Cromwell Mortimer, ‘had not the Civil Wars happily ended as they did, Mr. Boyle and Dr. Wilkins, with several other learned men, would have left England, and, out of esteem for the most excellent and valuable Governor, John Winthrop the younger, would have retir’d to his new-born Colony [Connecticut] and there have established that Society for pro- moting Natural Knowledge, which those Gentlemen had formed, as it were, in Embryo among themselves.”’ Emigration to America was, however, forestalled. On November 28, 1660, the “Invisible College’? became visible as ‘“The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge.’ On the Wednesday following, word was brought that King Charles II approved the design of the meetings; in October, 1661, the King offered to be entered one of the Society; and in the next year the Society was incorporated un- der the name of the Royal Society, the first charter of incorporation passing the Great Seal on July 15, 1662. Although the Royal Society remained in England, both the College of William and Mary and Harvard College received con- siderable amounts of money from the estate of the Hon. Mr. Boyle after his death in January 1691-92. Science now began to assume a new aspect. Charles II had in effect declared that there is nothing irreligious in reporting facts. So records of observed facts and their interpretation in the light of other facts began to supersede introspection in which the aid of facts was regarded as super- fluous, combined with interminable com- mentaries on the works of Aristotle. Following the Restoration, science in England became largely an occupation of the aristocratic and the wealthy and for the most part was followed along lines that had little or no economic application. In the public mind it came to be identified more or less completely with the aristocracy Fes. 15, 1942 and to be regarded as partaking of the same aloofness from the general run of human affairs that characterized the social life of the upper classes. The natural result of this was that when, in the Victorian era, the champions of the lower classes began to gain a considerable following, they, or at least many of them, attacked science as one of the perquisites of the aristocracy. This attitude is well illustrated by Charles Dickens’s ‘‘Mudfog Papers’ published on the occasion of the first meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. Since that time science in England gradu- ally has come more and more into popular favor. Applied science has made rapid strides and is now quite as fully developed and as highly regarded as it is in any other land. The rise in the prestige of applied science, however, has not been accompanied by any noticeable decline in the popularity of pure science, so that here we find the two types advancing side by side inmore or less ideal balance. But, unfortunately, science in England still does not have the complete confidence of the public, and is not by any means free from neglect, dis- paragement, or even attack in the popular press. In this country the history of science has been somewhat different. In early colonial times scientific effort was devoted mainly to making known the natural resources of the new land, particularly the plant and animal life. But applied science early at- tracted the attention of the colonists. In 1612 John Rolfe perfected a method of cur- ing tobacco so that it would reach England in good condition, and as early as 1617 Sam- uel Argall wrote that “ground wore out with maize will bring English grain.” In later colonial times applied science, especially in certain engineering branches, was systematically discouraged in the fear that the colonies might become competitors of the mother country in the production of manufactured goods. It was possibly partly as a reaction from this suppression that after the Revolution science stood high in the favor of the repre- sentatives of the American people, its most CLARK: SCIENCE AND WAR 37 insistent and powerful advocates being Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, and John Adams of Massachusetts. But it was some time before the new country was sufficiently well organized to enable the people to devote much thought to science. When they did, a spontaneous interest, taking various strange and crude forms, appeared, par- ticularly in the agricultural areas. This crude popular science—and pseudoscience —gradually became amalgamated with the more orthodox science of the schools and colleges, and we note, especially after the middle of the last century, an enormous ex- pansion of applied science in all forms, later very largely supported by Federal and State appropriations made possible by active and widespread interest among all the different groups in our population. In this country popular interest in science is twofold, arising both from the vista of economic betterment resulting from applied science, and from its appeal to the imagina- tion. We all like to look forward to the day when we shall be even more comfortable than we are now. But we all have a non- material side. We like to get away from the hard realities of every-day life and to con- template the unknown, and beyond that the unknowable. We all would like to know more about the world we live in. What would we find a few hundred miles down in the earth, or 20,000 feet below the sur- face of the sea? We would like to know more about the stars; are there any other worlds like ours? And what is it like in interstellar space? We would like to know more about ultimate human origins—indeed, about very many things concerning which our present information is vague and fragmentary. Now although popular interest in science is more general and more widespread in this coun- try than it is in any other, it tends to gravi- tate in these two directions, toward the directly economic and toward the mysteri- ous. Between these two extremes lies a broad intermediate field in which our people as a whole take little interest, but which is intensively cultivated elsewhere. This is the descriptive branch of pure science, the results of which are of no immediate eco- 38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES nomic import and are not mysterious. Popular interest in science must not only be maintained, it must be increased if we are to hold our own in the years to come, for whether carried on under Government support or in endowed institutions of learn- ing, the full development of our scientific potentialities is dependent upon a sympa- thetic public attitude. In order to secure, to maintain, and to increase public interest in and sympathy toward scientific work, and to convert the still disconcertingly numer- ous unbelievers, it is essential that we con- tinually provide the public with news re- garding scientific progress in all lines of interest to them, from both the material and non-material or philosophical view- points. Such impersonal news is especially desirable in times of national emergency, when it can be made to serve as a welcome relief from distressing accounts of mortal combat. Fortunately in this respect we are in an excellent position. More and better science is carried in our daily press and other journals than in those of any other country, and science is less frequently disparaged and denounced here than elsewhere. There is still room for improvement, but never- theless conditions are reasonably satis- factory. For this we have chiefly to thank the National Association of Science Writers the members of which, in addition to know- ing science, know the public mind and are able to present the advances in science in terms everyone can understand. We are fortunate in having among the members of the Academy two of the outstanding mem- bers of this Association, Mr. Thomas R. Henry of the Evening Star (a past president) and Dr. Frank Thone of Science Service. Publicity for science is not of direct con- cern to the Academy, but I wish to bring to your attention the vital importance of this aspect of scientific activity—for sales- manship is as important for science as it is for everything else—and to urge you all to do everything you can to help in this es- sential work. Progress in science is possible only with the support of an interested and apprecia- tive public. It is also possible only through VOL. 32, NO. 2 the efforts of a carefully selected and ade- quately trained personnel. This is a matter that heretofore scarcely has received the attention it deserves. At the present time a very serious danger to our continued progress in science has arisen. This is the induction into the Army of many young men who would be of vastly greater value to the country if they were permitted to continue their studies, or to remain in research positions. The matter is further complicated by the fact that as a rule the most valuable of these young men are those most likely to enlist on their own initiative. After the last war there was a marked scarcity of able young scientific men. This was most noticeable, perhaps, in the bio- logical sciences, though it was more or less noticeable in other branches as well. Many promising young men were killed. Others, as a result of several years spent in the various armies, found themselves unable to make the necessary readjustment to scien- tific work. Still others tried to readjust themselves but were only partially success- ful. Breaking the thread of continuity of effort between the impressionable boy in the formative period and the mature man can not but result in a certain amount of dislocation. We are reminded of the old Berber proverb— Teaching boys is like ploughing earth, Teaching men is like ploughing rock, Teaching old men is like ploughing water. There are two ways out of this dilemma. Either the student may be placed on a de- ferred list so that he may be enabled to con- tinue his studies uninterruptedly, or he may be assisted in carrying on his work, to what- ever degree may be found practicable, while in the service. Many young botanists and zoologists would welcome an opportunity for collect- ing specimens and continuing their studies in regions new and strange to them. Such material as they collected could be sent home to be identified, or to be stored until their arrival. Activities of this nature car- ried on in their spare hours would go far toward overcoming that feeling of bore- Fes. 15, 1942 dom that afflicts almost everyone stationed at an isolated army post or naval base, and there is no reason to believe that these ac- tivities would in any way detract from their military efficiency. It is not assumed that anything of this sort would be practicable with an army in the field, on ships at sea, or at certain naval bases. But there are numerous places where the men of our armed forces will be stationed with nothing but monotonous routine to occupy their minds and where such recreation would be both practicable and welcome. | Not only would this work benefit the men engaged in it; it would also go far to- ward filling many gaps in our knowledge of the distribution of animals and plants, and of other features connected with them, and I am sure that the curators of most of our larger museums and herbaria would be glad to cooperate and to encourage most cheer- fully the young men concerned. By such sympathetic assistance and encouragement the morale of many young men could be maintained, and the gap in the continuity of their work in their chosen field largely filled in. In army posts and naval bases a young zoologist or botanist who spends his spare time catching insects or pressing plants will at first be an object of ridicule to his as- sociates, both officers and men. His situa- tion, however, is by no means without precedent—and most honorable precedent. It may comfort him to realize that the world’s leading authority on the Hesperi- idae, a peculiarly difficult group of butter- flies especially characteristic of America, is Brigadier General William H. Evans of the Royal Engineers, while in the Royal Navy Rear Admiral Hubert Lynes is the leading authority on a very puzzling group of small African birds. Some time ago the collections of the British Museum were en- riched by a fine collection of butterflies presented by Captain Lord Byron. There are many military men, now as well as in the past, who have, or have had, biology as a hobby and have made notable contributions to the subject. In our own Army I may mention Colonel Thomas L. CLARK: SCIENCE AND WAR 39 Casey, Colonel Wirt Robinson, Colonel Martin L. Crimmins, and Lieutenant Colo- nel Edgar A. Mearns, and there are many others. Looking at the matter in a more frivolous light, is a young man using his spare time to continue his studies, and at the same time to advance our knowledge of animals and plants, any more ridiculous than an ancient tough old sea-dog in the forecastle engaged in fine embroidery work with delicately colored silks, to the accom- paniment of blood-curdling oaths? A vast amount of such work has been done by the personnel of foreign armies and navies in the past, particularly by officers in the British services. In fact, at one time our own Navy assigned interested young officers to the Smithsonian Institution for instruction in the collection and preserva- tion of material. One of these young officers especially, Lieutenant William E. Safford, subsequently made notable contributions to the collections of the Institution. I see no reason why, in the interest of the mainte- nance of morale and of scientific progress, this procedure can not be revived and ex- tended to the enlisted personnel. Whether in its material or in its non- material aspects, progress in science is de- pendent upon the fostering of the scientific spirit. The scientific spirit is more than mere curiosity. It is an insatiable curiosity that impels one to learn everything that is known about a given subject, and then to go further and broaden and extend that knowledge by personal investigation and research, in spite of all difficulties and dis- couragements—and these are always many. The spirit of science is inborn, though it may appear in anybody, anywhere, in any class, or group, or race. We are fortunate in having a population in which the scientific spirit is widespread, though we have not always encouraged it as perhaps we should have done. We have encouraged it mainly in our graduate schools, and in them chiefly when it was directed toward some objective of more or less immediate economic interest. In order to develop the scientific spirit to the maximum, as it must be developed if we are to hold our place in the world of the future, we must watch for it at its in- 40 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ception, and whenever and wherever it is found encourage it. In the British Navy the average age of an officer at the time of entering the service is 125 years. By the time a young man has attained the grade of ensign his whole outlook on life has been aligned with the Navy tradition. Something comparable to this is needed in science. Naturally, many of the boys and girls who are enthusiastic about science in their school days later devote themselves to other lines of activity. But the time and energy spent in encouraging these will be more than repaid by the superior excellence of those who finally take up science as their life work. Besides, those who, interested in science in early youth, later enter some other field of activity will form the nucleus of a sympathetic background for those who make of science their career. Here we find a real opportunity for serv- ice on the part of the Academy. Some means should be devised whereby all the children in the local schools showing a spe- cial aptitude for science may be watched and their progress followed. If they show exceptional promise they should be en- VOL. 32, NO. 2 couraged and, if necessary, assisted in com- pleting their education in the most ad- vanced of our graduate schools. Already some of the State academies of science are performing this service to their communi- ties through junior academies of science, or through various science clubs, or through both combined. Why should the Washing- ton Academy of Sciences not undertake it? We are facing a long war, and a very serious war, a war that, to a far greater ex- tent than any previous war, will be fought on two fronts, in the field of arms and in the laboratory. Our enemies understand this thoroughly and are acting accordingly. We are building a military machine of sur- passing power and efficiency. We must at the same time build up a scientific personnel of corresponding power, efficiency, and morale, reinforced by a continuous and adequate flow of highly trained and thor- oughly competent replacements able to carry on successfully after the military phase of the struggle is ended. I ask you all, and each of you individually, to do all in your power toward making our scientific front invincible. PHYSICS.—A review of the methods for the absolute determination of the ohm.} Harvey L. Curtis, National Bureau of Standards. It is nearly half a century since the criti- cal review of Dorn? on the absolute deter- minations of the ohm was published. In that review, the methods then available were discussed and the results which had been obtained were analyzed. Since then the number of available methods has con- siderably increased, principally by the in- troduction of those that employ alternating currents. Some of the older methods, how- ever, are still very important, so that a complete review has been undertaken of all the determinations that have been made. The resistance of a conductor is, by Ohm’s law, the ratio of the potential difference at its terminals to the continuous current through it. If both the potential difference 1 Received October 11, 1941. 2 On the apparent value of the ohm. Wiss. Abh. PYLE 22257. 1895, and current are measured in terms of length, mass, time, and the permeability of a me- dium, the value of the resistance is in abso- lute units. However, most methods for the absolute determination of resistance avoid the direct measurement of either the poten- tial difference or the current, since only the ratio of these quantities is required. In many methods there is an induced electro- motive force that can be computed from the electromagnetic equations, and the current can be determined from its mechanical ef- fects. In such cases the equations for deter- mining the electromotive force and current can often be so combined that the resistance of a circuit, or of a portion of one, can be ob- tained without measuring either a current or potential difference. The various methods that have been used are classified in Chart I. Following each Fes. 15, 1942 specific method there is given in the chart the name of the man who proposed it. In addi- tion to the chart a brief description is given of each method listed therein. Also there is usually given for each method an estimate of the accuracy that can be obtained by its use. Cuart I: A CLASSIFICATION OF THE Meruops ror ABSOLUTE MEASURE- MENT OF THE OHM? A. Calorimetric method (Joule). B. Methods involving an induced electro- motive force. I. Relative motion of a coil and magnet. 1. Damping of a magnet (W. Weber). 2. Rotation of a magnet (Lippman). 3. Dropping of a magnet (Mengarine). II. Rotation of a coil in the earth’s mag- netic field (the earth inductor). 1. Earth inductor with rotation through 180° (W. Weber). 2. Earth inductor with uniform rota- tion. a. Earth inductor with separate tangent galvanometer (W. Weber). b. Combined earth inductor and tangent galvanometer (the re- volving coil of the B.A. Com- mittee) (Lord Kelvin). III. Nonuniform motion of a conductor in the magnetic field of a current. 1. Damping of a vibrating coil (Net- tleton and Lewellyn). 2. Displacement of a coil (Kirchhoff). IV. Uniform motion of a conductor in the CURTIS: ABSOLUTE DETERMINATION OF THE OHM 41 magnetic field of a current (genera- tor with air-cored magnets). 1. Commutating generator. a. Average value of generated elec- tromotive force (Rosa). — b. Maximum value of generated electromotive force (Lippman). 2. Homopolar generator (Lorenz ap- paratus) (Lorenz). V. Varying currents in a mutual induc- tance. 1. Transient currents (Rowland). 2. Commutated currents. a. Sudden reversal of current (Roiti). b. Step-by-step reversal of current (Wenner). 3. Sinusoidal currents. a. Intermediary capacitance (Campbell). b. Two mutual inductances (Camp- bell). - c. Two-phase measured currents (Campbell). d. Two mutual inductances with two-phase balanced currents (Wenner). VI. Varying currents in a self inductance. 1. Transient currents (Maxwell). 2. Commutated currents (Curtis). 3. Sinusoidal currents. a. Intermediary capacitance cali- brated by a commutator bridge (Rosa). b. Intermediary capacitance cali- brated by a resonance bridge (Griineisen and Giebe). A. CALORIMETRIC METHOD (JOULE) The calorimetric method of determining the ohm was of great importance during the early days of absolute measurements, since the electromagnetic laws involved are very different from those used in any other method. It requires not only a determina- 3'This chart is slightly modified from the one given in the book by the author on Electrical measurements, McGraw-Hill Book Co. In the book a few methods are discussed in considerable detail. tion of the heat generated by a current in a resistance, but also some measurement that will give the value of the current in absolute units. This measurement of current can be made with greater accuracy than a strictly mechanical determination of the mechan- ical equivalent of heat. Hence this method has generally been used to determine the mechanical equivalent of heat in terms of the electrical units of resistance and current. 42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 32, NO. 2 B. METHODS INVOLVING AN INDUCED ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE The methods of determining resistance that involve an induced electromotive force may be divided into six general classes, de- pending on the method of inducing the elec- tromotive force. Each class may be divided and subdivided according to the type of ap- paratus used. I. RELATIVE MOTION OF A COIL AND MAGNET Three methods have been suggested in which an electromotive force is induced by moving a magnet with respect to a coil: 1. Damping of a Magnet (W. Weber) A small magnet is pivoted or suspended at the center of a coil of wire of known di- mensions, the plane of which is vertical and lies in the direction of the reath’s field. The period and damping of the magnet are ob- served both when the circuit through the coil is open and when it is closed. The dif- ference in damping on open and closed cir- cuits is caused by the reaction on the mag- net of the current in the coil. This in turn depends on the electromotive force induced in the coil by the swinging magnet and on the resistance of its winding. The resistance of the coil is computed from the period and damping of the magnet, and the dimensions of the coil, without determining the induced electromotive force or the current. This method has been successfully used by sev- eral observers, one of whom claims a preci- sion of a part in 10,000. 2. Rotation of a Magnet (Lippman) The maximum electromotive force in- duced in a coil by the rotation of a magnet is balanced against the drop in potential over a resistance in which there is a known cur- rent. This method seems incapable of giving results of high accuracy. 3. Dropping of a Magnet (Mengarine) The dropping of a magnet through a coil induces an electromotive force in the coil and the current produced is a function of the resistance. The magnetic field of the current decreases the acceleration of the magnet. The resistance of the coil can be computed from the mass and strength of the magnet and its change in acceleration to- gether with the dimensions of the coil. While this method has been proposed, it does not appear to be capable of giving precise re- sults. II. ROTATION OF A COIL IN THE EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD (THE EARTH INDUCTOR) In this class are included the methods in- volving an induced electromotive force that is produced by a coil rotating in the earth’s magnetic field. The rotation may be through 180° only or it may be continuous. Both of these methods have been used by several investigators, each of whom has made some modifications of the original method as pro- posed by W. Weber. 1. Earth Inductor with Rotation through 180° (W. Weber) The coil of an earth inductor is placed with its plane perpendicular to the horizon- tal component of the earth’s field and sud- denly rotated through 180°. The induced electromotive force causes a ballistic deflec- tion of the needle of a tangent galvanometer to which the coil is connected. The value of the earth’s field does not need to be known if it is the same at the earth inductor and at the galvanometer. The resistance of the cir- cuit which includes the coil and galvanom- eter is computed from their dimensions, and the period and damping of the galvanom- eter magnet. 2. Earth Inductor with Uniform Rotation The uniform rotation of an earth inductor has two modifications. In one the rotating coil is connected to a tangent galvanometer through a commutator. The galvanometer measures the average value of the induced current. In the other the current induced in the rotating coil is measured by the deflec- tion of a magnet suspended at the center of the coil. Fes. 15, 1942 a. Earth inductor with tangent galuanom- eter (W. Weber)—When a tangent gal- vanometer is employed with a uniformly ro- tating earth inductor having a commutator the current through the galvanometer does not change direction but varies from zero to a maximum. Consequently the galvanome- ter must measure the average current flow- ing through it. The resistance of the circuit including the rotating coil and galvanometer is determined from the rate of rotation of the coil and the dimensions of the revolving coil and of the coils of the tangent galva- nometer. b. Combined earth inductor and tangent galvanometer (the revolving coil of the B.A. Committee) (Lord Kelvin).—In_ combining the earth inductor with a galvanometer, a small magnetic needle is suspended at the center of a coil which rotates around a ver- tical axis. The induced electromotive force produced by rotating the coil in the earth’s field causes an alternating current in the coil, which reacts to produce a deflection of the needle. This deflection oscillates slightly but the oscillations are negligibly small if the time of a revolution is much less than the natural period of vibration of the mag- netic needle. Since the current is alternat- ing, its value depends on the inductance of the coil as well as on its resistance. The rotating coil method as just described was used in 1864 in establishing the B.A. unit, which was subsequently found to dif- fer from the absolute ohm by about 1.5 per cent. Since then much more accurate meas- urements have been made by this method, but in no case has the result been as accu- rate as a part in 10,000. III. NONUNIFORM MOTION OF A CONDUCTOR IN THE MAGNETIC FIELD OF A CURRENT This class of methods is similar to the pre- ceding except that a coil carrying a current replaces the magnet. 1. Damping of a Vibrating Coil (Nettleton and Lewellyn) The secondary of a mutual inductor is so suspended that it can vibrate about an axis of symmetry, the zero position being the CURTIS: ABSOLUTE DETERMINATION OF THE OHM 43 position for zero mutual inductance. With a steady current in the fixed coil, the period and damping of the vibrating coil, both on open and closed circuit, are measured. Then with this same current in the fixed coil, an- other current having a known ratio to the first is sent through the moving coil produc- ing a measured angular deflection. The mutual inductance is then computed for this angular position of the coils. This gives sufficient data for computing the resistance of the vibrating coil. The method has given results that do not appear to be in error by more than a few parts in 10,000. 2. Displacement of a Coil (Kirchhoff) A moving coil is connected to a galva- nometer that can be used _ ballistically. There is a known current in a neighboring fixed coil. The moving coil is displaced sud- denly, giving a throw to the moving element of the galvanometer. The resistance of the circuit of which the galvanometer is a part is computed from the current in the station- ary coil, the dimensions of the coils, and the deflection and constants of the galvanom- eter. Kirchhoff displaced the coil by giving it a translation in the direction of its axis but most of the other experimenters have used a rotation. This is the first method ever used for the absolute measurement of resistance but is now of historical interest only. IV. UNIFORM MOTION OF A CONDUCTOR IN THE MAGNETIC FIELD OF A CUR- RENT (GENERATOR WITH AIR- CORED MAGNETS) The electromotive force of a generator, in which the magnetic field is produced by an iron-free coil and in which the armature has a simple geometric form, can be computed from the dimensions of the generator, the rate of motion of the armature, and the cur- rent in the coil. Three methods have been used for determining resistance as the ratio of the induced electromotive force to the current in the coil: 1. Commutating Generator In the case of the commutating generator, a coil or coils rotate in the magnetic field of 44 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES the generator, producing an alternating electromotive force in the rotating coil. The rotating coil is connected to the outside cir- cuit through a commutator so that in the outside circuit the current does not change direction. The basic principles involved in the commutating generator are excellent, but no satisfactory experimental test of either of the two modifications has been made. Either modification seems suitable for measurements of high precision. a. Average value of generated electromotive force (Rosa).—If the commutator is of such a type that the connections to the armature are reversed when the electromotive force is zero, the average value of the generated electromotive force must be balanced against the constant drop in potential over a resistance in series with the field coils of the generator. The essential measurements are the dimensions of the coils and the speed of rotation. b. Maximum value of generated electromo- tive force (Lippman).—This method requires a commutator of such a type that contact is made only when the generated electromo- tive force is a maximum. This maximum electromotive force can be balanced against the drop in potential over a resistance in se- ries with the field coils of the generator. The essential measurements are the same as in the preceding method. 2. Homopolar Generator (Lorenz Apparatus) (Lorenz) A homopolar generator suitable for meas- uring the absolute value of a resistance is often called a Lorenz apparatus. It consists of an armature in the form of a disk whose axis coincides with the axes of the field coils of the generator. As an example, the disk may be concentric and coaxial with a long solenoid which has an inside diameter larger than that of the disk. When the disk rotates each of its radial elements cuts the magnetic field produced by the current in the solenoid. Hence there is an electromo- tive force between the axis and circum- ference of the disk that can be computed from the dimensions of the disk and sole- noid, the speed of rotation of the disk, and the current in the solenoid. This induced VOL. 32, NO. 2 electromotive force is balanced against the fall in potential in a resistance which is in series with the solenoid. The value of this resistance is thus obtained in absolute units. The Lorenz method has been used more often than any other, but it has inherent weaknesses, which are discussed in a later section. In the hands of skillful manipula- tors, an accuracy approaching 10 ppm may be obtained as the average of a considerable number of observations. V. VARYING CURRENTS IN A MUTUAL INDUCTANCE The ratio of the electromotive force in- duced in the secondary of a mutual inductor to the varying current in the primary can be employed to determine the absolute value of a resistance. The mutual inductor must be of such form that its inductance can be computed from its measured dimensions. 1. Transient Currents (Rowland) A transient current is produced in the sec- ondary of a mutual inductor by opening or closing the circuit containing both the pri- mary and a constant electromotive force. During the time that the current is increas- ing or decreasing in the primary, an electromotive force is induced in the sec- ondary which depends on the mutual induc- tance and the rate of change of current in the primary. The secondary is connected to a ballistic galvanometer so that the integral of the current produces a deflection of the galvanometer which depends on the resist- ance of the circuit. Since this method depends on the reading of a deflection, results more accurate than a part in a thousand cannot be expected. This method has points of similarity with the method of Kirchhoff (III-2) in which one coil is displaced relatively to a second coil carrying a current. 2. Commutated Currents A commutated current in a circuit con- taining the primary of a mutual inductance is obtained by periodically reversing the connections to the electromotive force. An alternating electromotive force is induced in the secondary of the mutual inductance. By Fer. 15, 1942 means of a second commutator this becomes a series of unidirectional pulses in the ex- ternal circuit. The average or maximum value of this pulsating electromotive force is compared with the drop in potential over a standard of resistance in the circuit con- taining the primary. (a) Sudden reversal of current (Roiti).— The commutator may produce a sudden re- versal of the current in the primary so that the induced electromotive force in the secondary is, for each reversal, a short, in- tense pulse. The comparison of the average electromotive force in the secondary with the maximum potential difference across the resistance in the secondary is difficult. This method has some promise, but re- quires an extensive modification of the ex- perimental procedure that has been used before it can be expected to give results of precision. (b) Step-by-step reversal of current (Wen- ner).—The commutator and associated ap- paratus may be so designed that the current in the primary is increased and decreased in steps while the current through a standard resistor in the primary circuit is nearly con- stant during any half cycle. The induced electromotive force in the secondary is a series of small and frequent pulses. The total electromotive force in the secondary is made more uniform by introducing an elec- tromotive force produced by an induction generator and by the insertion in the secondary circuit of a large, iron-cored in- ductor. The fall in potential over the stand- ard resistor in the primary is balanced against the average electromotive force in the secondary. The electromotive forces in- troduced into the secondary by the gener- ator and the inductance do not affect the balance since the integral value of each is zero. A determination by this method is in progress at the National Bureau of Stand- ards and is giving results of the highest accuracy. 8. Alternating Currents The use of alternating currents in precise electrical measurements has largely devel- oped in the last three or four decades, dur- CURTIS: ABSOLUTE DETERMINATION OF THE OHM 45 ing which time very few absolute ohm determinations have been made. Several methods have been proposed and given at least a preliminary trial: (a) Intermediary capacitance (Campbell). —The use of an intermediary capacitance with a mutual inductance involves two different bridges, one of which uses alternat- ing current, the other pulsating current. In the alternating current bridge, the mutual inductance is measured in terms of a ca- pacitance and two resistances. In the pul- sating current bridge the same capacitance is measured in terms of a resistance, and the number of pulses per second. By combining the equations of the two bridges, the value of one resistance can be determined in terms of the mutual inductance, the number of pulses per second, and the ratio of two re- sistances. The simple theory of this method assumes that the capacitance has the same value for both methods of measurement and that the distributed capacitance of the mutual in- ductance produces a negligible effect on the computed result. The first assumption is justified if an air capacitor is employed but the second may introduce an error for some types of inductors. (b) Two mutual inductances (Campbell) — In the method involving two mutual in- ductances, the secondary of one is con- nected in series with the primary of the other. Then the electromotive force in the secondary of the one is balanced against a resistance in series with the primary of the other. A diagram of the electrical connec- tions is given in Fig. 1, by means of which the description of the method can be sim- plified. By different adjustments of resist- ances and inductances, the current in either the upper or the lower circuit of the right- hand portion of the diagram can be made zero at every instant. In either case, the product of two resistances in these circuits is proportional to the product of the square of the frequency of the alternating current and of the values of two inductances. The method is very direct, but the corrections for the inductances of the resistors are not easy to evaluate. An accuracy of a few parts in a million may be attainable. 46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES (c) Two-phase measured currents (Camp- bell)—By using a two-phase, alternating current circuit, the electromotive force in the secondary of a mutual inductance hav- ing its primary in one phase can be balanced against the drop in potential over a resist- ance in the second phase. The currents in the two phases have a phase difference of 90° so that the induced electromotive force in the secondary of the mutual inductor can be made equal, at every instant, to the drop in potential over the resistance. The resist- ance is determined in terms of the fre- quency, the mutual inductance, and the Fig. 1—The method of Albert Campbell, which employs two mutual inductors in series. As orig- inally described, the resistances R; and R, and mutual inductances M; and M2 are adjusted to make the current zero in the lower loop of the right-hand side. In the modification by Picard, the adjustments are so made that the current is zero in the upper loop. ratio of the effective values of the currents, which is obtained by the direct measure- ment of the current in each phase. These currents can not be measured with high pre- cision, so that an accuracy of a part in 10,000 is all that can be expected of this method. (d) Two mutual inductances with two- phase balanced currents (Wenner).—Two mutual inductances can be so used in a two- phase, alternating current circuit that the currents do not need to be measured, pro- vided a double balance is employed. The primary of one inductor is in one of the phases of the alternating current, and that of the other inductor in the opposite phase. The electromotive force in the secondary of each mutual inductance is balanced against VOL. 32, NO. 2 the drop of potential in a resistance in the circuit of the opposite phase. The arrange- ment is symmetrical as shown by the dia- gram of Fig. 2. The product of the two re- sistances 1s proportional to the square of the frequency and to the product of the two mutual inductances. The method has never been given an experimental test but appears YOQO) Q Fig. 2.—The two-phase method using two mutual inductances and requiring two balances. The two windings A; and A: in the armature of a generator produce alternating electromotive forces which differ in phase by 90°. The resist- ances R; and R2, and the mutual inductances My and M2, are adjusted until there is no deflection ef either of the vibration galvanometers G; and Qe capable of giving results of the highest accuracy. VI. VARYING CURRENTS IN A SELF INDUCTANCE Self inductance methods that employ a varying current can be classified according to the kind of current employed, such as transient current, commutated current, and alternating current. Regardless of the kind of current, the method involves the use of a self inductor of such form that its induct- ance can be computed from its mechanical dimensions. A single-layer solenoid wound with round wire makes a suitable self in- ductor, as it can be precisely constructed and accurately measured, and as exact formulas for the calculation of its induct- Fes. 15, 1942 ance are available. Since no other form so well fulfills all essential requirements, the single-layer solenoid has been exclusively used in recent determinations of the abso- lute value of the ohm where a self induct- ance is involved. 1. Transient Currents (Maxwell) To employ transient currents with a self inductance, the inductor is placed in one arm of a Wheatstone bridge. There is a key in the battery arm and another in the galvanometer arm. The galvanometer is of the ballistic type. With both keys closed, the bridge is balanced. Then the key in the battery arm is opened, producing a ballistic deflection of the galvanometer. From the period of the galvanometer, the self induct- ance of the inductor, and the ratio of the resistances in two of the bridge arms, the absolute resistance of a third arm in the bridge can be determined. This method is of historic interest only. 2. Commutated Currents (Curtis) The use of commutated currents in con- nection with a self inductance for the ab- solute measurement of a resistance requires a balanced Wheatstone bridge with one commutator in the battery circuit and another in the galvanometer circuit; the two commutators having a phase difference of approximately 90°. A pulsating current is produced in the galvanometer. A second Wheatstone bridge can be employed to send, through the galvanometer, a direct current which just balances the integral value of the pulsating current. The value of the sum of two resistances is determined in terms of a self inductance, a time, the ratio of two electromotive forces, and the ratio of two resistances. The method appears to be capable of giving results of the highest accuracy. 8. Sinusoidal Currents All the methods so far proposed for the use of sinusoidal currents with a self in- ductance have involved the use of an intermediary capacitance. With such a ca- pacitance, two entirely independent meas- urements must be made, one to measure a resistance in terms of inductance and ca- CURTIS: ABSOLUTE DETERMINATION OF THE OHM 47 pacitance, and the second to determine this capacitance in terms of resistance and time. From the two results, the resistance in terms of inductance and time can be com- puted. a. Intermediary capacitance calibrated by a commutator bridge (Rosa).—The method requires two bridges; one an alternating current bridge to measure the self induct- ance in terms of a capacitance and two re- sistances, the other a pulsating current bridge for measuring the same capacitance in terms of resistance and time. By elimi- nating the capacitance from the equations of the two bridges, the resistance of one arm is given in terms of the self inductance, the number of pulses per second, and two ratios of resistances. The simple theory of this method as- sumes that the residual inductances of the resistors in the alternating current bridge are negligible, and that the capacitance has the same value in the two bridges. To elimi- nate the effect of the residual inductances, there is substituted for the inductor a con- ductor of the same resistance but made from high resistivity material and having a form such that its inductance can be com- puted from its dimensions. In this way the effect of residual inductances in the resistors can be accurately evaluated. The capaci- tance has the same value in both bridges when the dielectric of the capacitor is either a vacuum or air. This method is capable of giving an accuracy of a few parts in a million. b. Intermediary capacitance calibrated by a resonance bridge (Griineisen and Giebe).— This method also requires two bridges, but both use alternating current. The first bridge is the same type as that used in the preceding method; the second is a resonance bridge in which the product of a capacitance and inductance is proportional to the re- ciprocal of the square of the frequency. The balance of a resonance bridge is affected by extraneous capacitances and by the wave form of the alternating current. While the fundamental principles of this method in- dicate that it should give a precise result, the experimental difficulties have not yet been overcome. 48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 32, NO. 2 DISCUSSION OF PRECISION METHODS There are great differences in the accuracy that can be obtained by the different meth- ods. At the present time an accuracy of ten parts in a million should be the goal in any absolute measurement of the ohm. The characteristics that a method must possess in order to give results of high precision are: 1. The resistance to be measured must be that of a standard resistor having a low temperature coefficient. 2. The method must be a null method or one in which galvanometer deflec- tions are only of secondary im- portance. 3. The method must give the value of a resistance directly in terms of length, time, and permeability, without an absolute measurement of any derived quantity such as current, power, magnetic induction, or magnetic moment. Applying these requirements to the meth- ods that have been outlined, we see that they can not be satisfied by the calorimetric method (A), by the methods involving a magnet (B, I), by the methods making use of the earth’s magnetic field (B, II), by the methods using a nonuniform motion of a coil (B, III), or by methods requiring tran- sient currents in either a mutual or self in- ductance (B,V, 1, and B, VI, 1). Of the meth- ods that are not thus eliminated, there is only one, the homopolar generator of Lorenz (B, IV, 2), that does not use either commutated currents or alternating cur- rents. The discussion of precision methods will therefore be made under these headings rather than by following the order given in Chart I. 1. THE HOMOPOLAR GENERATOR The homopolar generator of Lorenz (B, IV, 2), in which the electromotive force in- duced in a rotating disk by the magnetic field of a current is balanced against the fall in potential in a resistance carrying the current, fulfills all the requirements for a precision method enumerated in the pre- ceding section. However, there are certain experimental difficulties. The earth’s mag- netic field induces an electromotive force in the disk, which is added vectorially to that resulting from the current. This difficulty has usually been minimized by making the axis of the disk perpendicular to the direc- tion of the earth’s field. In the Lorenz ap- paratus of the National Physical Labora- tory two rotating disks are mounted near the ends of a long shaft. The magnetic field produced in one disk by the current in one set of coils has the opposite direction from the field produced in the other disk by the current in another set of coils. The electro- motive forces induced by the current have opposite directions in the two disks, while those induced by the earth’s field have the same direction. Hence, the sum of the elec- tromotive forces in the two disks is inde- pendent of the earth’s field. Another diffi- culty encountered when using a single disk is the impracticability of making a connec- tion at the center of a disk, but this is avoided by using two disks. An unsolved difficulty results from the heating produced by the friction of the brushes on the rotat- ing disk. This introduces into the circuit of the balancing galvanometer thermal elec- tromotive forces at the brushes. These thermal electromotive forces are very er- ratic and may be as large as several micro- volts, while the induced electromotive forces may be only a thousand times as large. The erratic deflections of the bal- ancing galvanometer must be integrated over a period of several minutes in order to estimate the balance point that the gal- vanometer would have if thermal electro- motive forces were absent. This apparatus at the National Physical Laboratory was used by Smith in 1912 and by Vigoureux in 1936. Each claimed an accuracy of 20 ppm as the average of a large number of measure- ments. To improve on this accuracy, either the induced electromotive force would have to be increased or the thermal electro- motive forces decreased, without introduc- ing any other uncertainty. Fes. 15, 1942 2. METHODS EMPLOYING COM- MUTATED CURRENTS Commutated currents or electromotive forces may be used in connection with a mutual inductance, a self inductance, or the armature of an air-cored generator. In the Lippman method (B, IV, 1, b) the maxi- mum value of an induced electromotive force is employed, while in all the other methods the average value is used. The Lippman method has some of the features of the Lorenz method. The im- portant difference is that the electromotive force is induced in a rotating coil. This coil may have a number of turns, so that the induced electromotive force may be so large that thermal electromotive forces are of no importance. However, the dimensions of the coil while rotating must be accurately determined. This method has not been used for 50 years, but with modern apparatus it should give results of the highest accuracy. The methods that measure the average value of the commutated currents (B, IV, 1, a; B, V, 2; and B, VI, 2) or electromotive forces have the common difficulty that the current or electromotive force to be meas- ured is made unidirectional by a commu- tator that reverses the connections to the measuring apparatus when the current or electromotive force is exactly zero. The average value of the pulsating current or electromotive force resulting from the com- mutation must be compared with a con- stant current or electromotive force. Prob- ably this can be so well accomplished for all methods that employ commutated currents that each will give results of the highest accuracy. This has been definitely shown at the National Bureau of Standards by Wen- ner and associates for the method which uses a mutual inductance, but the details of the work have not yet been published. 3. METHODS EMPLOYING ALTER- NATING CURRENTS Alternating current methods have, in recent years, been employed with both mutual and self inductances. At present, more research work is being done to perfect CURTIS: ABSOLUTE DETERMINATION OF THE OHM 49 this class of methods than is the case with any other class. An important group in this class employs an intermediary capacitance which is used in an alternating current bridge with an inductance and also in a pulsating current bridge without the in- ductance. This requires that the capaci- tance have the same value in the two types of bridges. That this is a correct assumption for an air capacitor appears to be justified since measurements with different fre- quencies of alternating current and different rates of pulsation for the pulsating current give the same value of the inductance pro- vided the frequencies and the pulsations are so small that extraneous effects are negli- gible. Methods belonging to this group are being used at the Physicalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt of Germany, the Electro- technical Laboratory of Japan, and the National Bureau of Standards. Only two publications giving the details of the experi- mental procedure have appeared in the last decade. Both of these are by Curtis, Moon, and Sparks, of the National Bureau of Standards, who employed self inductances. The results obtained by using the three in- ductors described in their first paper showed discrepancies which apparently resulted from slight imperfections in the construc- tion of the inductance standards, although these standards gave evidence of being the equal of any that had been produced else- where. In the second paper, they describe a self inductor which has such uniform dimen- sions that the uncertainty in the computed inductance was much less than that for their previous inductors. The electrical measurements have been improved, so that the final result appears to be in error by only a few parts in a million. It seems prob- able that equally good results can be ob- tained with a mutual inductance, but Yoneda who is using one at the Electro- technical Laboratory has not yet published the details of his work. The method of Campbell (B, V, 3, b), which uses two mutual inductances (Fig. 1), requires a very stable frequency and an alternating current for which the wave form 50 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES is very nearly sinusoidal. In the form as originally proposed, some copper resist- ances have to be evaluated. Picard’s modi- fication avoids this difficulty, but requires the evaluation of both a self and a mutual inductance. In any case there are a number of correction terms depending on the re- sidual inductances of resistors and the ca- pacitances of each part of the apparatus to other parts and to earth. If the apparatus is suitably designed and properly operated, either modification of this method will give results of high accuracy. A determination was recently made at the National Physical Laboratory by Harts- horn and Astbury using Campbell’s origi- nal method. They estimate that the error in their electrical measurements is less than 5 ppm, while there is an uncertainty in the value of the computed inductance of their standard mutual inductor of 10 ppm. A de- termination using the Picard modification has recently been made at the Laboratoire Central d’Electricité by Jouaust, Picard, and Héron. They had so much difficulty in constructing their inductor and in making precise mechanical measurements upon it that their result is not of high accuracy. Wenner’s two-phase method (B, V, 3, d) also seems capable of giving results of high accuracy. It requires the simultaneous bal- ancing of two circuits. (See Fig. 2.) The wave form of the current in both phases must be nearly sinusoidal, the frequency constant, and the phase angle between the currents must be known. It is a promising method that has never been given an ex- perimental test. In Table 1 is given in chronological order a list of all the important results on the absolute ohm. All results have been re- duced, when necessary, to the length of the mercury column, 1 mm? in cross section and maintained at 0°C., which would give a resistance of one absolute ohm. This reduc- tion has been necessary for many of the results that were obtained between 1875 and 1885, when investigators usually gave the value of the B.A. unit in absolute ohms. These results have been converted to the VOL. 32, NO. 2 length of the standard mercury column by using the values obtained in contemporary measurements on the resistivity of mercury. Also the reduction has been required for all results obtained during the last two decades when investigators have expressed their re- sults in terms of the international ohm as maintained by their national laboratory. These results can readily be converted to mean international ohms as a result of the international comparisons that have been made at periodic intervals. The mean inter- national ohm is the mean of the units of the national laboratories. Hence, recent results have been reduced to the same basis as the earlier results by assuming that the mean international ohm is represented by a col- umn of mercury at 0°C., which has 1 mm? cross section’ and a length of 106.3000 cm. The bibliography included in this review has been prepared not only to give refer- ences to the different determinations but also to present the salient facts connected with the work. This paper is a historical study of an im- portant phase of physics. The question of the present relationship between the abso- lute ohm and international ohm has been intentionally omitted. The International Committee of Weights and Measures de- cided in 1939 that the most probable value of this relationship is 1 mean international ohm = 1.00048 absolute ohms. A more definite value will be promulgated by this committee when conditions war- rant. A committee of the National Research Council has under consideration the ques- tion of reeommending a value to be used in the United States. 4 The specifications for the mercury ohm as prepared by the Chicago Electrical Congress of 1893 give the mass of mercury instead of the cross section of the tube. This was adopted because the cross section is experimentally determined from the mass and density of the mercury and the length of the tube. By specifying mass, a knowl- edge of the density of mercury and of the cross section of the tube is not required. However, the Congress intended that the cross section of the tube should be 1 mm?. Fes. 15, 1942 CURTIS: ABSOLUTE DETERMINATION OF THE OHM 51 TABLE 1.—RESULTS OF ABSOLUTE DETERMINATIONS OF THE OHM Year 1849 1851 1862 1863 1864 1867 1870 1873 1877 1878 1881 1882 1882 1882 1883 1883 1884 1884 1884 1884 1884 1884 1884 1884 1885 1885 1885 1888 1889 1889 1890 Author Kirchhoff W. Weber W. Weber Maxwell, Stewart, Jenkin Maxwell, Stewart, Jenkin Joule Kohlrausch Lorenz H. F. Weber Rowland Rayleigh, Schuster Dorn Rayleigh H. Weber Glazebrook, Dodds, Sargent Rayleigh, Sidgwick Wiedemann ' H. F. Weber Himstedt Mascart, deNerville, and Benoit Roiti Wild Baille Rowland, Kimball Fletcher Lorenz Himstedt Kohlrausch Dorn Duncan, Wilkes, Hutchinson Wuilleumier Principle of method Displacement of a coil Earth inductor Damping of magnet Earth inductor Rotating coil in earth’s field As above Generation of heat Earth inductor Rotating disk Damping of magnet Mutual inductance with transient currents Generation of heat Mutual inductance, transient currents Rotating coil in earth’s field Damping of magnet Rotating coil in earth’s field Rotating coil in earth’s field Mutual inductance, transient currents Rotating disk Earth inductor Earth inductor Mutual inductance, commutated currents (Earth inductor ewe inductance transient currents Mutual inductance, commutated currents Damping of magnet Damping of magnet Mutual inductance, transient currents Rotating dise Generation of heat Rotating dise Mutual inductance commutated currents Damping of magnet Damping of magnet Rotating disk Commutating generator. Maximum electromo- tive force Results expressed in length of Hg column (em) having cross Number section of 1 mm? in chart uf Publish Deduced or ublished corrected 33}, JOUL, 140 133, 100, a 91 133, 1h, J 91 383, JO, i 98 B, II, 2,b 105.02 or 104.70 B, II, 2,b |} 104.56 104.86 A 105.91 133, JEL, al 102.9 13, JOY, 107.1 133, Il, i 104.79 iB; Vi L 104.67 A 104.71 Br Viel 105.7 1835 JUG, 2, 10) 105.8 1335 1G, 105.46 B, II, 2,b 106.23 183, JOC, B51) 106.14 1B, Wo 106.22 B, IV, 2 106.214 135 JUG, a 106.19 B, II, 1 105.31 18, Wo 2 105.98 B, II, 1 106.33 13, Wo 1 106.30 1B, Wy 2 105.896 B, I, 1 106.027 | 106.2 183, 1 al 105.7 1B We, a 106 .34 B, IV, 2 106.32 A 105.90 18}, JOY) & 105.93 B, V, 2 106.08 13%, It, a 106.32 1a}, Its a 106.248 | 106.245 Belv 2 106.34 B, IV, 1,b] 106.267 | 106.32 Remarks Results expressed in terms of re- sistivity of copper. | Result expressed in Jacobi’s units. Authors give magnitude of differ- ence from 1864 result but not sign. Results used to establish the B.A. unit. Corrected value by Jenkin in 1871. Results expressed as 1 unit =0.98953 ohm. B.A. A careful research. Result confirms that of B.A. Com- mittee. Results expressed as 1 B.A. ohm =0.9911 earth quadrant /sec. Author’s result 1 B.A. ohm =0.9893 earth quadrant /sec. Author’s result 1 B.A. unit =0.98651 earth quadrant /sec and 1 mereury unit =0.95418 B.A. unit. Result given as 1 B.A. unit =0.9877 ohm. Result given as 1 B.A. unit =0.98665 ohm. Also states 1 B.A. unit =0.98677 10-9 C.G:S. Authors state that result with mu- tual inductance is the more reli- able. Corrected by Dorn. Estimated results accurate to 1 per cent. ciseaaesie results. Results expressed as 1 B.A. unit =0.9104 earth quadrant /sec. A very careful determination. Cor- rection by author. Also state: 1 B.A. ohm. Corrected by Leduc. unit =0.9863 52 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 32, NO. 2 TABLE 1.—RESULTS OF ABSOLUTE DETERMINATIONS OF THE OnHM—Continued Year 1914 1920 1925 1936 1937 1937 1937 1938 1938 1939 1939 Results expressed in length of Hg column (em) having cross Author Principle of method Number section of 1 mm? Remarks in chart Deduced or Published Sorrectod Jones Rotating disk ByiVe2 106.307 Wiedemann Earth inductor Beet 106.265 | 106.249 Recomputed by Peter. Jones Rotating disk IB LV. 2 106.326 Estimates accuracy as 1 in 10,000. Himstedt Mutual inductance B, V, 2,a} 106.282 commutated currents Ayrton, Jones Rotating disk Beer 106.274 Result expressed as 1 Board of Trade ohm =1.00026 true ohms. Guillet Mutual inductance, IBY Vi; 22251) 106220 commutated currents Campbell Mutual inductance, sinusoidal currents Results in N.P.L. units. Author’s a. Two-phase B, V, 3, ¢ 106.327 estimate of error is 1 in 10,000. b. Intermediary con- | B, V, 3, a 106.329 Preliminary. denser Smith Rotating disk IB EVee2 106.245 Author’s estimate of error is 4 in 100,000. Griineisen, Giebe Self inductance, sinu- | B, VI, 3,a| 106.246 Result given is 1 int ohm =1.00051 soidal currents within- +0.00003 abs ohms termediary condenser Campbell Two mutual inductances | B, V, 3, b| 106.246 Author’s estimate of error is 1 in 10,000. Curtis, Moon, Sparks | Self inductance with in- | B, VI, 3,a 106.2519 | Result expressed as 1 NBS int termediary capaci- ohm ~1.000450 abs ohms. tance Vigoureux Rotating disk IBaiVeeo 106.2471 | Result expressed as 1 NPL int ohm =1.000495 abs ohms. Yoneda Mutual inductance with | B, V, 3, a 106.2506 | Result expressed as 1 ETL int intermediary capaci- ohm =1.000455 + 20 abs ohms. tance Hartshorn, Astbury | Two mutualinductances | B, V, 3, b 106.2464 | Result expressed as 1 NPL int in series ohm =1.000501 abs ohms. Jouaust, Picard, Two mutual inductances | B, V, 3, b 106.245 Result expressed as 1 LCE int Héron in series ohm =1.00052 abs ohms. Curtis, Moon, Sparks | Self inductance with in- | B, VI, 3,a 106.2488 | Result expressed as 1 NBS int termediary capaci- ohm =1.000479 abs ohms. tance Zickner Self inductance with in- | B, VI, 3,a 106.241 Result expressed as 1 PTR int termediary capaci- ohm =1.00051 abs ohms. tance Wenner, Thomas, Mutual inductance with | B, V, 2, b 106.2482 | Result expressed as 1 NBS int Cooter, Kotter commutated currents ohm =1.000485 abs ohms. BIBLIOGRAPHY ON ABSOLUTE OHM MEASUREMENTS (All titles are given in English) 1849. G. R. KircHHorr. Determination of the constant on which the intensity of the induced current depends. Ann. Phys. Chem. 76: 412. This is the first determination of a resist- unity if the unit of velocity is 1000 ft/sec and the unit of resistance is a copper wire of a square line cross section and a length of 0.434 inch.’”’ The Prussian/foot =31.4 em. 144 lines = 12 inches = 1 foot. 1851. WILHELM WEBER. ance in terms of mechanical units and per- meability. The primary purpose of the article was to determine the permeability of air in terms of the resistivity of copper. The final e equals Measurements of electrical resistance ac- cording to an absolute standard. Ann. Phys. Chem. 82: 337. (Translated in Phil. Mag. (4) 22: 226. 261, 1861.) conclusion was, ‘‘The constant Fes. 15, 1942 Outlined a complete system of electric units based on the mechanical units. Gave two methods for determining the absolute ohm; one the earth inductor rotating through 180° and the other the damping of a magnet. The two results agree to 0.3 per cent. Re- sults were given in Jacobi’s units and have been reduced to the length of a mercury col- umn by values given in 1864 B.A. Report. See complete reference below (1863-64). 1862. WILHELM WEBER. On electrical measurements. Abh. Math. Klasse Géttingen Ges. 10: 3. (Also printed separately under the title Zur Galvanometrie, Géttingen, 1862.) A very long article dealing with many phases of electrical measurements. States result on ohm (p. 58) as the Siemens stand- ard resistance =10257000 meter/second. If this refers to a Siemens Hinheit, then the length of the mercury column is 98 cms for an absolute ohm. The B.A. report of 1865 gives the value as 96. The author notes the unsatisfactory state of resistance standards. 1863-64. J. CLERK MAxwe.t, STEWART, and FLEMING JENKIN. Description of an experimental measure- ment of electrical resistance made at King’s College. Rep. British Assoc. 33: 163, 1863; 34: 345. 1864. (Also in Re- ports of the Committee on Electrical Standards of B.A. edited by F. E. Smith, pp. 140, 166.) | Results used to establish the B.A. unit of resistance. Individual results differ by sev- eral per cent. There was an uncertainty of 2 per cent in the mercury resistors then avail- able while the probable error of the 1864 result was only 0.1 per cent. £50/. J. P. JouULE. Determination of the dynamical equivalent of heat from the thermal effect of electric currents. Rep. British Assoc. 37: 474. (Also in Reports of Electrical Standards Committee of B.A. p. 256, 1913; edited by F. E. Smith.) Makes experiments with both mechanical and electrical calorimeter. Does not empha- size the result on the ohm. BALFOUR 1870. F. KoHLRAUSCH. Determination of the Siemens unit of re- sistance in absolute measure. Nachr. Ges. Wiss. Gottingen (abstract) 10: 513. (Also Ann. Phys. Chem., Erganzungs Band 6, p. 1, 1874; translation: Phil. Mag. (4) 47: 294, 342. 1874.) Uses the same apparatus as employed by W. Weber in 1862. Rowland, in Phil. Mag. (4) 50: 161. 1875, suggested a modification of the theory which might change the result by 2 per cent. CURTIS: ABSOLUTE DETERMINATION OF THE OHM 53 1873. L. LoRENz. The electrical resistivity of mercury in abso- lute measure. Ann. Phys. Chem. 149: 251. First use of the rotating disk as a homo- polar generator. The resistance measured, about 0.002 ohm, was too small to compare accurately with a mercury column 1 meter long. 1877. H. F. WEBER. Electromagnetic and calorimetric absolute measurements: The absolute value of Sie- mens unit of resistance in electromag- netic measure; the relation between cur- rent-work and the _ heat-evolution in stationary galvanic currents; and the ab- solute values of some constant hydroelec- tromotive forces in electromagnetic meas- ure. Natur. Ges. Zurich, Vierteljahrsschr. 22: 273. (Translation in Phil. Mag. (5) 5: 30, 127, 189. 1878.) Used three methods and concluded that all gave the same result. His value agreed with that of the B.A. Committee. 1878. Henry A. ROWLAND. Research on the absolute unit of resistance. Amer. Journ. Sci. 115: 281, 325, 430. (Also Collected Papers, p. 145.) First experimenter to show definitely that the B.A. unit was in error by more than 1 per cent. 1880. W. WEBER and F. ZOLLNER. An apparatus for use in absolute measure- ments in electrodynamics with practical applications. Ber. Sachs. Ges. Wiss. Math-Phys. Klasse 32: 77. Work interrupted by death of Zéllner. Completed in 1884 by G. Wiedemann. 1881. Lorp RAYLEIGH and A. SCHUSTER. Determination of the ohm in absolute meas- ure. Proc. Roy. Soc. 32: 104. Used the method employed by Maxwell, Stewart, and Jenkin, with much of their apparatus. Improved method of obtaining inductance of coil. Used water motor for driving coil. 1881. G. Carry Foster. Account of preliminary experiments on the determination of the ohm in absolute measure. British Assoc. Rep. 51: 428. (Also Reports of Committee on Electri- cal Standards, p. 296. 1913; Electrician 7: 266. 1881.) Described a method in which the electro- motive force induced in a coil rotating in the earth’s field is balanced against the fall of potential of a known current in the resistance to be measured. Preliminary results check B.A. ohm. 54 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 1882. Lorp RAYLEIGH. Experiments to determine the value of the British Association unit of resistance in absolute measure. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 173. (pte 2): 766. Used same method as in previous experi- ment but constructed new apparatus. Gave value in B.A. units. To convert to mercury column, see Rayleigh and Sidgwick on the Specific Resistance of Mercury, Proc. Roy. Soc. 34: p. 27. 1882. 1882. G. LIPPMAN. The methods to be employed for the deter- mination of the ohm. Journ. Physique (@)) 305 asila}. Proposed a method for balancing the maxi- mum electromotive force of a continuously rotating earth inductor against the fall in potential in a resistance produced by a meas- ured current. No results. 1882. J. JOUBERT. Method for determination of the ohm. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. 94: 1519. Suggested a method in which (1) the ef- fective electromotive force induced in a coil rotating in the earth’s field is measured by an electrometer, and (2) the drop in potential over a resistance through which a known current is flowing is measured by the same electrometer. No results. 1882. HEINRICH WEBER. The rotation inductor, its theory and its use for the determination of the ohm in abso- lute measure. (Published in book form by Teubner, Leipzig, 1882, translated in Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 174 (pt. 1): 223. 1883.) Used a rotating coil in the earth’s field with axis horizontal. 1882. E. Dorn. The determination of the Siemens unit im absolute measure. Ann. Phys. Chem. 253: U3: Use a method that depended on the damping of a magnet. 1882. A. RorTt. Method for the determination of the ohm. Atti. Ace. Sei. Torino 17: 588. (Also Nuovo Cimento 12: 60. 1882.) Outlined method for using a commutated current with a mutual inductance. No result. 1883. R. T. GuazeBrook, J. M. Donpps, and K. B. SARGENT. Value of the British Association unit of resistance. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 174 (pt. 1): 223. Worked under direction of Lord Rayleigh. VOL. 32, No. 2 1883. Lorp RAYLEIGH and Mrs. H. Sipewick. Experiments, by the method of Lorenz, for the further determination of the absolute value of the British Association unit of resistance. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soe. 174 (pt. 1): 295. (Abstract in Proc. Roy. Soc. 34: 4388. 1883.) This research was very carefully planned and skillfully executed. 1883. M. Brintuouin. Methods for the determination of the ohm. Comp. Rend. Acad. Sci. 96: 190. Suggested the use of alternating currents in connection with a mutual inductance. No results. 1883. J. FROELICH. On the determination of the ohm by dynami- cal methods. Ann. Phys. Chem. 255: 106. Gave a rough outline of a method that in- volves the rotation of one coil with respect to another. The important contribution is a formula for computing mutual inductance. 1884. G. WIEDEMANN. On the determination of the ohm. Abh. Berlin Akad., Phys. Kl., 3: 75. Lumiére Electrique 12: 419. Continued work of Weber and Zdllner (1880), which was interrupted by Zdéllner’s death. Value of 106.265 cm of mercury given in Abh. Berlin Akad. Corrected to 106.19 in Lumiére Electrique. 1884. H. F. WEBER. The absolute value of the Siemens mercury unit and the magnitude of the ohm in terms of a mercury column. (Published in book form by Zurcher & Furrer of Zurich.) Observed ballistic throw of a tangent galvanometer produced by the rotation of an earth inductor through 180°. 1884. F. HImMstTepT. On a method for determining the ohm. Ann. Phys. Chem. 258: 281. Published a method of using a mutual in- — ductance with commutated currents but gave no result on the ohm. Fundamental principle same as that of Roiti. 1884. M. Mascart, F. p—E NERVILLE, and R. BENOIT. Determination of the ohm and its value in terms of a column of mercury. Ann. Phys. ° Chem. (6) 6: 5. (Abstract in Journ. Physique (2) 3: 230. 1884.) Used two methods: One an earth inductor with galvanometer and the other a variable mutual inductor substituted for the earth inductor. Fes. 15, 1942 1884. A. Rorrtt. Determination of the electrical resistance of a wire in absolute measure; preluminary note. Nuova Cim. (3) 15: 97. (Also Atti Acecad. Sci. Turino 19: 643. 1884.) Used a mutual inductance with com- mutated current. 1884. G. MENGARINI. Method for the determination of the ohm in absolute measure. Atti Accad. Lincei (3) 8: 318. Proposed a method by which the resistance of a horizontal coil may be measured from the decrease in acceleration of a magnet falling through the coil and the electrical energy induced in the coil. No results. 1884. H. WIL. Determination of the value of the Siemens unit of resistance in absolute electromag- netic units. Ann. Phys. Chem. 259: 665. (Original publication in Trans. St. Petersburg Acad.) Original Value of 106.027 later corrected by per (Ann. Phys. Chem. 271: 273. 1888) O a2. 1884. J. B. Barun. On the determination of the ohm by the method of the damping of a moving mag- net. Ann. Télégr. 11: 89, 131. 1884. H. A. Rowxanp and A. S. KImBALu. Report in Philadelphia Electrical Con- gress, p. 41. 1884; Electrical World 6: 27. 1885. Reporter’s account of Rowland’s paper before the British Association in La Lumiére Electrique 26: 188. 1887. Second article re- printed in Rowland’s Collected Works, p. 239. A personal letter from one of Rowland’s assistants stated that, in disassembling the apparatus, Rowland discovered two pieces ot iron in the frames on which the coils were wound. That made him uncertain as to the results, so that only preliminary values have been published. 1885. L. B. FuetcHer. A determination of the B.A. unit in terms of the mechanical equivalent of heat. Phil. ae (5) 20: 1; Amer. Journ. Sci. 130: 7 Work done at Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md., using Rowland’s value of the mechanical equivalent of heat. 1885. L. Lorenz. Determination of the electrical resistance of a mercury column in absolute electromag- netic units. Ann. Phys. Chem. 261: 1. Gave more attention to the mercury ohm | than to the absolute measurement. CURTIS: ABSOLUTE DETERMINATION OF THE OHM 55 1885. F. HimstTept. A determination of the ohm. Ann. Phys. Chem. 262: 547. (Translation in Phil. Mag. (5) 20: 417. 1885; Sitz. Ber. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, pt. 2; 753. 1885. Correc- tions in Ann. Phys. Chem. 264: 338, 1886; 267: 617. 1887.) Used same method as in 1884. Value of 105.98 finally corrected to 106.08. 1888. F. KoHLRAUSCH. On the electrical resistivity of mercury. Ann. Phys. Chem. 271: 700. (Also Collected Works, vol. 1, p. 773.) A very elaborate set of experiments giving considerable attention to the mercury ohm. 1889. E. Dorn. A determination of the ohm. Ann. Phys. Chem. 272: 22, 398. A very elaborate determination with ob- servations running over more than a year. Compared resistances with the mercury ohm of Kohlrausch. 1889. L. Duncan, G. WiILkzEs, and C. T. HUTCHINSON. A determination of the value of the B.A. unit of resistance in absolute measure by the method of Lorenz. Phil. Mag. (5) 28: 98. Used Rowland’s apparatus. Result in B.A. units and in terms of the mercury column as obtained from work of Hutchinson and Wilkes, Phil. Mag. (5) 28: 17. 1889. 1890. M. H. WuILLEuMIER. Determination of the ohm by the electrody- namic method of M. Lippman. Journ. Phys. 9: 220. Rotated a coil inside a long solenoid, com- paring the maximum induced electromotive force with the drop in potential over a re- sistance in series with the solenoid. Leduc (Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. 118: 1246. 1894) corrected result for finite length of solenoid. 1890. J. V. JoNnzEs. On the determination of the specific re- sistance of mercury in absolute measure. Phil. Trans. 182: 1. Mercury contained in a paraffin trough. Method of rotating disk used for resistance measurements. 1891. G. WIEDEMANN. On the determination of the ohm. Ann. Phys. Chem. 278: 227, 425. Completion of the work of W. Weber and Zoéllner for which there was a first report in 1884. Peter (Ber. Versich. Akad. Wiss. Leipzig, Math.-phys. Kl., 46: 139. 1894) corrected result by considering finite cross section of coil of tangent galvanometer. 56 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 1894. J. V. JONES. On the determination of the international ohm in absolute measure. Rep. British Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1894, p. 123. (Also Rep. Comm. of B.A. on Electrical Standards, p. 489, 1913.) Used same apparatus as in 1890. 1895. F. HIMSTEDT. On an absolute resistance measurement. Ann. Phys. Chem. 290: 305. Used a mutual inductance with commu- tated currents. Measured primary and sec- ondary currents by a tangent galvanometer. The mutual inductance consisted of a coil within a solenoid. Employed two solenoids and several coils. Results vary by a few parts in 10,000. : 1897. W. E. Ayrton and J. V. JoNES. On a determination of the ohm made 1n test- ing the Lorenz apparatus of the McGull Unwersity, Montreal. Rep. British As- soc. Adv. Sci., 1897, p. 212. (Also Rep. Comm. of B.A. on Electrical Standards, po07 2191S.) Result expressed in Board of Trade ohms; was later reduced to mercury ohm by F. E. Smith (Coll. Res. of NPL 11: 209. 1914. — Reduction on p. 217). 1899. A. GUILLET. Direct determination of an absolute kilohm. Journ. Physique (3) 8: 471. Commutated currents were used with a mutual inductance and differential galvano- meter. Apparatus poorly described. 1908. E. B. Rosa. A new method for the absolute measurement of resistance. Bull. Bur. Standards 5: 499, Gave theory of a method using a com- mutating generator. No results. 1912. ALBERT CAMPBELL. On the determination of the absolute unit of resistance by alternating current methods. Proc. Roy. Soc. London 87: 391. Used mutual inductance with two differ- ent methods, (1) two-phase measured cur- rents, and (2) intermediary condenser. Pur- pose was to investigate methods rather than obtain an exact result. 1914. F. E. Suirs. Absolute measurement of a resistance by a method based on that of Lorenz. Phil. Trans. Roy. Sci. 214-A: 27; NPL Coll. Res. 9: p. 209. This determination, made at the National Physical Laboratory, is more precise than any that preceded it. Every source of error VOL. 32, NO. 2 was checked. Almost simultaneously (see Report of National Physical Laboratory for 1912, p. 39) a comparison of the resistance eas used was made with the mercury ohm. 1920. E. GRUNEISEN and E. GIEBE. A new determination of the absolute unit of electrical resistance. Wiss. Abh. P.T.R. Charlottenburg 5: 1. 1921. (Abbreviated article in Ann. Phys. 368: 179. 1920.) A determination using self inductance and alternating current. Accuracy compares with that of Smith. Measurements completed in 1914, but publication delayed by war. A direct comparison was made with Smith’s resistance standards. Result showed that the error of a mercury ohm determination is of the same order as the error in an absolute determination. 1925. A. CAMPBELL. On the determination of resistance in terms of mutual inductance. Proc. Roy. Soe. London 107: 310. Simple experiments to test feasibility of the method that employs two mutual in- ductances in series. 1936. H. L. Curtis, C. Moon, and C. M. SPARKS. An absolute determination of the ohm. Journ. Res. Nat. Bur. Standards 16: 1. Three different self inductors were used. 1937. J. E. P. L. VigourEux. Determination of the ohm by the method of Lorenz. Coll. Res. NPL 24: 209. 1936-7. Used apparatus described by F. E. Smith (1914) but remeasured the mechanical di- mensions. 1937. RINKICHI YONEDA. Absolute determination of electrical resist- ance. Proc. Verb. Comm. Int. Poids et Mes. (2) 18: 178. Used alternating currents with a mutual inductance. An intermediary capacitance was employed. 1937. L. HartsHorn and N. F. Astsury. The absolute measurement of resistance by the method of Albert Campbell. Phil. Trans. Roy. Sci. 236A: 423. An extremely careful determination. Esti- mated uncertainty is 5 ppm for the electrical measurements and 10 ppm for the value of the computed inductance. There are numer- ous small corrections. 1938. R. Jouaust, M. Picarp, and R. Héron. Determination of the unit of resistance in the CGS electromagnetic system. Bull. Soc. Franc. Elec. (5) 8: 1. Fes. 15, 1942 An extensive investigation, but the ap- paratus available gave results accurate only to parts in a hundred thousand. Used Pic- eard’s modification of Campbell’s method (Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. 189: 125. 1929). 1938. H. L. Curtis, C. Moon, and C. M. SPARKS. A determination of the absolute ohm, using an wmproved self inductor. Journ. Res. Nat. Bur. Standards 21: 375. Used a self inductor of superior construc- tion. 1939. G. ZICKNER. On the condition of the experiments for the determination of the international ohm in absolute units. MS. Report to the In- ternational Committee of Weights and Measures. Not yet published. ALICATA: TRANSMISSION OF ENDEMIC TYPHUS FEVER 57 1939. F. Wenner, J. L. THomas, I. L. Cooter, and F. R. Korrer. Prelaminary report on the absolute measure- ment of a resistance based on the reversal of a direct current in a mutual inductance. A report sent to the International Com- mittee of Weights and Measures in December, 1938. Apparatus not described. 1940. H. L. Curtis and L. W. Hartman. A dual bridge for the measurement of self inductance wn terms of resistance and time. Journ. Res. Nat. Bur. Standards 25 ule An experimental test of the method for using commutated currents with a self inductance. MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY.—Exzperimental transmission of endemic typhus fever by the sticktight flea, Echidnophaga gallinacea.! JOSEPH E. ALICATA, Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Hawaii. In 1931, Dyer, Rumreich, and Badger (1, 2) first demonstrated the natural infec- tion of the rat fleas Xenopsylla cheopis and Ceratophyllus fasciatus with endemic ty- phus. The fleas were collected from wild rats trapped at typhus foci in Baltimore, Md., and Savannah, Ga. In 1931 and 1932 Dyer (3, 4) and collaborators were also able to demonstrate experimentally the suscepti- bility of these fleas to endemic typhus. In 1932, Mooser and Castaneda (5) reported experimental transmission of this disease by the following fleas: Leptopsylla muscult, Ctenocephalus (=Ctenocephalides) felis, C. canis, and Pulex irritans. Blanc and Bal- tazard (6) also reported P. irritans as a carrier of endemic typhus. In 1933 Work- mann (7) reported the experimental trans- mission of endemic typhus by Xenopsylla astia. 1 Published with the approval of the director as Technical Paper No. 93, Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station. This study has been con- ducted through special funds appropriated by the Public Health Committee, Chamber of Com- merce of Honolulu. Received October 6, 1941. The writer is indebted to Drs. R. E. Dyer and N. H. Topping, of the National Institute of Health, U. 8. Public Health Service, Washington, D. C., for supplying the Wilmington strain of endemic typhus used in the experiments reported in this paper. Acknowledgment is made also to Dr. R. D. Lillie, of the National Institute of Health, for the histological examination of the ’ brain of one of the experimental animals. The present paper deals with the experi- mental transmission of endemic typhus by the sticktight flea E'chidnophaga gallinacea. So far as is known to the writer, the sus- ceptibility of this flea to endemic typhus has not previously been reported.” The find- ing is of considerable interest in the Ha- waiian Islands since the flea is of common occurrence on rats as well as on dogs, cats, mongooses, and chickens. According to a survey conducted by Eskey (8), H#. galli- nacea has been found on 13 percent of the rats trapped in the city of Honolulu. This flea frequently infests rats in large number, Eskey having shown that about 52 percent of the fleas collected on rats of the island of Oahu were found to be sticktight fleas. EXPERIMENTAL DATA On April 12, 1941, about 150 sticktight fleas were obtained from the ears of a dog in Honolulu. In order to be assured of ab- sence of natural infection, 50 fleas were emulsified in physiological saline solution 2 After this paper was sent to the editor, the writer noted a recent publication by Dr. G. D. Brigham (Pub. Health Rep. 56(86): 1803-1804. Sept. 5, 1941) reporting the recovery of typhus virus from sticktight fleas (EZ. gallinacea) removed from two rats collected in Georgia. This report adds to the public health importance of these fleas. 58 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES and injected intraperitoneally into two guinea pigs. Neither of these animals de- veloped any signs of typhus fever during a period of two weeks, nor was either found immune following experimental inoculation with a known endemic typhus virus (Wil- mington strain) obtained from National Institute of Health, U. 8. Public Health Service. The remaining fleas were placed on the body of a white rat freshly inoculated VOL. 32, NO. 2 were placed into a small test tube overnight. The following morning the fleas and eggs were removed from the test tube, and all the feces of the fleas found adhering to the walls of the test tube were taken up in saline solution and inoculated intraperi- toneally into a male guinea pig (No. 53). At the same time all the fleas were emulsi- fied in saline solution and inoculated intra- peritoneally into a male guinea pig (No. 54). 4—Days-i 2 Guinea pig 53 k lnvolvement Guinea Pig 68 Scrofa/ involvement A k (Shaded areas denote fever ) thvolverment’ Fresh guinea pig 113 Scrofa/ srvolyernent A Fig. 1.—Cross immunity test: Daily temperature records of (A) guinea pigs inoculated with virus recovered from the sticktight fleas; (B) guinea pigs inoculated with the known strain). with 2.5 cc of testicular washings from a guinea pig experimentally infected with the Wilmington strain of endemic typhus. Two guinea-pig controls, injected with the same inoculation, developed typical fever and scrotal reaction. Most of the fleas that were placed on the rat attached themselves in a short time to various parts of the body particularly around the ears, eyes, and face. Thirteen days after the experimental infestation the rat was killed by a blow on the head, and 82 fleas were carefully removed. These fleas endemic typhus virus (Wilmington A few days after these inoculations, both guinea pigs developed clinical typhus. Guinea pig 53 was later found to be im- mune when inoculated with the Wilmington strain of endemic typhus (Fig. 1). Guinea pig 54 (first generation) was killed on the second day of fever and testicular involve- ment, and testicular washings from this animal were inoculated into guinea pig 57 (second generation). From this animal the strain was passed to three guinea pigs, 68, 69, and 70 (third generation), and later the strain was passed from guinea pig 69 to Fes. 15, 1942 guinea pig 97 (fourth generation). All the guinea pigs involved in the passage of the virus developed clinical endemic typhus. One of the animals (No. 68) of the third generation was then tested for suscepti- bility to endemic typhus and was found immune. Blood cultures made from the guinea pigs were uniformly negative. Scrap- ings from the tunica vaginalis of these ani- mals also revealed intracellular rickettsial bodies. 39 Serofa/ /avolvernen? _ (Shaded areas denote fever ) ALICATA: TRANSMISSION OF ENDEMIC TYPHUS FEVER 59 “4 Days ~ no agglutination in any dilution; second week, complete agglutination (four plus) in the 1:10 and 1:20 dilutions and partial (two plus) in the 1:40 dilution. Third week, complete agglutination in 1:10, partial (two plus) in 1:20, and traces (one plus) in 1:40. Fourth week, complete agglutination (three plus) in 1:10 and traces (one plus) in 1:20. The brain of one of the guinea pigs (No. 70) reported in these experiments was sub- mitted to Dr. R. D. Lillie, of the National Fresh guinea pig 68 Serota/ 17 Vehenina K Fresh guinea pig 69 Scrota/ 4 iavoherrent Fresh guinea pig 70 Scrofa/ Involyement _Fig. 2.—Cross immunity test: Daily temperature records of (A) guinea pig inoculated with the known endemic typhus virus (Wilmington strain); (B) guinea pigs inoculated with the virus recovered from the sticktight fleas. As indicated in Figs. 1 and 2, cross-im- munity tests were found to be complete between the flea strain of virus and that of the known endemic typhus (Wilmington strain). A rabbit was inoculated with testicular washings from guinea pig 97 infested with the flea strain of virus. The rabbit was tested at weekly intervals for the presence of B. proteus OXi agglutinins in the serum, and the following results were obtained: Just before inoculation and one week later, Institute of Health, Washington, D. C., for histological examination. Sections from this brain revealed lesions which in type and distribution were consistent with typhus infection. SUMMARY The virus of endemic typhus (Wilming- ton strain) has been successfully transferred to sticktight fleas as a result of allowing the fleas to feed on an experimentally infected 60 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES rat. An emulsion of the feces of these fleas and an emulsion of the body of these fleas produced clinical typhus when inoculated into guinea pigs. Clear cut cross-immunity has been shown in guinea pigs inoculated with the virus from the fleas and with a known endemic typhus virus (Wilmington strain). Histological examination of the brain of one of the guinea pigs inoculated with the strain of virus recovered from the fleas re- vealed characteristic lesions of typhus fever. Agglutinins for B. proteus OX: 9 were demonstrated in the serum of a rabbit inoculated with the strain of virus recovered from the fleas. VOL. 32, NO. 2 LITERATURE CITED 1. Dyrr, R. E., Rumretcu, A., and BapGEr, L. F. Publ. Health Rep. 46: 334. 1931. 2. Dyrr, R. E., Rumreicn, A., and BADGER, L. F. Journ. Amer. Med. Assoc. 97: 589. 1931. 3. Dyer, R. E., Cenar, Eo Tiere RumreticuH, A., and Bapcer, L. F. Publ. Health Rep. 46: 2481. 1931. 4. Dysr, R. E., Worxmann, W. G., BADGER, L. F., and Rumreicu, A. Publ. Health Rep. 47: 931. 1932. 5. Mooser, H., and Castanepa, M.R. Journ. Exp. Med. 55: 307. 1932. 6. Buanc, G., and BautTazarp, M. Compt. Rend. Soc. Biol. 124: 1058. 1937. 7. WorKMANN, W.G. Publ. Health Rep. 48: (ORY ISB EY j 8. Eskny, C. R. Publ. Health Bull. 213, 70 pp. 1934. ZOOLOGY .—Description of a new genus and species of copepod parasitic in a ship- worm. CHARLES BRANCH WILSON, State Teachers College, Westfield, Mass.' (Communicated by Waupo L. ScHMITT.) So far as known, the first internal cope- pod parasites reported from the shipworm, Teredo, are some that were discovered by Dr. C. H. Edmondson, of the University of Hawaii, in the course of a study of ship- worms taken from Honolulu Harbor. In view of the large number of Teredos that have been handled in the course of many studies of these destructive mollusks, the copepod parasite here described can not be very common or it would have been found before. Concerning its occurrence, Dr. Ed- mondson has written me as follows: “The copepod was first observed during the fall of 1939, when fully 75 percent of the specimens of Teredo millert Dall, Bartsch, and Rehder, 1938 (B. P. Bishop Mus. Bull. 153: 209, 210) over 30 mm in length re- covered from Honolulu Harbor were found to be parasitized. The parasite has appeared in shipworms at three additional localities about Oahu, and also in Hilo Harbor, Hawaii, and at Kahului, Maui. “Six shipworms, five species of Teredo and one of Bankia, in Hawaiian waters are known to serve as hosts of the parasite. 1 Dr. Wilson completed this paper some months before his death on August 18, 1941. Received October 28, 1941. “The female clings tightly to the lining of the infrabranchial cavity of the host by means of stout, sharp mouthparts, while the male is likely to be unattached in the cavity and when released from the host is capable of swimming quite freely. Because of the greatly inflated body the female is capable of but slight movement when detached from the shipworm.” Teredicola, new genus? Diagnosis—Female: First three thoracic seg- ments enlarged and fused with the head into a cylindrical body. Fourth and fifth segments abruptly reduced in length and width; genital segment about as large as the fifth segment; abdomen 3-segmented; caudal rami slender rods, each tipped with two setae. Ovisacs as long as the enlarged anterior body; eggs minute and numerous. Male: Much smaller than the female, first segment only fused with the head, the others free. The first four segments with lateral plates diminishing in size backward. Abdomen 4-seg- mented, segments about equal in size. First antennae 6-segmented; second antennae 2- segmented, prehensile; maxilliped one stout 2 Dr. Wilson did not specify the family for this genus, but in correspondence with Dr. son he mentioned that it “evidently belongs to the family Clausidiidae which includes many of the Cyclopoida that infest annelids and mol- lusks.”—W.L.S. dmond- | Fes. 15, 1942 a segment tipped with a claw. Two pairs of swimming legs biramose, rami equal and 2-seg- mented. Genotype.—Teredicola typica. Teredicola typica, new species Fig. 1, a-h Description —Female: First three thoracic segments more or less fused with the head and with one another to form a cylindrical body a little more than twice as long as wide. Fourth and fifth segments reduced to a third of the width of the first and second segments, the fifth segment twice as long as the fourth. Geni- tal segment about the same size as the fifth WILSON: A NEW COPEPOD PARASITIC IN A SHIPWORM 61 ¢ h Fig. 1.—Teredicola typica, new species: a, Dorsal view of female; b, first antenna of female; c, second antenna of female; d, maxilliped of female; e, f, first and second legs of female; g, dorsal view of male; h, first antenna of male. segment and subspherical in form. Abdomen 3-segmented, the first and third segments about the same width and length, the second segment shorter and a trifle narrower. Caudal rami nar- row cylindrical, as long as the anal segment and widely divergent, each with two terminal setae as long as the ramus itself. First antennae 6-segmented, the two basal segments considerably widened, the third seg- ment the longest and the fifth segment the shortest, all except the basal segment bearing setae. The second maxilla and maxilliped are each made up of a single stout segment tipped with a strong claw, the one on the maxilla acute and curved into a semicircle, the one on the maxilliped blunt and nearly straight. Two 62 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES pairs of biramose swimming legs, the rami 2- segmented and of approximately the same length. Each end segment is armed with many setae of different lengths; each basal exopod segment has two small setae at its outer distal corner, while the basal endopod segments are unarmed. Total length 4.43 mm. Enlarged cylindrical body 3.20 mm long, 1.50 mm wide. Male: Much smaller than the female, the body made up of ten segments, the first three considerably widened, the remaining seven reg- ularly tapering a little backward. The head is fused with the first thoracic segment, which carries a lateral plate or lamella on each side. The next three segments also carry lateral plates diminishing in size to become mere knobs on the fourth segment. The fifth seg- ment, genital segment, and the four abdominal VOL. 32, NO. 2 segments have convex lateral margins and dif- fer but little in length. The caudal rami are like those of the female except that each has four terminal setae, the two outer ones very short, the middle ones as long as the ramus. The first antennae arise from the dorsal sur- face of the head close to the anterior margin and are strongly curved backward. The mouth- parts and swimming legs are like those of the female. Total length 2.35 mm. Width of first seg- ment, including wings, 1 mm. Material examined.—A dozen specimens, in- cluding both sexes, were taken from the body cavities of Teredos in Honolulu Harbor, Oahu, Hawai, by Dr. C. H. Edmondson. A single male and a female have been selected to serve as types of the new genus and species and have been given U.S.N.M. no. 79639. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND ee SOCIETIES THE ACADEMY 371ST MEETING OF THE BOARD OF MANAGERS The 371st meeting of the Board of Managers was held in the Library of the Cosmos Club on Friday, December 5, 1941. President CLarK called the meeting to order at 8:07 p.m. with 19 persons present, as follows: A. H. Cuark, F. D. Rossini, N. R. Smita, W. W. Diu, J. H. Kempton, J. H. Hipsen, F. C. KRacex, JecheeGrar Hea HOB MRIS weies ere Gr. BRICKWEDDE, R. M. Hann, M. C. MERRILL, W. A. Dayton, H. L. Curtis, W. RaMBERG, and, by invitation, R. J. Smecer, G. A. Coopmr, J. M. Coopzr, and H. G. Dorsey. The minutes of the 370th meeting were read and approved. President CLARK announced the following appointments: Committee of Tellers, L. B. TUCKERMAN (chairman), R. W. Brown, and GEORGE TUNELL; Committee of Auditors, P. A. SmiruH (chairman), H. G. Avers, and C. H. Swick. Chairman GARNER of the Committee on Meetings reported that the December meeting of the Academy would be held in the Audi- torium of the U.S. National Museum. The Board considered individually and duly elected to membership the seven persons (six resident and one nonresident) whose nomina- tions had been presented on November 7, 1941. The Committee to consider the policy for future editions of the Directory, H. L. Curtis (chairman), F. C. Kracrex, L. W. Parr, and F. H. H. Roperts, Jr., presented a report carrying the following recommendations: (a) The Academy shall continue the estab- lished practice of publishing the Directory bi- ennially. (b) As soon as possible after January 1, 1942, and every year thereafter, there shall be published an addendum to the Directory, giv- ing the officers of the Academy and of the af- filiated societies for the calendar year. It will not be necessary to include the officers of cer- tain societies that change in the middle of the year. The format for publishing these adden- da should be at the discretion of the Secretary and Treasurer. (c) In future editions of the Directory, there shall be reserved space for the officers of the two following years. This space, for each so- ciety, shall come directly under the list of officers and shall have printed across it “Re- served for officers for 1944, etc.” (d) The publication of the Directory shall be entrusted to the Secretary and Treasurer. The Board approved this report, with the insertion of ‘‘and new members of the Acad- emy”’ at the end of the first sentence in part (b). It was further moved and carried that these addenda be supplied to all members of the Academy and to all purchasers of the Directory. Fes. 15, 1942 The committees on awards for scientific achievement for 1941, J. M. Coopmr, General Chairman, reported that the work was com- pleted. For the committee on the biological sciences, Chairman J. M. Cooprr recom- mended that the award for 1941 be presented to G. ARTHUR CoopER, of the U. S. National Museum. For the committee on the engineer- ing sciences, Chairman H. G. Dorsny recom- mended that the award for 1941 be presented to THEODORE R. GILLILAND, of the National Bureau of Standards. For the committee on the physical sciences, W. E. Drmina, chair- man, President CuLAarkK reported a recom- mendation that the award for 1941 be pre- sented to STerLInc B. HeENpricks, of the U. S. Bureau of Plant Industry. On request of the Secretary, the Treasurer was authorized to increase the allotment for the office of the Secretary by the amount of $49.85 for the year 1941. The Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications, W. W. Diput, reported that the situation with regard to back volumes of the JOURNAL was vastly improved and that there were now on hand seven complete sets and one set lacking but six single numbers, and that to date three complete sets of the Jour- NAL have been sold. Adjournment was made at 9:07 P.M. 308TH MEETING OF THE ACADEMY The 308th meeting of the Academy was held jointly with the Washington Section of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers in the Auditorium of the U. 8. National Museum at 8:15 p.m. on Thursday, December 18, 1941, with H. L. Curtis, Vice President of the Academy, representing the Washington Sec- tion of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, presiding. Kart B. McEacuron, research engineer in charge of the High Voltage Engineering Laboratory of the General Elec- tric Company at Pittsfield, Mass., delivered an illustrated address entitled Lightning. Dr. McEacuron told the story of researches on lightning and described the production of lightning artificially, the photographing of natural lightning, the effects of lightning dis- charges as a function of location and their rela- tion to old superstitions and beliefs, and the investigation of a number of so-called “pranks”’ PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 63 of lightning. He disclosed that deaths from lightning have averaged 390 annually for this country since 1924, just a little more than attacks from animals and only a tiny fraction of the deaths caused by automobiles; that the real danger of lightning is to property; that office buildings and factory buildings offer ex- cellent protection to their occupants; that sub- urban homes are not so likely to be struck as isolated buildings on a farm; that the ordinary lightning flash seen by the observer is not a brilliant bolt from the sky, but rather the union of a cloud streamer with another streamer from the earth; that lightning may strike many times in the same place, as it has on the top of the Empire State Building in New York City; that lightning rods do not keep lightning away but serve to attract the electrical dis- charge and to lead it safely to the ground; that every flash of lightning is not accompanied by a clap of thunder; and that thunder is the re- sult of a pressure wave caused by the sudden expansion of air created by a quick lightning discharge. There were about 175 persons present. The meeting adjourned at 10:15 p.m. NEW MEMBERS The following persons were recently elected to membership: ERNEST GOLSAN Hott, chief of the Wildlife Management Section, U. 8. Soil Conservation Service, in recognition of his biological and ornithological investigations and, more re- cently, his contributions to wildlife manage- ment. HERBERT Lupwic JAcoB HALLER, principal chemist, Division of Insecticide Investigations, U.S. Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quaran- tine, in recognition of his contributions in the field of insecticidal chemistry, particularly with regard to pyrethrum flowers. Mitton Harris, director of the Textile Foundation Research Associateship at the National Bureau of Standards, in recognition of his work on the chemical and physical structure of the textile fibers, wool, silk, cot- ton, and rayon. Mario Mo.uuart, professor and director of the Department of Bacteriology and Pre- ventive Medicine, Georgetown University, in 64 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES recognition of his work on the diseases of man caused by fungi and bacteria. JACINTO STEINHARDT, physical chemist on the Textile Foundation Research Associateship at the National Bureau of Standards, in recog- nition of his studies on the chemical structure of the wool molecule. FREDERICK LOVEJOY WELLMAN, associate pathologist, U. S. Bureau of Plant Industry, in recognition of his contributions in plant pathology and in particular his researches on club root of crucifers, banana wilt, and tomato wilt. HaLtBerT Marion Harris, associate pro- fessor of entomology, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa, in recognition of his work in the field of systematic entomology, in particular in the classification of the Hemiptera. JOSEF PIKu, research chemist, E. I. DuPont de Nemours & Co., Wilmington, Del., in recognition of his contributions to the chem- istry of the compounds of the indol series. HERBERT HoLpsworTH Ross, systematic entomologist, Illinois State Natural History Survey, Department of Education, Urbana, Ill., in recognition of his work in insect taxon- omy, with special reference to the classification of the sawflies and caddisflies. Harry AARON Bricut, chief of the Section on Metal and Ore Analysis and Standard Samples, National Bureau of Standards, in recognition of his work in metallurgical analysis. REGINA FLANNERY, research associate, De- partment of Anthropology, Catholic Univer- sity of America, in recognition of her contri- butions to the anthropology of the Algonquian peoples, especially the northeastern and east- ern. Wiii1amM McKINLEY GAFAFER, senior statis- tician, National Institute of Health, in recog- nition of his statistical investigations in the field of public health, and his studies in medi- cal history. Gustav Ernst FREDERICK LUNDELL, chief VOL. 32, NO. 2 of the Division of Chemistry, National Bureau of Standards, in recognition of his work in in- organic analytical chemistry. PauL SALMON RO.uueER, physical chemist, Eastern Experiment Station, U. 8. Bureau of Mines, in recognition of his contributions to the physical chemistry of nonmetallic minerals, especially with reference to the properties of fine particulate matter and the measurement of these properties. Lewis Witi1aM Butz, biochemist, U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry, in recognition of his work in organic chemistry and biochem- istry, and in particular that on diene syntheses of condensed ring systems related to the steroids. JoHN PuTNAM MARBLE, research associate in geochemistry, National Research Council, in recognition of his contributions to mineral analysis, with particular reference to the esti- mation of geologic time. Joun R. Matcuert, chemist, U. 8S. Bureau of Narcotics, in recognition of his work in the chemistry of narcotic drugs, particularly can- nabis (marihuana). WILLIAM HENRY SEBRELL, chief of the Divi- sion of Chemotherapy, National Institute of Health, in recognition of his contributions to the study of human and animal nutrition, in particular on pellagra ariboflavinosis. JAROMIL VACLAV SLADEK, instructor in bio- chemistry, Georgetown University, in recogni- tion of his work in biochemistry and organic chemistry. JoHN TucKER, JR., Chief of the Section on Cement and Concrete, National Bureau of Standards, in recognition of his studies in concrete and in the application of the mathe- matical theory of probability to problems in the strength of materials. Leon Witson HArTMAN, president of the University of Nevada, Reno, Nev., in recog- nition of his contributions to radiometry and electrical measurements. FREDERICK D. Rossini, Secretary "PROGRAMS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES! ‘Te AcapDEMY (Cosmos Club Auditorium, 8:15 p.m.): _ Thursday, February 19. The Aztecs of Mexico. Gnoras C. VAILLANT. (Jointly with the Anthropological Society of Washington.) Thursday, March 19. Awards for scientific achievement, 1941. CHEMICAL SocieTY oF WASHINGTON (Cosmos Club Auditorium, 6:30 p.m.): Thursday, March 12. Annual banquet—Award of the Hildebrand prize. NationaL Grocrapuic Society (Constitution Hall, 8:15 p.m.)?: Friday, February 20. With the Albees in the Sierras. Ruts and WiLLIAM ALBEE. _ Friday, February 27. Cruising tropic seas in Idle Hour. Cart. Dwiaut Lona. Friday, March 6. California cyclorama. BRANSON DE Cov. _ Friday, March 13. Defrosting Alaska. Karu Rosinson. -Mepicat Society oF THE District or Cotumsia (1718 M Street, NW.): Wednesday, February 18. The value of cystometry in the every-day practice of surgery and medicine. RuEp N. NEssit. Wednesday, February 25. Ovarian defictencies and their treatment. FULLER ALBRIGHT. Wednesday, March 11. The minimum laboratory procedures essential to the diagnosis of blood dyscrastas. GEORGE J. BRILMYER. The tmportance of laboratory examinations in the administration of the sulfonamides. THomas M. Prrry. The chemical and cytological changes in spinal fluid in disease. LESTER NEUMAN. The significance of blood protein and nitrogen variations. H. H. LEFFLER. Laboratory examinations essential in the diagnosts of obscure fevers. Lr, ALFRED GOLDEN. Comparative usefulness of whole blood and plasma transfusions. JANVIERW. LINDSAY. BoTANICAL SocreTy OF WASHINGTON (Cosmos Club Auditorium, 8 p.m.): Tuesday, March 3. Photopertodic responses of Biloxi soy bean. H. A. BortTu- wick and M. W. Barker. A bacterial disease of the giant cactus. Lex M. Hutcuins. AMERICAN SocreTY OF MEcHANICAL ENGINEERS, Washington Section (Pepco Auditorium, 8 p.m.): Thursday, March 12. Some properties and uses of explosives. WILBERT J, Horr. Society or AMERICAN BacTERIOLOGISTS, Washington Branch (Georgetown Uni- versity School of Medicine, 3900 Reservoir Road, 8 p.m.): puendsy, February 24. Studies in skin disinfection; Price’s method for the evaluation of mercurzals. E. P. CasMAn. Capsule formation in the genus Brucella. CoRNELIA CoTToN, Correlations of the cultural characteristics in the genus Lactobacillus. RaupuH P. Tirrster, Morrison Rogosa, and Harte O. WHITTIER. 1 Notices to be published in this space must reach the Senior Editor, Raymond J. Seeger, not later than the 28th of the month preceding that of publication. 2 Lectures open only to members of the National Geographic Society who have subsoribed to season tickets. Loe CONTENTS SCIENCE AND War. AuvstTIN H. CLARE: fy, si595 ae ee Puysics.—A review of the methods for the suena dementia : the ohm. Harvey L. CURTIS. oo ae : MepicaL ENToMOLOGy.—Experimental transmission of endemi phus fever by the sticktight flea, beset gall = JOSEPH “Eh, ALICATA. fo isis 1s 610s Nee eee eee a be vi As Zootocy.—Description of a new genus and species of copepod P ; in a shipworm. CHARLES BRANCH WILSON.............-. Proceepines: Tae ACADEMY: .6. 2. 2° Re ee eee a a sts This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals No. 3 ACADEMY _ BOARD OF EDITORS ; 4 G. Arraur Coorsr = ~—dJ aso _R. SWALLEN hal 83 NATIONAL MUSEUM BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY Wigs SOY ate "ASSOCIATE EDITORS ee OE W. Munsnence * cae bey ae _ ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY oe Epwin Kirx | eae : GHOLOGICAL SOCIETY ; eee TT. Dars Stewart < ; 2k Nae, ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY ewkcn 8. spar | CHEMICAL SOCIETY ar Maas, Wiscoxsts ‘ "i any as an i Vie *; a m1 ere the Act of August 24, 1912, at Menasha, Wis: “i Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences This JOURNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes (1) Short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated societies; (3) — notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The JouRNAt is issued monthly, on the fifteenth of each month. Volumes correspond to calendar years. ' Manuscripts may be sent to any member of the Board of Editors. It is urgently re- quested that contributors consult the latest numbers of the JourNat and conform their manuscripts to the usage found there as regards arrangement of title, subheads, syn- onymies, footnotes, tables, bibliography, legends for illustrations, and other matter. — Manuscripts should be typewritten, double-spaced, on good paper. Footnotes should be numbered serially in pencil and submitted on a separate sheet. The editors do not assume responsibility for the ideas expressed by the author, nor can they undertake to correct other than obvious minor errors. Illustrations in excess of the equivalent (in cost) of two full-page line drawings are to be paid for by the author. 5 Proof.—In order to facilitate prompt publication one proof will generally be sent — to authors in or near Washington. It is urged that manuscript be submitted in final form; the editors will exercise due care in seeing that copy is followed. . Subscription Rates.—Per volume... 5 0. ses on he ask a otk oa bs es eee $6 .00 To members of affiliated societies; per volume........... 0c. c cee cece eeees 2.50 Bingle Numbers. se. 3 9. a a's Saree se ch ie ois we aya Sa we ree at -00 Correspondence relating to new subscriptions or to the purchase of back numbers or volumes of the JoURNAL should be addressed to William W. Diehl, Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications, Bureau of Plant Industry, Washington, D.C, — Remittances should be made payable to ‘‘Washington Academy of Sciences’ and ~ addressed to 450 Ahnaip Street, Menasha, Wis., or to the Treasurer, H. S. Rappleye, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D.C. . . Exchanges.—The Jounnat does not exchange with other publications. Missing Numbers will be replaced without charge provided that claim is made to , the Treasurer within thirty days after date of following issue. : tes OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY President: Harvey L. Curtis, National Bureau of Standards. Secretary: FREDERICK D. Rossini, National Bureau of Standards. Treasurer: Howarp S. Rappieye, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Archivist: NATHAN R. Smitu, Bureau of Plant Industry. 5 Custodian of Publications: Witt1am W. Diext, Bureau of Plant Industry. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Won. 32 Marcu 15, 1942 No. 3 GEOPHYSICS.—Geophysical measurements in the laboratory and in the field. H. HE. McComs, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey. It has been recorded that, in the begin- ning, Jehovah created the heaven and the earth. Since those early days time has wrought many changes, not only in the uni- verse at large as we suspect it exists today, but upon this planet upon which our senses seem to indicate to us we are living and striving to preserve some kind of continuity of that life. Experience and experiments tell us that, among other things, this planet, the earth, is surrounded by an ionosphere, a stratosphere, an atmosphere, and a mag- netic field. Those portions of the earth that are on or immediately below the surface are called the hydrosphere (water area) and the lithosphere (crust). Within a relatively thin film of the atmosphere, the hydro- sphere, and the lithosphere, we observe the effects of forces that are continuously and relentlessly modifying the earth. The science that treats of these forces is known as geo- physics, and in this field we find such sciences as geodesy, seismology, geomag- netism, meteorology, volcanology, hydrol- ogy, and techtonophysics. This paper deals briefly with certain physical measurements in geomagnetism and in seismology, describes in some detail a few of the instruments and methods used in such measurements, and compares some of the results obtained in the laboratory with results obtained in the field with the same equipment. While these few illustra- tions by no means cover the whole field, either in the experiences of the author or of his immediate associates, they will serve to illustrate the complex nature of some of the 1 Address of the retiring President of the Philo- sophical Society of Washington delivered at the 1194th meeting of the Society, January 17, 1942. Received February 2, 1942. MAR 2 MAK « | projects upon which we are working— projects that involve questions of law, regu- lations, policy, funds, personnel, and equip- ment. In the field of geomagnetism, one of our main objectives has been, and still is, the production of magnetic maps, charts, and tables, applicable to the United States and its possessions. Unfortunately it is necessary to reconstruct or revise these charts and tables at intervals of a few years simply be- cause the earth’s magnetic field is not uni- form and because it is changing continu- ously in both direction and intensity. The magnetic meridian at a particular site is de- fined as the vertical plane fixed by the di- rection of the earth’s field at that site. The true meridian at the same site is a vertical plane containing the earth’s axis. The latter is determined by astronomical observations and for convenience may be marked by the establishment of a permanent monument erected at some distance from the site. It is usually more convenient to erect the mark and then determine its true azimuth. The angle between the true meridian and magnetic meridian is known as magnetic dec- lination. The direction of the magnetic field changes as time passes, and while many of these changes are irregular and some may even be classed as violent, there is, after all, considerable regularity in these changes. At Cheltenham, Md., for example, the direction of the field has changed from N. 5° 41’ W. to N. 7° 06’ W. during the past 30 years, the average rate being about 3’ per year. This is known as secular varia- tion or secular change. Where the rate of secular change has been fairly uniform for several years, it is reasonably safe for all 66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES practical purposes to predict changes for a few years in advance. This rate has been diminishing for the past few years, and at present it is practically at zero at Chelten- ham. In addition to this secular variation, the direction of the field normally passes through a complete cycle of change every solar day. The normal daily range in declina- tion at Cheltenham is of the order of 4 or 5 minutes of arc. Likewise, the total field in- tensity varies in direction and magnitude from day to day and from year to year. All these changes vary over wide ranges for dif- ferent parts of the earth. In order to make it possible to obtain continuous records of all the fluctuations, magnetic observatories have been established in various parts of VOL. 32, NO. 3 Alaska to Puerto Rico, and from Maryland to Hawaii. The base, the standardizing observatory, is at Cheltenham, Md. The buildings there are constructed of nonferrous materials — throughout and are insulated against tem- perature changes. It has been found con- venient to record photographically the changes in magnetic declination and the hor- izontal and vertical components of the field intensity. The declination variometer con- sists of a small magnet suspended in a damping chamber by a fine quartz fiber, which, when in proper adjustment, is free of torsion. A plane mirror attached to the magnet system permits photographic re- cording. For convenience, the recording dis- Fig. 1—Magnetic variation observatory at Tucson. The photographic recording instruments are mounted on concrete piers within the building, which is constructed of nonmagnetic materials and the interior is well insulated against temperature changes. the world. One of the earliest of these ob- servatories was established at Girard Col- lege, Pennsylvania, in 1838, and was oper- ated almost continuously with eye-reading instruments for 6 years, beginning with 1840. In 1852 the Smithsonian Institution established a magnetic observatory on the Smithsonian grounds and operated the first photographic recording instruments in this country. Since the early part of the present century the Coast and Geodetic Survey has operated observatories at five widely separated sites, ranging from southern tance is usually arranged so that 1 milli- meter change of ordinate corresponds to a change of direction of the field of one minute of are. The mirror is prismatic, that is, it has three aluminized surfaces, the angles being such that should the image from the central mirror move beyond the limits of the recorder at either side, a re- serve image will enter the picture and pre- vent loss of record. The intensity instru- ments are not ‘so simple. The instrument > that records the changes in the horizontal component of the field is similar to the dec- hilosophieal Society of Washington. P MeComb, retiring President of the » 4s } lel Mar. 15, 1942 lination variometer, but the suspended magnet is oriented so that its axis 1s ap- proximately at right angles to the field and is held in this position by the torsion of a quartz fiber. Under the assumption of cer- tain ideal conditions, namely, that the in- strument, except for the magnet, is non- magnetic, that the rigidity modulus of quartz remains constant, that the magnetic moment of the suspended magnet does not MCCOMB: GEOPHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS 67 experience has shown that most of the specifications cannot or at least have not been maintained over long periods of time in the field. The quartz fibers are relatively large, being of the order of 30 to 40 microns in di- ameter. In the early installations, the fibers were attached to their supports by fused shellac, but in the course of time shellac will yield and the magnet will drift away MAGNETIC NORTH RECORDING Ww SENSITIVITY TORSION HEAD Zo Ss EX-MERIDIAN ANGLE TORSION IN FIBER TEMPERATURE Fig. 2.—Arrangement of recording magnet and control magnets on a unifilar horizontal intensity variometer. change, that there is no relative motion be- tween the quartz suspension and its upper and lower attachments, that the tempera- ture remains constant, and that there are no natural or artificial mechanical vibrations disturbing the system, then and only then is the angular motion of the suspended magnet a measure of the changes in the hori- zontal component of the field. While all these specifications may be met and may be maintained with sufficient precision for a few hours or a few days in the laboratory, from its normal position. This difficulty has been overcome by bending the ends of the filament or by making the fibers with en- larged, pear-shaped ends, which furnish suf- ficient bearing surface to eliminate slipping of the fiber relative to its supports. Some of the quartz fibers used in these instruments have been under constant torsion of two or three radians for many years. There is evi- dence that they have suffered little if any permanent strain. We have not yet found a bar magnet 68 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES whose magnetic moment remains constant, and all the magnets that we have tested have temperature coefficients. Thus we find ourselves attempting to measure something that is changing continuously, with a meas- uring device the parts of which change in several ways while the operation is in prog- ress. It is recognized that conditions of this kind are the rule rather than the exception in all physical measurements, even in the laboratory, but in this particular operation we are not attempting to determine the value of some constant; we are attempting Fig. 3.—La Cour type of quartz fiber suspen- sion showing enlarged ends resting in conical cups. to record, with some accuracy, the changes in the horizontal component of the field. In spite of every reasonable precaution, we find that the magnetogram may be, and usually is, a record of the algebraic sum of the changes in the field intensity and changes in the instrument parts. Since both the rigidity modulus of quartz and the magnetic moment of the suspended magnet have temperature coefficients so large that they must be taken into consideration, the observatories are well insulated against sudden or large changes in temperature. In addition, the intensity instruments are compensated for temperature in a simple and effective manner. VOL. 32, NO. 3 The vertical-component instrument. is simply a delicate magnetic balance. It is similar in many respects to the ordinary analytical balance, the basic difference being that the beam of the magnetic balance is a - permanent magnet. The magnet is balanced against gravity on quartz or steel knife edges, and when in proper adjustment is extremely sensitive. To give some idea of the sensitivity of one of these balances it can be stated that when operating. under normal conditions, a mass of 0.2 milligram, if placed at the end of the beam, would just about upset it. The moving system is, of course, provided with a suitable mirror for photographic recording. The latest type of recording magnet is that devised by Dr. D. la Cour of the Danish Meteorological In- stitute. The magnet, knife edges, and the mirror are made from one piece of special magnet steel. The instrument as a whole is so designed that the magnet may be oper- ated in a vacuum. Here again is an instru- ment that is required to operate continu- ously over long periods and that is expected to provide a record of the changes in the vertical component of the field. The three variometers that have been described, together with a suitable photo- graphic recorder, constitute what is known as a magnetograph. The record we obtain from such a set-up is called a magnetogram. In order to be able to analyze these rec- ords quantitatively, it is necessary to know something about the sensitivity of each component. Such measurements are made at regular intervals, and consist simply of noting the deflection produced on each component by the application of a known field, properly directed. Magnetic fields are commonly expressed in gausses, that is, lines of force per square centimeter in air. For convenience, it has been found practical in geomagnetic work to use a much smaller unit, the gamma, which is 0.00001 gauss. Also in common use is the milligauss, which is 100 gammas. The average value of horizontal component of the earth’s field at Cheltenham Observatory at the present time is around 18,200 gam-_ mas. This is known as the absolute value, and at an observatory it may be determined es Mar. 15, 1942 easily and quickly with a sine galvanometer to an accuracy of perhaps one gamma. If the absolute value is determined at the moment when the H curve of a magneto- gram coincides with an arbitrary base line, then we may assign that absolute value to the base line. Once we have determined the base line value, it is a simple matter to _ scale the absolute value for any particular moment or to scale the average value for any interval. Unfortunately there is only one sine galvyanometer in the United States suitable for measuring H to an accuracy of one gamma. Except for the electromagnetic method, the only other known method of VERTICAL COMPONENT SEPT. 18, 1941 TUCSON, LA COUR VERTICAL COMPONENT SEPT. 18, 1941 TUCSON, ESCHENHAGEN MCCOMB: GEOPHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS 69 comparable with that which can be at- tained with the sine galvanometer. The usual method and one by no means satis- factory is to measure the angle of inclina- tion of the field and from this value and the known value of the horizontal component derive a value of the vertical component. At an observatory a single value of dip can be determined by means of an earth induc- tor to an accuracy of perhaps one-half minute of arc. In latitude 40° N. an un- certainty of 0.5’ in inclination gives an un- certainty of about 50 gammas in the de- rived value of the vertical intensity. In practice the uncertainty is much less, since average values are used. Fig. 4.—Magnetograms recorded by two types of vertical intensity variometers operating simul- taneously in different observatories at Tucson. The new observatory, in which the la Cour instrument operates, is partly underground. The vertical lines are hour-marks, the first being at 8.00 a.m., local standard time. HORIZONTAL COMPONENT SEPT. 19, 1941 TUCSON, LA COUR HORIZONTAL COMPONENT SEPT. 19, 1941 TUCSON, ESCHENHAGEN Fig. 5.—Magnetograms as recorded by two types of horizontal intensity variometers under conditions similar to those described under Fig. 4. determining the absolute value of H is by means of a magnetometer. Experience has shown that, under most favorable condi- tions, the results obtained with magnetom- eters may be expected to be in error by as much as 5 to 10 gammas. There are no electromagnetic instruments in the United States suitable for making a direct measurement of the absolute value of the vertical component to an accuracy From all this it should be apparent that, even though observatory values may be given to gammas, the uncertainty in the absolute values may be much greater. How- ever, in spite of the fact that there may be considerable uncertainty in the absolute values of some of the elements, the magneto- graph furnishes an excellent continuous record of the changes in these elements to a surprisingly high degree of accuracy. This 70 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES is fortunate, since in recent years there has been considerable demand for immediate and fairly complete information concerning the so-called magnetic character of the day and its shorter intervals. Data of this kind are supplied daily to investigators in radio transmission. The time may not be far distant when through cooperative efforts of many agencies it may be possible to make fairly reliable forecasts of the quality of radio reception to be expected. Let us now consider what happens when we attempt to make a magnetic survey of large areas such as the United States. Ob- viously, the first step is to make a great many observations, well distributed over ie VOL. 32, NO. 3 interpolate secular change in order to cover areas in which actual observations have not been made. While the isogonic chart gives a general picture of the situation as it ap- plies to any particular magnetic element, it may not be safe to rely upon absolute values scaled from a chart or interpolated between two or more stations at which actual observations have been made. The primary reason for this is that the distribu- tion of the earth’s field is by no means so uniform as the large scale charts would seem to indicate. This lack of uniformity is due primarily, of course, to magnetic ma- terials in the earth’s crust, and it is well known that the composition of the crust is Fig. 6.—Magnetic observing tent and magnetic station at Kineo, Maine (Moosehead Lake), in 1910. Field observations are made within the tent to protect the instruments against wind, rain, or direct rays of the sun. the whole area, the density of stations to depend primarily upon funds available for the project. As a result of rather intensive work, covering a period of about 50 years, observations have been made at some 6,000 stations. Data from these observations have been compiled and brought up to date and are graphically represented in what is known as an isogonic chart of the United States. Similar charts have been compiled for hori- zontal and vertical intensities for the same area. Several of these stations have been selected to serve as so-called repeat stations, that is, stations at which observations are made at intervals of a few years for the de- termination of secular change. Experience has shown that it is reasonably safe to anything but uniform. If these magnetic materials or formations lie on or near the surface, their effects on the distribution of the field a few feet above the surface may be quite large. If the magnetic materials lie deeply buried under formations that are practically nonmagnetic, the distribution of the field at the surface may be relatively uniform and the chances of bringing some order out of the results by a reasonable number of observations may be fairly good. This condition exists generally in the west- ern half of the Great Plains region of the United States, where the crustal layers near the surface consist of thick beds of lime- stone, overlaid by the so-called ‘‘loess”’ formation. Mar. 15, 1942 Many surprises, however, await the ob- server who is overoptimistic. One of the greatest of these surprises, in the experience of the author, happened in northwestern Iowa, a region in which one would not ex- pect to find any large magnetic anomalies. Nevertheless, many areas were found in this region where the magnetic declination dif- fered by 2 to 3 degrees within a radius of a few hundred feet, and tests indicated that this condition prevailed for miles around. The surface geology gave no indication that such conditions might exist. On the other MCCOMB: GEOPHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS ya tion and intensity of the field may vary over wide ranges with change in elevation above the surface. Differences of several de- grees in declination have been observed by simply altering the height of the instrument. This is precisely what one should expect. Most of the land observations for declina- tion and horizontal intensity are made with the center of the magnet at varying eleva- tions of 4 to 5 feet above the surface of the ground, depending upon the height of the particular observer. This is fortunate, in a way, since the values found represent condi- (Courtesy National Park Serxice) Fig. 7.—Devils Tower, Wyo. A basaltic lava formation, usually quite magnetic, fragments frequently showing distinct polarity. . hand, there are large areas where we know from experience that anomalies are the rule rather than the exception. In the eastern half of Idaho, the eastern half of Oregon, and the southern half of the State of Wash- ington there are vast areas in which highly magnetic basalt lies on or just below the surface. Whether the basalt is 7m sztu or is strewn over the area as talus or rubble, the magnetic disturbance is there. If these areas were only small, we could simply ig- nore them or by-pass them, but it is not so easy to by-pass or ignore the greater part of three whole States. Observations in such disturbed areas have shown that the direc- tions as they exist in the layer or region above the surface where they will be most useful. But we should not be surprised if in a moderately disturbed area, a tall observer obtains values decidedly different from those obtained by another not so tall. Let us take the not uncommon case where we have three stations located in a disturbed area. Suppose that the observed values of declination at stations A, B, and C are 22.7° E., 30.4° E., and 25.1° E. and that it is desired to know the value at some inter- mediate point D, within the boundaries de- fined by A, B, and C. It should be obvious, even to one who has never made magnetic a2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES observations in such an area, that a mean value, a weighted mean value, or an in- terpolated value, under such conditions, will, more than likely, not represent the facts. The value at D may be much smaller or even much larger than those at A, B, and C. Even though observations are made systematically at hundreds of sites in the area, interpolated values would have little meaning. True, the average of all of them might closer represent the average value for the area at the elevation above the surface at which the observations were made, but nothing more. Suppose again that the area contains no natural magnetic material scattered about, but that we dis- tribute promiscuously over the area hun- dreds of large bar magnets of sufficient size and moment to produce distortions of the kind we know exist in some disturbed areas. Would any practical magnetician, would any mathematician or physicist be so opti- mistic as to hazard a guess as to the prob- able value of a magnetic element at some random point in the area? I cannot answer for the mathematician or the physicist, but I can tell you what the practical magneti- cian would like to do about such a situation. He would recommend that the limits of the disturbance be delineated with reasonable precision, whether the disturbing cause be natural or artificial, and so indicate the area on the chart. Let us now consider the case where it is desired that we know something about the declination or intensity on or near the sur- face of navigable waters such as a narrow channel or a bay or a harbor bordered by land areas that are known to be highly magnetic. If the land areas adjacent to the channel are highly magnetic, it is almost certain that the same condition exists at the bottom of the channel. The distribution of the field at any position above the surface of the water will depend not only upon the nature of the disturbance on shore and at the bottom but upon the depth of the water and the distance off shore. We know that these magnetic effects die out rapidly with distance, but we first must know something about the nature and extent of the disturb- ance before we can estimate even approxi- VOL. 32, NO. 3 mately what the effects are at a distance. Interpolation of declination values between two or more shore stations is about as risky as an attempt to estimate values of declination high above the surface of the earth by extrapolation. Either process might be reasonably safe if one could know some- thing about the nature and extent of the disturbing influence, but if the data upon which calculations are based were obtained by assumptions the extrapolations may mean exactly nothing in practice. I repeat, it is not possible to obtain a perfect picture of the distribution of mag- netism in a highly disturbed area (disturb- ing influence near the surface) even though the area be covered with stations spaced every few feet horizontally and vertically. The average of observed values is simply the average value, nothing more. It tells you practically nothing about a particular value at a particular latitude, longitude, and elevation. If the geological structure or formation causing the disturbance lies buried to some . depth below the surface, then it is possible to make some order out of chaos, because of the fact that the effects die off rapidly with distance and the gradients become less steep. One of the most satisfactory instru- ments used in making a magnetic survey is the vertical-intensity field balance. This is similar in many respects to the laboratory or observatory instrument but is so designed that it can determine differences in the vertical component to a fairly high degree of accuracy in a short time and at com- paratively low cost. Practically all the magnetic surveys made by oil companies have been carried out with instruments of this type. The technique is simple. One observer makes continuous or nearly con- tinuous observations at a base station with one instrument while other observers cover the adjacent area with similar instruments. Following a definite program of checks and comparisons at the beginning and end of a day’s routine it 1s possible to eliminate from the final results the effects of diurnal varia- tion. A magnetic survey of central South Dakota has recently been completed by the South Dakota State Geological Survey, Mar. 15, 1942 and the results have been compiled as a vertical intensity chart. It would be almost impossible to complete a survey of this kind if the magnetic formation were at or near the surface. One of the great disappoint- ments in a map of this kind is that it cannot be joined up readily to a similar adjacent chart. The values are all relative, no ab- solute value of the vertical intensity having been determined. Here again is a very prac- tical problem and one that at present can be met to a limited extent by means of an earth inductor and a magnetometer. In other words, it is necessary to deter- mine the absolute value of the vertical intensity at the base stations and then ob- tain the absolute values at any position in the survey by applying differences as ob- tained by means of the field balance. This method is satisfactory if one is satisfied with absolute values, the accuracy of which is no better than 40 to 50 gammas or about 4 milligauss in the middle latitudes. I have just tried to show that there is no particular problem in securing data of suf- ficient accuracy for magnetic charts in an undisturbed area, but that in highly dis- turbed areas the charts and tables may not represent actual conditions at random points in that area. We also know that a great many additional precise observations taken at random over large areas would not clarify the general picture a great deal; perhaps they would only tend to confuse us still more. The first important element in the whole observing program in the field is that the establishment and preservation of certain master repeat stations is recog- nized. Reasonably precise observations at these stations furnish the necessary data for revision of charts at regular intervals. The second important element is that there is urgent demand for special intensive surveys in limited areas. If we had a perfect three-dimensional picture (motion-picture, by the way) both in direction and intensity of that portion of the earth’s field that is useful in magnetic surveys and in other geomagnetic investiga- tions, would it serve any more useful pur- pose than the picture we now possess? In general, I think not. In special cases, yes. MCCOMB: GEOPHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS 73 In the first place, there are only a few in- dividuals who would understand how to use the precise data, and in the second place there are comparatively few instruments so designed as to make possible the utiliza- tion of more precise data. Now we have almost forgotten one of the most important elements in this whole ob- serving program—the observer himself. Consider for a moment what happens when the observer, Mr. X, carries on a day’s routine of magnetic work in some remote corner of the country. When observing con- ditions are ideal, the task is relatively simple, but experience has shown that ideal conditions rarely exist for the man in the field. It seems to be axiomatic that as soon as the observing program starts, all inani- mate nature in the immediate neighborhood suddenly comes to life, as it were, and marshalls its forces to defeat the observer. The wind and the rain; the blistering heat or the freezing cold; the desert dust or the tropical humidity; yes, even animate nature in the form of swarms of persistent mos- quitoes join the battle against the observer; but the show must go on. Occasionally none of these evil things seems to be on the alert, and then it happens, not infrequently, that the very elements being measured go on a rampage, and Mr. X finds himself in the midst of a magnetic storm that may last for days. Needless to say, it takes courage, strategy, stamina, and an almost insane de- sire on the part of the observer to complete the task. Any one of the opposing elements or forces may be the immediate cause of significant errors in the results. Compare these field conditions with those which are obtained at an observatory or in the labora- tory. In the laboratory, reasonable safe- guards have been set up to eliminate, neutralize, or compensate for the hostile elements, but in the field the observer is practically on his own. He must substitute strategy and judgment for the comforts and compensations of the laboratory and while being eternally vigilant and on the alert he must, at the same time, make scientific observations requiring the utmost in care and skill. Small wonder that, under average conditions in the field, some combination of 74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES opposing forces or circumstances introduce elements that may influence the results adversely. Let us now turn our attention to another branch of geophysics, seismology, or the science of earthquakes. In the instrumental and operational side of this science we find many problems strikingly similar to those one meets in geomagnetism. Instruments are developed and perfected in the labora- tory and then they are scattered far and wide over areas to be investigated. Investi- gators have confined their attention princi- pally to four main branches of the science— (a) The delineation or charting of worldwide seismic zones (teleseismic studies); (b) in- tensive studies of restricted areas (regional investigations); (c) seismic prospecting (search for oil, minerals, ete.); and (d) in- vestigations of strong seismic motion. (de- structive earthquakes). Owing to the great interest taken in tele- seismic work in recent years, especially in the United States, it is now possible to locate rather quickly, and probably with sufficient accuracy for most purposes, the epicenters of practically all earthquakes that are of sufficient intensity to set up seis- mic waves that can be recorded at some distance by delicate instruments known as seismographs. Nearly all these seismo- graphs are of the inertia type, in which a pendulum of some kind, horizontal or verti- cal, is set up in such a*manner that its motion is restricted to one degree of free- dom. The support for the pendulum is of rigid construction, and this in turn is rigidly attached to the underlying geological for- mation or foundation. When the founda- tion, that is, the ground, is displaced in the direction in which the pendulum is free to move, the pendulum has already made up its inanimate mind to try to remain at rest relative to its support and in general it suc- ceeds reasonably well. The relative motion between the center of oscillation and the ground is a function of the ground period, the natural period of the pendulum, the de- gree of damping of the pendulum, and other factors. In ordinary teleseismic work these ground motions are usually extremely small at a recording station. Different methods VOL. 32, NO. 3 have been devised for magnifying the ap- parent motion of the pendulum to such a degree that it can be detected or measured. This magnification may be accomplished mechanically, electromagnetically, electro- statically, optically, or by combinations of these methods. All modern seismographs are designed for continuous photographic registration. It is customary to set up two or three instruments oriented at right angles to each other, the idea being that two or three components of the motion will be re- corded and thereby furnish data from which, theoretically at least, the complete ground motion can be deduced. Complete analysis would include displacement, velocity, ac- celeration, distance and direction to the epicenter, and perhaps some other elements of which the author has not yet been in- formed. It will not be possible, in a short paper, to describe all the different types of instruments now in operation. Their num- ber is legion, but in general, their effective- ness (or their efficiency or their usefulness) is a function not only of the magnification and some other instrumental constants but also of their sturdiness and their ability to remain in adjustment and to operate reason- ably well over long periods of time, far from home. Let us take one of these modern tele- seismic seismographs through some labora- tory tests and then transport it to some remote seismological station, say in the West Indies or Alaska, and compare the re- sults that we have obtained under labora- tory conditions with those that we get in the field. The instrument to be described is of the electromagnetic type. To the steady mass is attached a coil of nonmagnetic cop- per wire, which is free to move with the steady mass in a strong, radial, magnetic field. The terminals of this coil are con- nected to a high-sensitivity galvanometer equipped with suitable optical parts for photographic registration. Shunted across this circuit is a variable resistance to pro- vide proper damping. Essentially this is a motor-generator, or, in this case, a genera- tor-motor. When the ground moves it takes everything else with it including the mag- netic field of the seismometer magnets, but Mar. 15, 1942 the pendulum and the coil tend to remain at rest. We then have relative motion be- tween coil and magnetic field; an emf is set up, and current flows in the circuit, and the galvanometer responds. The dimensions of the seismometer and the galvanometer have been so designed that for ground periods such as one encounters in teleseismic work the angular motion of the galvanometer is perhaps 5 to 20 times greater than the angular motion of the seismometer pendu- lum. Further magnification is obtained by optical lever so that the overall nominal magnification of the system is from 1,000 to 2,000, depending upon the particular in- strument. One of the methods of testing the effi- ciency of a seismometer is to place it on a shaking table, the motions of which can be MCCOMB: GEOPHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS 15 whole apparatus was located in a room about 30 feet below the ground level so that there was reasonable assurance of stability. Table displacements as small as 1 micron could be recorded without difficulty. The selsmometer just described was mounted upon this table along with two other seis- mometers of radically different type, and the responses of the different instruments to known motions of the table were measured and compared. Also, the responses of the different instruments to harmonic motions varying in frequency from 30 eps to 1 cycle in 30 seconds were determined, thereby furnishing data from which so-called mag- nification curves were prepared. The char- acter of the response records for the three different instruments show remarkable similarity. The electromagnetic seismograph Fig. 8.—Wenner seismometer, bridge, and commercial galvanometer modified for photographic recording. A modern electromagnetic type of seismometer used in teleseismic registration. controlled arbitrarily and measured ac- curately. Since the magnification of the teleseismic instrument is usually high, it is necessary that such a shaking table be of sturdy construction and supported on a firm foundation so that one may be assured that the measured motions of the table rela- tive to the ground are reasonably accurate. In cooperation with the Survey, such a shaking table was set up at the National Bureau of Standards a few years ago. It consisted essentially of a triangular slab of concrete suspended near each vertex by piano wires attached to rigid concrete piers, which were poured upon and rest upon natural, undisturbed, leached gneiss. The was then subjected to critical routine operating tests: for several months, after which it was installed and placed in routine operation in the Franklin Institute, at Philadelphia, where it has been in con- tinuous operation, without appreciable in- terruption, for several years. This is a re- markable record and is a good example of what can happen when an instrument is operated at a station where conditions are quite as satisfactory as they would be in the best of laboratories. The efficiency or ef- fectiveness of this instrument in recording ground motion is well illustrated in the Franklin Institute records of an earthquake that occurred on April 15, 1941, about 3,600 76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES kilometers southwest of Philadelphia. The azimuth of the epicenter was in the neigh- borhood of 45° to each of the two horizontal component instruments, and the selsmo- grams are almost duplicates, at least for the first 2 or 3 minutes. When earthquake waves and instruments behave in this manner it is not difficult to estimate the azimuth of the epicenter, but performance of this kind is the exception rather than the rule. With electromagnetic instruments having small dimensions and high magnification it should be apparent at once that the mag- SHAKING TABLE RECORD 20 SHAKING TABLE NUMBER I we I ps oe Se ee SEISMOMETER NUMBER 1 ro) TRACE AMPLITUDE IN CENTIMETERS SEISMOMETER NUMBER 2 SEISMOMETER NUMBER 3 Al gall SL SNE ge [ eat la fie lal ad te) Ss 10 6 TiME IN SECONDS Fig. 9.—Shaking table record showing the re- sponse of three different types of seismometer to a sudden displacement of the table. The table mo- tion is magnified about 400 times. netic field in which the seismometer coil moves must be reasonably uniform over the full range of motion if the sensitivity of the system is to be uniform over that range. This matter has been investigated fully and the latest instruments of this type have been adjusted to this condition. Also the system has been equipped with a so-called dynamic tester, which permits testing the sensitivity of the individual components quickly and accurately under routine operating condi- tions. Such tests, if recorded daily, furnish data that can be used in estimating the approximate nominal magnification of the particular component at that time. While VOL. 32, NO. 3 these devices have proved highly satisfac- tory in extended laboratory tests, they have not shown much promise in the field. Instruments of the type described above and equipped with dynamic testers, after having passed their physical examination and laboratory tests, have recently been placed in routine operation in San Juan, Puerto Rico. Experience has shown that in a climate where the humidity is excessive and the mean temperature rather high many things can happen to a delicate instrument in a comparatively short time. A minute growth of fungus, perhaps invisible to the unaided eye, may contrive to be born and flourish in the most inaccessible part of the instrument, and if it obstructs the motion of the pendulum or the galvanometer in the slightest degree, the usefulness of that in- strument is precisely zero. Extra precautions have been taken to seal up these instru- ments and operate them in air that has been thoroughly dried. Such precautions are usually not considered necessary even in extended laboratory tests, but they seem to be imperative in the tropics. Once an instrument is placed in operation in the field, however, its usefulness is measured by its continuity of service since if fre- quently out of commission for one reason or another it may not be operating when the unpredictable earthquake waves arrive. Its — primary function is to record them, all of them, when they do arrive. It frequently happens that the type of instrument that produces records that are the best from the point of view of the seismologist who must interpret these records is the one that is most difficult to keep in operation in remote places. For this reason we usually find it necessary to compromise by sacrificing per- fect performance of limited duration for reasonably good performance with no inter- ruptions. We have tried to follow this same policy in our program of investigation of strong seismic motion. When this project was ini- tiated several years ago by the Coast and Geodetic Survey there was little reliable in- formation available upon which to formu- late a program of attack. But the heat was on, funds were appropriated for the project, Mar. 15, 1942 and it was necessary to achieve some kind of success in a few short months lest the sup- port be withdrawn because we had accom- plished nothing. The seismological literature was searched, seismologists, mathemati- cians, physicists, geologists, and structural engineers were canvassed and consulted for advice. After all the available evidence was in, a decision was made. We would concen- trate on strong motion accelerometers; but, lest we find ourselves on the wrong track, allotments were made for a few instruments of other types. The work was divided up MCCOMB: GEOPHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS 77h our major effort has been concentrated on the accelerograph, it will receive the at- tention here. The original accelerometer consisted es- sentially of a copper loop supported rather rigidly by a quadrifilar suspension. The copper loop served the double purpose of steady mass and damping vane and was so arranged as to oscillate between the pole pieces of a strong permanent magnet. In reality it was a miniature, short period, low magnification, optical, seismometer. It was subjected to some laboratory tests with ex- Fig. 10.—Typical accelerograph st to a concrete pier and is pr otected by a and power for operation of the instrumen power during a major earthquake. ani among cooperative agencies. Out of the National Bureau of Standards came the ac- celerometer; from the University of Vir- ginia came an intermediate period mechani- cal instrument; from funds provided by the National Research Council came the tilt- meters; and from the Survey came the strong-motion displacement-meters, vibra- tion meters, and the automatic recorders for use with the accelerometers. The re- corder in combination with a group of three accelerometers is now known as an ac- celerograph. Again it is quite impossible here to describe all these instruments. Since metal cover. ry tation in a Seismic area. The whole instrument i s securely bolted Note that storage batteries, which supply light t, are lashed to the pier to guard against interruption of perimental recorders, and since it gave promise of meeting requirements it was placed: in quantity production. Within a comparatively short time 10 complete, three-component accelerographs were in routine, stand-by operation in seismic zones on the west coast. The field installations came none too soon. Within three months came the Long Beach earthquake, and all the accelerographs in that area operated and furnished records that were reasonably good when all the circumstances are taken into consideration. It was apparent at once, however, that certain improvements were 78 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES quite essential especially in the matter of recording. Also, the quadrifilar suspension, while its performance in the laboratory was eminently satisfactory and although it could be adjusted and tuned within a reasonable time, presented quite a problem in the field, especially since there were 30 of them to keep in adjustment. One cannot spend all his time making adjustments. Otherwise, the earthquakes might never have an opportunity to make use of the ac- celerometers. As a result of further labora- tory experiments and tests, the pivot ac- celerometer was developed and at the same time combined with a low-magnification PIVOT ACCELEROMETER 45° TO NORMAL PIVOT ACCELEROMETER NORMAL VOL. 32, NO. 3 attachment, which, it is believed, will record the strongest shocks without loss of record. Since there are now about 150 of these units in operation in the United States, it is quite obvious that servicing these instru- ments is no small task. While we may have sacrificed accuracy in some degree by the use of pivot instruments, they have made it possible, because of their ease of assembly and adjustment, to keep the program going. In cooperation with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology the Survey has conducted some shaking table investigations with these accelerographs. The whole ac- Fig. 11.—Shaking table record at Massachusetts Institute of Technology showing response of two pivot accelerometers to sudden and irregular motions of the table. One accelerometer is oriented at 45° to the direction of motion. The time marks (broken line) are spaced at one-half second between centers. PIVOT ACCELEROMETER cll QUADRIFILAR ACCELEROMETER Fig. 12.—Shaking table record at Massachusetts Institute of Technology showing response of pivot and quadrifilar accelerometers to the same table motion. Time marks (broken line) are spaced at one- half second between centers. Mar. 15, 1942 celerograph was mounted upon a sturdy shaking table, which was so designed that oscillations of variable frequencies and am- plitudes as well as irregular motions could be obtained. By means of an ingenious photoelectric device the table was made to simulate the ground motion to which one of the accelerographs was subjected in the Long Beach earthquake. The accelerograph then reproduced with considerable fidelity the accelerogram that had been recorded originally at Long Beach. In one of the tests a pivot accelerometer and a quadrifilar accelerometer were allowed to record simul- taneously. Casual examination of the re- cords would seem to indicate that they are duplicates. Intensive study, however, has shown that if an attempt is made to derive ground displacements from the records made with pivot instruments, serious dis- erepancies appear that seem to be due pri- marily to slight shifts of the pivots in their bearings. These discrepancies may or may not be of engineering significance. Only time and possibly further experiments may de- cide the matter. There is still much to learn about the dynamics of destructive earthquakes. We do know, of course, that when one of these major earthquakes occurs near a center of population the loss in life and damage to property may be terrific. We know also that certain engineering structures are totally demolished while others nearby escape with only slight damage. As a result of rather in- tensive investigations in engineering labora- tories and owing in no small part to our own field work in connection with the determi- nations of natural periods of engineering structures when subjected to artificial vi- brations, building codes have been im- proved in certain States to the extent that some kind of earthquake-proof construction must be included in specifications before building permits will be issued. We do not know when or where earth- quakes are likely to occur in the future, but it does not seem unreasonable to expect that most of the earthquakes of the future will continue to occur in regions where they MCCOMB: GEOPHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS 79 have occurred before, that is, in seismic zones. However, wishful thinking or expert opinions to the contrary will not prevent them from happening anywhere on the earth, but that phase of the problem must be left for time alone to solve. It is believed that the published results of our investiga- tions of strong seismic motion have been effective in convincing engineers and others that by exercising reasonable precautions in their building specifications, property damage and loss of life during a major earthquake may be reduced considerably. If our influence along this line has con- tributed in any degree whatsoever to the saving of life and property, our efforts have not been in vain. In conclusion I should like to ae a few remarks about the necessity of keeping on the track in carrying on this geophysical work. If it is our appointed duty to collect certain data in the laboratory or in the field, or if it falls to our lot to translate these data into language that the public can under- stand and use, then let us stay on the track and do that job. Whether or not we may like it, all of us must perform a certain amount of deadly routine. Until we learn that lesson and learn it thoroughly we cannot solve these geophysical problems nor can we keep the production line moving. If, while I am supposed to be standardiz- ing a magnetometer I spend weeks and weeks determining the induction factor of one of its magnets to an accuracy of 0.1 per- cent when I am fully aware of the fact that I need to know it to an accuracy of only 5 percent, I may be having a perfectly jolly time—yes, I may be thrilled with the re- sults, but I have lost sight of my objective —I am off the track. By the same token, if the statistician who is compiling and pub- lishing geophysical data insists on extracting the last drop of tribute from his instruments or from the man on the firing line who is operating them, sooner or later he will find that his production line is not moving ahead but has stopped. That statistician has in- - dicted himself under an old but unrepealed statute—the law of diminishing returns. 80 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 32, NO. 3 ZOOLOGY.—A new species of Amphipoda from Uruguay and Brazil.1 CLAR- ENCE R. SHOEMAKER, U.S. National Museum. In July, 1941, some amphipods of the genus Hyalella Smith, taken in the river Imbé, a stream flowing into Lake Traman- dai in the State of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, were sent to the U. 8S. National Museum for identification. These specimens superficially resembled Hyalella azteca var. inermis Smith, but, upon dissection, char- acters were observed that distinguish them from that form of Hyalella azteca (Saussure). I am, therefore, describing them as a new species, as follows: Hyalella curvispina, new species Male.—Eye dark, slightly reniform or oval. Antenna 1 about as long as the head plus the first three or four body segments and reaching to about the middle of the flagellum. of antenna 2. Peduncular joints successively shorter and narrower; flagellum longer than peduncle and composed of about 11 joints, which do not carry sense-organs. Antenna 2, fifth peduncular joint longer than fourth; flagellum much longer than peduncle and composed of about 14 joints, which do not carry sense-organs. Right mandible, molar strong and well de- veloped, seta on inside edge and a tuft of setules at base between it and spine-row, which con- tains two long and one shorter spine; cutting- edge toothed and accessory plate well developed and toothed; a knoblike protuberance on inside surface at base of molar. Maxilla 1, inner plate with two apical plumose setae; outer plate with nine serrate and pectinate spine-teeth; palp small and ending in a narrow sharp point. This palp is much smaller in proportion than in H. azteca. Maxilla 2 normal, inner plate shorter than outer and bearing, in addition to the terminal spines, two plumose setae on upper inner margin. Maxillipeds, inner plate longer than outer plate and reaching beyond the middle of outer plate, the truncate upper margin armed with three teeth; outer plate rather short, inner margin armed with two or three rows of slender spines, but no spine-teeth; palp rather short and broad with the inner dis- 1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received Decem- ber 12, 1941. tal corners of the second and third joints pro- duced into lobes; fourth joint rather weak and bearing a long slender nail. Gnathopod 1 shorter and stouter than in H. azteca; fifth joint subequal in length to sixth, lobe of lower margin bearing a row of long and short spines; sixth joint a little longer than wide, palm oblique and convex, armed through- out with a row of slender spines, and defined by a lobe bearing a short spine, below which on the inside surface of joint is a similar spine; hind margin of joint bearing a slender spine and an armament of the minute pectinate scales which occur also in H. azteca; the front margin also bears a spine near the middle and an armament of pectinate scales distally; seventh joint fitting palm, bearing a nail and a few pectinate scales on outer margin, and a row of minute spinules on inner margin. Gnathopod 2 rather short and robust; palm quite oblique, convex and with only a mere suggestion of the tooth nor- mally found near the hinge of the seventh joint in H. azteca. The hind margin of sixth joint is rather short and somewhat produced or lobed at the defining angle of palm; the inner surface of the defining lobe of the palm bearing an armament of pectinate scales. Seventh joint fitting palm with the apex dipping into a shal- low pocket. Peraeopods 1 and 2 much alike in shape and spinous armature, but 2 slightly the longer. Peraeopods 3 to 5 much alike but increasing consecutively in length, second joints much expanded with lower hind margin produced into a broad rounding lobe. Lower hind corners of metasome segments 2 and 3 somewhat produced and sharply angular. Uropods not very spinose, but the inner ramus of uropod 1 bearing on the inner margin usually one but sometimes two long slender curved spines which are very characteristic of the males of this species. Uropod 3 with ramus sub- equal in length to peduncle. Telson as long as wide, reaching to about the end of peduncle of uropod 38, and bearing apically two stout spines and several slenderer and shorter spines. Length of male 9 mm from front of head to end of uropod 1. The gill arrangement is the same in both Mar. 15, 1942 SHOEMAKER: A NEW AMPHIPOD Fig. 1.—Hyalella curvispina, new species: Male: a, antenna 1 and antenna 2; b, maxilla 1; ¢, gnatho- pod 1; d, end of gnathopod 1 showing the pectinate scales on inside surface of joint; e, enathopod 2; ie defining angle of palm of enathopod 2 showing the pectinate scales on inside surface; g, peraeopod 2 h, peraeopod 3; 7, uropod 1;7, uropod 3; k, telson; l, end of telson showing spines. Female: mm, zaathunad 1: N, enathopod 2. 81 82 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES sexes. Each of the mesosome segments 2 to 6 bears a pair of coxal gills and a pair of simple lateral sternal gills, while segment 7 bears only a pair of lateral sternal gills. This species has no dorsal teeth. Female.—The female is like the male except in the gnathopods and the first uropod. Gnathopod 1 is longer and slenderer than in the male; the sixth joint is proportionately nar- rower and the palm is transverse; the front and hind margins bear a few spines and a few pecti- nate scales. Gnathopod 2 much like gnathopod 1 but longer and slenderer; sixth joint equal in length to fifth, widening distally and with palm slightly chelate; hind margin well provided with pectinate scales on inner distal surface. Uropod 1 does not have the long curved spines on the inner ramus. Length of female 9 mm from front of head to end of uropod 1. Type locality—Small mud puddles which dry up in summer (5 to 15 cm deep), near Montevideo, Uruguay, December, 1932, Ri- cardo Thomsen, collector. Type, a mature male, U.S. N. M. no. 79388. Other records.—There are specimens of this species in the National Museum taken at the following localities: Paso de la Arena (fresh water), near Monte- video, Uruguay, November 27, 1925, Ricardo Thomsen, collector. Montevideo, Uruguay (from General Buz- zano’s Place), December 10, 1925, Ricardo Thomsen, collector. Pajas Blancas, quite near the sea coast, but still fresh water, near Montevideo, Uruguay, December 7, 1932, Ricardo Thomsen, collector. Carrasco Creek, near Montevideo, Uruguay, December 11, 1925, Ricardo Thomsen, col- ector. From a well, 20 meters deep, subsoil line, near Montevideo, Uruguay, July or December, 1932, Ricardo Thomsen, collector. : Among the roots of Pontederia and Rhyn- chospora in the river Imbé, flowing into the Lagoa de Tramandai; littoral of Rio Grande VOL. 32, NO. 3 do Sul, Brazil, June, 1941, Herm. Kleerekoper, collector. Remarks.—The gill arrangement is slightly different from that of Hyalella azteca of North America. In H. azteca there are no lateral sternal gills on the second body segment, whereas they are present in H. curvispina. Prof. A. S. Pearse, in describing Hyalella ornata from the State of Veracruz, Mexico, said that the specific name was given on account of the tubercles that cover parts of the anterior margins of the last two segments and the pos- terior margins of the last four segments of the first gnathopods of both sexes and that are found also on the same places on the second gnathopods of the female, but appear only on the posterior margins of the fourth and sixth segments of the second gnathopods of the male. These tubercles, when highly magnified, have the appearance of oblong scales armed on their convex edges. with very minute teeth or spi- nules, which give them a pectinate appearance. On the sixth joint of the first gnathopods of both sexes these scales are directed away from the central longitudinal axis of the joint on the outside surface and toward the axis on the in- side surface. Those of the seventh joint are directed away from the inner concave margin on the outside and toward it on the inside surface. I have examined specimens of Hyalella from several localities in the state of Veracruz, which is the type locality for H. azteca, and find that they all possess these pectinate scales. I am therefore of the opinion that H. ornata is a synonym of H. azteca. These scales appear on all the specimens of Hyalella from Mexico I have been able to examine. In passing north- ward, westward, and eastward from Mexico in the United States the scales appear to become considerably less in number and less conspicu- ous. I believe that all the specimens of Hyalella I have seen from Mexico and the United States are Hyalella azteca, which is a very variable species, and that they all possess these scales in varying degrees. Mar. 15, 1942 SCHULTZ: NOTES ON OPHICHTHYID EELS 83 ICHTHYOLOGY .—The first record of the ophichthyid eel Scytalichthys miurus (Jordan and Gilbert) from the Galapagos Islands, with notes on Mystriophis intertinctus (Richardson).! In identifying a small collection of fishes made by Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt in the Gala- pagos Islands, I had opportunity to study a specimen of Scytalichthys miurus (Jordan and Gilbert). Jordan and Davis (Rept. U.S. Comm. Fish and Fisheries for 1888, pt. 16, pp. 634-636. 1892) described the subgenus Scytalichthys, genotype Ophichthys miurus Jordan and Gilbert, and based the generic distinction on ‘“‘vomerine teeth in one series of about four slender depressible canines; tail very short, much shorter than rest of body.” Jordan and Evermann (U. 8. Nat. Mus. Bull. 47, pt. 1, pp. 386-387. 1896) copied Jordan and Davis in their generic description. It is my good fortune to have at hand all the specimens studied by those authors, as well as some additional speci- mens. The vomerine teeth of the types of Ophichthys miurus Jordan and _ Gilbert, U.S. N. M. no. 2304, are fixed and not de- pressible or movable (except where broken loose from their bases). Although the types of S. miurus are small specimens, the teeth have the same arrangement as in the larger specimen (total length 685 mm) collected by Dr. Schmitt in Aeolian Bay, South Sey- mour Island, April 11, 1941, U. S. N. M. no. 119785.. From the above-mentioned specimens I have made a sketch of the teeth giving the actual number of teeth in the jaws as counted by me along with their relative sizes (Fig. 1, a). Closely related to S. miurus is Mystrio- phis intertinctus (Richardson) from the West Indies to the region of Florida. The arrangement of the teeth in this species is similar but very distinct from that in S. miurus. After examining all seven specimens available (U. S. N. M. nos. 6956, St. _ Thomas, W. I.; 23635 and 49797, Florida; 0984 and 31891, Florida), I made a sketch of the dentition of M. intertinctus showing the relative number of teeth and their rela- tive sizes (Fig. 1, b). A comparison of the dentition of these 1 Published with the permission of the Secre- tary of the Smithsonian Institution. Received January 6, 1942. LEONARD P. ScHULTZ, U.S. National Museum. two species indicates without exception that the vomer and dentary have but a single row of caninelike teeth on S. miurus but a double row on M. intertinctus. The teeth on the maxillary of S. miurus are in two rows anteriorly and four rows pos- teriorly, but on M. intertinctus in but two rows. The teeth at front of upper jaw are likewise entirely different. It is concluded therefore that since these differences are so = SS) Ni ie iy 4 Lae Gye SA NZ Ss fe 4 AVF, VW es PB Vy S. iy i Vg Ny X + a ee SS Sipe Seg “NU Ff Sy 8 a A >» Ve SHY 2 Be Ne b SEES k LM, 1 2A a // + 4B Soe VO CRUE TG E SEN <p ¢ rag aS ; a Sa iN - ers \ SAN N g BO SENSE Vi onc san XN Rea ane. se 8 4 O Aa A. saa? a7 OA a, earings ? T4944 aad Fig. 1.—a, Dentition of Scytalichthys miurus (Jordan and Gilbert);-b, dentition of Mystriophis intertinctus (Richardson). great the two species should be considered generically distinct. Thus Scytalichthys should be given full generic rank as was done by Jordan, Evermann, and Clark (Rept. U.S. Bur. Fish. for 1928, pt. 2, p. 89. 1930) but not on the basis of depressible canines on the vomer. It should be based instead, among other characters, on the dentition as indicated in this study, on the small pectoral fins that are 1} length of eye, and origin of dorsal fin one head length be- hind gill openings. 84 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 32, NO. 3 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES THE ACADEMY 372D MEETING OF THE BOARD OF MANAGERS The 372d meeting of the Board of Managers was held in the private dining room of the Cosmos Club on Friday, January 9, 1942. In the absence of President Clark, Vice-President H. E. McComp called the meeting to order at 8:10 P.m., with 14 persons present as follows: H. EK. McComp, F. D. Rossin1, N. R. Smita, W. W. Dieut, J. H. Kempton, F. C. Kracex, F. G. BrickweppE, M. C. MeErritu, W. A. Dayvron, HH. ih. ‘Curtis; L. We Parr. ©. 1: GARNER, and, by invitation, R. J. SEEGER and G. A. COOPER. The minutes of the 371st meeting were read and approved. For the Executive Committee, the Secretary reported that this committee met at the Cosmos Club on December 5, 1941, at 9:30 P.M., with Messrs. A. H. Cuarkx, H. L. Curtis, J. EH. Grar, and F. D. Rossini present, to review the action recently taken by the Committee with regard to the investment of $5,200 that has come into the treasury from the closing out of two previ- ous investments (see minutes of the Board of Managers meeting on November 7, 1941, and October 3, 1941). The Committee considered investing these funds in 43 per cent cumulative preferred stock of the Citizens Bank of Takoma Park, Md., which stock was currently available for purchase, but agreed that the reinvestments should be made as previously planned, namely, investment in savings accounts in federally- insured savings and loan associations, the total amount in each to be not more than $5,000. The Treasurer was further authorized to trans- fer $300 from the checking account to the funds for reinvestment to make the total $5,500. Of this amount, $500 and $1,000 are to be added to the accounts in the Northwestern Federal Savings and Loan Association and the First Federal Savings and Loan Association, re- spectively, bringing the total in each to $5,000. The remaining $4,000 is to be placed in a third federally-insured savings and loan association. For the Committee on Meetings, Chairman GARNER reported the speaker for the February meeting to be GrEorGE C. VAILLANT, director of the Museum of the University of Pennsyl- vania, Philadelphia, Pa. For the Committee on Membership, Chair- man KRaAcExK presented nominations for mem- gership for six persons, four honorary and two nonresident. The Committee of Tellers appointed to can- vas the votes on the affiliation of the Washing- ton Section of the American Society of Civil Engineers, L. B. TuckERMAN (chairman), R. W. Brown, and GrorcGE TUNELL, presented their report as follows: The Committee met on December 9, 1941. It compared the ballot envelopes with the list of the members of the Academy in good standing and found 202 bal- lots from members in good standing; 2 ballots from members in arrears; | ballot in unsigned envelope; total 205. The count of the ballots from members in good standing showed: For affiliation 196; against affiliation 6; total 202. The Board formally declared the Washington Section of the American Society of Civil Engi- neers affiliated with the Academy. The Secretary reported the following data concerning membership: Deaths, 1; acceptances to membership, 6; qualified for membership, 4; retirements, 2. The status of the membership as of January 8, 1942, was: Regular Retired Honorary Patrons Total Resident 435 33 3 0 471 Nonresident 128 18 13 2 161 Total 563 51 16 2 632 Under new business, the Board authorized the appointment of two committees: One to study the matter of the affiliation of the Acad- emy with the American Association for the Advancement of Science; and the other to con- sider questions relating to the Committee on Membership, involving the establishment of a greater continuity in the personnel of the Com- mittee and general criteria for honorary mem- bership. The meeting adjourned at 9:40 P.M. 309TH MEETING OF THE ACADEMY The 309th meeting of the Academy was held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club at 8:15 p.m. on January 15, 1942, with Vice- President H. E. McComp, representing the Mar. 15, 1942 PROCEEDINGS Philosophical Society, presiding. The retiring president of the Academy, Austin H. Ciark, delivered an address entitled Science and war, which was published in the February 15, 1942, issue of the JourNAL. Following his address, President Cuarx took the chair and adjourned the meeting at 9:15 P.M. 4ATH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE ACADEMY The 44th annual meeting of the Academy was held on January 15, 1942, immediately following the 309th regular meeting of the Academy. President Cuarxk called the meeting to order at 9:25 p.m., with about 75 persons present. The minutes of the 43d annual meet- ing were approved as published on pages 155 to 164 of the JourNaAL of April 15, 1941. Report of the Secretary The Secretary presented the following report for 1941: During 1941 a total of 39 persons (32 resident and 7 nonresident) were elected to membership, all of whom accepted. Of these, 11 were elected in recognition of their work in chemistry, 5 in zoology, 3 in entomology, 3 in physics, 2 in ~ agronomy, 2 in geology, and 1 each in anthro- pology, astronomy, bacteriology, biochemistry, cartography, cytology, engineering, helmin- thology, horticulture, medicine, parasitology, plant pathology, and public health. Because of their retirement from active work, 10 members (5 resident and 5 nonresident) were placed on the “‘retired”’ list. Resignations were accepted from 9 members in good standing (4 resident and 5 nonresident). During 1941, 10 deaths (7 resident and 3 nonresident, including 1 patron) were reported to the Secretary as follows: Mrs. Henry L. Hieeinson, Boston, Mass., May 6, 1935. Max Weserr, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, February 7, 1937. Wi.i1aAmM WILLIAMS GILBERT, Washington, D. C., December 22, 1940. Dayton CLARENCE MILLER, Cleveland, Ohio, February 22, 1941. Morton GirHens Luoyp, Washington, D. C., April 26, 1941. ERNEST WERNER EICKELBERG, Washington, D. C., May 20, 1941. CLaupE Haure BirpsryE, Washington, D. C., May 30, 1941. Davip Ives BUSHNELL, JR., Washington, D. C., June 4, 1941. : THE ACADEMY 85 HuexH McCormick Smiru, Washington, D. C., September 28, 1941. Ernest Everett Just, Washington, D. C., Oc- tober 27, 1941. On January 1, 1942, the membership was as follows: Regular Retired Honorary Patrons T otal Resident 433 33 3 0 469 Nonresident 127 18 13 2, 160 Total 560 51 16 2 629 During the period from February 7, 1941, to January 9, 1942, the Board of Managers held seven meetings, with an average attendance of 17 persons. One of two special committees car- ried over from 1940 completed its work. Of the six special committees appointed by the Presi- dent during the past year, four completed their work and two will carry over. During the past year, the Academy held seven meetings, beginning with the 303d and ending with the 309th, as follows: On February 20, 1941, jointly with the Philosophical Society of Washington, with an address by P. W. Bripaman, of Harvard Uni- versity, entitled The changing position of thermodynamics. On March 20, 1941, for the presentation of the Academy’s Awards for Scientific Achieve- ment for 1940, to Harry D1amonp, of the National Bureau of Standards, in the engineer- ing sciences, and to FERDINAND G. BRIcK- WEDDE, of the National Bureau of Standards, in the physical sciences. On April 17, 1941, to hear reports on various phases of the 1940 South American Eclipse Expedition, sponsored by the National Geo- graphic Society and the National Bureau of Standards, from IRvINE C. GARDNER, CARL C. Kirss, and THropore R. GILLILAND, of the National Bureau of Standards, Paut A. Mc- Natty, 8. J., of Georgetown University, and EpWARD QO. HuLBeErt, of the U. 8. Naval Re- search Laboratory. On October 16, 1941, jointly with the Philosophical Society of Washington and the Washington Society of Engineers, with an ad- dress by Francis W. REICHELDERFER, of the U. S. Weather Bureau, entitled Some famous weather maps. On November 27, 1941, jointly with the Anthropological Society of Washington, with an address by Marruew W. STIRLING, of the 86 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Bureau of American Ethnology (assisted by Mrs. Stirling), entitled Treasure trove of Mexican archeology. On December 18, 1941, jointly with the Washington Section of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, with an address by Karu B. McEacuron, of the General Electric Company, entitled Lightning. On January 15, 1942, with an address by Austin H. Cuark, the Retiring President of the Academy, entitled Science and war. Accounts of the first five of these meetings have been published in the JouRNAL under the Proceedings of the Academy, and the last two will soon appear. One of the meetings was held in the Auditorium of the U. 8S. National VOL. 32, NO. 3 Museum and the other six in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club. On January 9, 1942, the Board of Managers formally declared the Washington Section of the American Society of Civil Engineers affili- ated with the Academy, as a result of the favorable vote of the membership of the Academy in a balloting by mail which began November 10, 1941, and ended December 9, 1941. There are now a total of 20 societies af- filiated with the Academy. On motion, the report of the Secretary was accepted. Report of the Treasurer The treasurer, H. 8. RAPPLEYE, submitted the following report for 1941: CASH RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS RECEIPTS: Brome dues OS 034 ei Metis. een se ark opie Mrommdures O40. oe ook ck a Ph cee eek eh tere Rromaeates TOA ek el ee een Beet oF, rom raues TOAD Res A sre mea ctnk Vlat ee o n nee a Ba) Hromy subscriptions 1940 tet. foe ae ee HromisubseriptionselO4le as a5 40 Sear Rromrsubscrptionsel 949) Be 2... eet wa hats enki Fromesales Ol OURN ALESHA). tam ee ste es, Hromesales of Wirectoryt sc 4c oe eee Brompayments for reprints: . 5,4.) 2 Krom interest ond epositsenst 2. cians nee ee ee Rromenterest oniimvestments. 245)... aa Hiromssale- on butler motese sc. . et ee rom salesot Bil kakWay, proOpertycces 7.6. From withdrawn for investments............. Total -Tecei pis eae oe ee oe oh ee Cashipalancecian slr 1 94ers obec me ed on Tosbe-accounbed eras ae ne = Soe ees DISBURSEMENTS: Hor secretary s.© Gicesl940 © an 8 ates Korslresasarers Otice: 19402. ne, os CA Kor JOURNAL printing TOt0) 6 oe Ges ee Por Jourgnwan prrating 194105). 5 eee Fon JOURNAL Teprints 19402... o Aas Seles ee RorJouRnaAw reprints: 194th ..s0 2 eo. hen es Por JOURNAL Hinstrations; 1940... a2 os ec Por JouRNAIUimsthations. L944 i ooo 6 oe For Custodian & Subs. Mgr., 1941../.......... For Custodian & Subs. Mgr. (Special)* ....... Hor JouRNAm Ofice194G Ah one, Bee AAs Hor JOURN Ad Ofiiees | O41 fy deh oe ey AR For Meetings Committee, 1940............... For Meetings Committee, 1941............... Por Directory, oh Sakae oe <5 hee ee eee ee Hor: dues returmed sya) a es oe a 5) eel 0! (wlieife) fee re, le 9) 0) le ye. 0) (0) (aye ce fe" ebes) (ol a] (eco ain uname «Vor et ia_o tegte: (e tele e* 0. Je se. (s)'a Lege) (a) 0. ele) ceria g lel pio enna nn © Gel et esl wees fa ele (a) [e) key-») Jol) staple te eal see aoe ‘exe ts! “s) je) we) eis) a)iet (ol relia” ee) 0 tevie) je, \0° tale s.0b-e) te) (elle (oi nn © (ews) fate! fe) .e el, 10) ier (ee ie! les. .w ie: je) 50, felis o) 0) (be) eso me elon 8 \a) seine) 7s “te slat vessel es) «as «) a) fel-eM se euvulhe! loc ies sate isin iin iiaiin aMfel(sMe! le te) eye, ol 8) \e” et\a) co, jel als eine ie Mel. ce; io) Leikeaie lewis ies 6) (ed ay Toles a oof Helo Jeep fal je* cere let in, Fol e Kul fe, ter ees). = ede site) eine a) feet a) ie Te) loitie. (etal eo: 2) arte, Yea) fy «|! ele! je) tet.e) te. \e Mavens ©) Roe nne Wow (eae)! 6) fe ve’ 10: o) eo, 16) fo’ eis) Js\e\ el une!) a) fel. w he) jeltw) ow aie Malini o ja, se) eo) vee) mol ene aloe vee =) alte is 0) = fee) mi iel =) le] [= -ing aie © lelte Jie" fale ele, ‘a, 0) ‘a .0° josie, enisl met elem esiee ow. wile) oleae mn eile el sis, je: e: <0 6 yarre: (6 -o-70) 0 es eye, © 10, tele fel. a) eure _s) aul lotie nomen A Ee | TRG ole oor Se aren sce urd ol ae oe ee eT Man MM Nee. 2,407 .42 ee I el ee fhe Sete ae eo ean Soe hor Le en ets prema e ete hoe 6 bo ah ed oa abt: ite ae eee seid chests tk cgettcrl reece eee ee ©) (e! me), (6) 0.) ee ie fess eye) otPatie jel al »-lel y= ei elser elm a) (Ol e/a yel tee. #6) ie 3s: ees ae ws helenae mee) ene e, | ements gente os, ee m, ue fee. ona, ie pe. aie) Sim (alee, a Suede ends) lee bee eel ae 1,120.52 $20,233.61 $ 499.24 Mar. 15, 1942 PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY Bank debit memos as follows: RCE Me ae PI I, ea er tat epO Ge: Sc Tees Face lke eh aa eae $ 6.29 RSE RF By TOS NCE altar ears rer ee ME AG? aie, aden, BURR! «Galo. ty 6 lo le oh4 lope 1 p9 cos sym Ronen TQS Ege hr cen SPR anette Girl i ae a ea ge 1.38 REE SEMO HT MECC SEINEMtSy L shaie ene See ae te aalane oe o's ath viet ew Shade lanes s 20.00 MR MR SIBTRRE Setup NCO UIING 5 0h ch ok ks} See OE ree hee nitoc 2G cdg ht oa eta GONE old aie es DRCEe eC MCCS POA MEM. orld ei ale ORM Us eee Oe Goll A Ayer nle ee Invested in Northwestern Federal Savings & Loan Assn................0eeeeeeeeee Peeeainebirst Pederal Savings & Loam ASM. 0... 06 ces ene nee cece ede sees DURE 5 2 g 655 "Gly eed OR eta ee diner ee ert eS eb AR a gray Meg age RECONCILIATION OF BANK BALANCE Pree mmenedsit book 2-31 aA ne ees es So eee cane en eho lols shee bt ce oe one Bank Balance American Sec. & Trust Co. per statement 12-31-41......... $4,930.15 “SS SEDSDOAS TNOIR GISTOOISIRGaX0 Deas oe dict ch An eee gC ee Irae ei eh ne ee ee D5 PES, ‘ $4,955.40 Checks outstanding, not cashed: Se Pe ico ee aN Ss a gk unmade eRe owas as $21.50 Ss NI Ry coe ences ace / AS SOE aE at pada us gota) ahh wg Gs. 25) el rte ie nae mee Sen uce es whack be mae ote. eanea te eas 9.00 PEE). 2 5 ou Wah goon aee ae ee ee to i ees nn one Re ee 5.00 SAEs oo ach oc. HSER ct aeae OR eu. PIER el RAR cote Ry aI 1.50 FOS, . 2 a doo oh BCATS IED SHSM Milena die: SROM@ ri Ee Age go) ter ae cae eee EN 13.50 EG. ot ob aS late oa lia Cabernet wl Rt oO Annie gr Auer cca anes ae 3385.5 15) EI eG eng n he ahon ce es an Sa os Men Mt es he ae 46.89 OPI ee eae Rn Le a a ey aime apenn maha ys wets 5.64 152.43 INVESTMENTS 409 Shares stock of Washington Sanitary Improvement Co., par value $10 per share, OS eras rete Nea eer CMe cae ceed conan a eas cM ay eM MaR ee Reo ORCS cathe eats, Ane eoe ehle Ye fe "gabe «eae ass Pie ouanes stock Potomac HMlec. Power Co.,'6% Pref., cost... 0). ose. 02s i Sh eae 4 Certificates Corporate Stock of the City of New York, 1 for $500 and 3 for $100, EOS ee een yet RP er oe ne ON MR io. t: Wore, oth) virayalten dl Busey Bin “doin vets wc oie TDs sap Qileow € ahets 1 Bond of Chicago Railways Co., #1027; interest at 5%, due 1927; par value $1,000 Heyy. CSVARY OS COOKE orci Ao ane eat mn A en 1S) GL PRI ACRE ofl aa a i ec Se aR 1 Real Estate Note of T. Q. Donaldson (#6 of 12) dated June 26, 1937 (extended to ela) PENI GERE SU 7o8 (COSUN. metre ERAT EOS... « Ann uMer se oak lee ot NRE ELS oi Bon ein ote y 2 Real Estate Notes of Yetta Korman et al., dated October 5, 1938 for 3 years (#7 of Seto oO caliG: 7 Or Olean Or pOOO)AECOste tas... otc cit nes da exo Ga Owe cee Extended from 1941 to 1944 with interest at 44% **2 Certificates (1 for $4,000 and 1 for $1,000)—First Federal Savings & Loan Assn., IMG Seno ancl OGG aa. Met ere ania Sacre ites, eC ee aes, Teg a ma Bc) **2 Certificates (1 for $4,500 and 1 for $500)—Northwestern Federal Savings and Loan FAS SID ered NO Seplieas On ur Chatl 4 Aileen tenn wie" dee TU ee a alg oR Ni och ak Deposited in savings account, American Sec. & Trust Co Cash book balance Dee. 31, 1941 BIRO Le IU Leese w ee egiele Teele ve. eee. eh eel @ (6 46 6.6, Be ie BARE Te tw © § ew. ea (© Total Assets CRS aer es Rha emo Le le Ae Ae RW Tete e, eel kw Beet eee eee eee tee Se Bee ee Bye ee Oe eS 8 We ee $4,802. 1,000. 1,000. 5,000. $19, 897.1: 5.000. 45. 87 oon 4,802.97 $24,700. 09 88 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 32, NO. 3 Rotal AssetswDecucaily MGAO each eh oe oh ell 18 oi ule a re $25,468.75 Totals Acsetse Decor SO Mo se skeen ose Ao oes, Saeco ce Ee 24,700.09 ADC CREASC Meteora Safe ca ck Sesto sa) catia es Poon Save, die fo. Ae ae $ 768.66 * These certificates were purchased with the approval of the Executive Committee of the Board of Managers with money received from the following sources: Butler ZNotes i eres eee aera en ee ane $1,190.12 Savines: Neches cra Ne ere eee les $8,500.00 Checkine Acct! 2c. fe ree Gree ee 309.88 The original investment in the Butler notes was $2,000 on which only $1,190.12 was realized when the property was sold—a loss of $809.88 on the investment. ALLOTMENTS Allotted Receipts Expended SOCEELAT WS SO MICER tae oat tenes en es el $ 499.85* ~ $ 499.24 Mreasurel sy OmMiCes.. ash... sees cs eee nee ee ere 225.00 202.12 LIGETI ea RRA Sn eee rer Rh aeL hon, Yateitie earn 3,100.00 +%535.49=$3,635.49 3,548.217 Meetings Commaitieesss. a0) 0-5 uc cee ee 350.00 306.70 Custodianrcé SmbsadMor ye ear eer aes 120.00 a7 .79t Niemibership Committees = 45 see eine ae 10.00 — iinxecutives® omimmithecness egy eee eee eee 10.00 = Journal@lerical Asst: 27s (aha ane eo a ee eee 240.00\ _ JournaleNlises Expenses a. wy Lan oer 60.00 eee ee Dine Choniya earn ey Aspe caytncs Wat, Ree tina eee: 350 .00 341.35 * Original allotment of $450 plus additional allotment of $49.85. + This includes bill for December JouRNAL printing and estimated amount of December reprints. t This amount does not include a bill for $1.90 outstanding from 1941 expenses. Report of the Committee of Auditors The Committee of Auditors, P. A. SmiTH (chairman), H. G. Avrers, and C. H. Swick, presented the following report: The accounts of the Treasurer of the Wash- ington Academy of Sciences for the year 1941 were examined by your committee on January 13, 1942. The neat and orderly manner in which the records were found is a matter for especial commendation. All receipts and disbursements in his report were verified against all vouchers and balance sheets from the bank. Vouchers are properly approved and the report is correct. Securities listed in the Treasurer’s report were inspected on January 13, 1942, and the state- ment of assets of the Academy is correct. On motion, the reports of the Treasurer and the Committee of Auditors were accepted. Report of the Archivist The Archivist, N. R. Smiru, presented the following report: Since this is the first formal report of the Archivist, the larger items now in the Archives are listed: A complete bound set of the Pro- ceedings of the Academy from 1899 to 1911, a complete bound set of the JourNnaL from 1911 to date, both in good condition. Of the Directories published by the Academy since 1899 only two editions are missing, viz: 1901 and 1912. Prior to the publication of the Academy Directory, the Joint Commission of Scientific Societies published directories each year beginning with 1889 and ending with 1898. Of these ten editions, the following six are missing: 1889, 1890, 1891, 1893, 1894, and 1896. Although strictly speaking these may not be- long to the Academy Archives, it is felt that they should be included and some effort be made to complete the set. Therefore, if anyone has copies of the missing editions mentioned above, the Archivist will be very glad to have them. One mysterious small package has remained sealed since March 23, 1898. The label says, “This package containing the ballots by which the nucleus of the Washington Academy of Sciences was selected as presented by the Joint Commission of Scientific Societies to the Academy with the request that it be not opened within 20 years. Its official history appears on pages 41, 45, 46, and 55 of ‘Record Joint Com- mission Vol. II, 1897.’ Sealed and delivered March 28rd, 1898. Marcus Baker, Secretary, - Joint Commission.” The main bulk of the material turned over Mar. 15, 1942 PROCEEDINGS to the Archivist consists of old records of the secretaries and the treasurers together with nomination blanks and correspondence. Up to 1912, all correspondence was copied into letter press books which are in the Archives. Since then the correspondence has been filed in vari- ous ways, each officer having his own likes in the matter. This dusty material is being sorted as time permits. On motion, the report of the Archivist was accepted. Report of the Board of Editors The Board of Editors, J. H. Kempton, R. J. Seecer, and G. A. Coorrr, submitted the following report for 1941: Volume 31 of the JourNaAt for the calendar year 1941 consisted of 12 issues totaling 528 pages. It contained 62 original articles of which 36 were by members of the Academy and 26 were communicated. Space was distributed as follows: Natural Sciences 3193 pages 60 per cent Physical Sciences 151% pages 29 per cent Proceedings 4035 pages 8 per cent Obituaries 102 pages 2 per cent Index 62 pages 1 per cent There was appropriated by the Board of Managers to the Editors for printing, illustrat- ing, reprints, and mailing the JouRNAL $3,100; for clerical assistance $240; for postage and incidentals $60—a total of $3,400. Of this sum there was expended for clerical assistance $240; for postage and incidentals $28.93; and for printing, illustrating, reprints, and mailing $3,545.54. The total cost of issuing Volume 31 was, therefore, $3,814.47. Of this amount authors, institutions, or societies paid $604.48 to cover the cost of excess illustrations, printing costs, and reprints, leaving $3,209.99 to be charged to the Editors’ budget of $3,400. There is, therefore, an unexpended balance of $190.01. At the close of the year the Editors had on hand and accepted for publication 13 manu- scripts totaling 259 typewritten pages and 18 ‘illustrations. On motion, the report of the Board of Editors was accepted. : THE ACADEMY 89 Report of the Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications The Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications, W. W. DieHt, presented the fol- lowing report for 1941: The stocks of Academy publications avail- able for sale as revealed by the appended in- ventory are more complete than during the previous year. At the beginning of the year 1941 by special action of the Board the Cus- todian was authorized to augment the then de- pleted supply of certain volumes of the JOURNAL sufficient to secure a reserve available to purchasers of unbroken sets, particularly in the interest of prospective institution sub- scribers. This was to be accomplished by means of a fund supplied by the sale of complete sets. Since this fund was available early in the year it has been possible to purchase advantageously most of the numbers needed; and at the present time there are lacking but six numbers in older volumes and three recent volumes, all in one set, to complete the authorized reserve: eight sets Vols. 1-30, six sets Vols. 11-30, and 13 sets Vols. 16-30. To this reserve there have been added two additional sets, Vols. 1-29, re- leased for sale on order of the Board by the Secretary of the Academy and the Editor of the JouRNAL. That this policy of assembling reserve sets has been justified is attested by the fact that although three of these reserve sets were sold during the year to institutions, we are still in a position to meet any reasonable demand in the near future. Contrasted with the favorable aspects of stocks at hand the subscription list is less satisfactory. Nonmember subscribers in the United SiGaibe Seman gee sone eteae ce Ue mae as 89 Nonmember subscribers in foreign coun- UIETISIST Dee cam ential ae ye, gee RR RO IN eta ES 40 Geological Society of Washington..... 15 Because conditions have not warranted the expenditures anticipated the amount actually used, chiefly in maintaining correspondence, has been but $37.79 of the budget allowance, leaving an unexpended balance of $82.21. On motion, the report of the Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications was ac- cepted. 90 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Report of the Tellers The Committee of Tellers, L. B. TUcKERMAN (chairman), and R. W. Brown, presented their report as follows on the annual election of of- ficers for 1942 and on the amendments to the bylaws: A total of 237 ballot envelopes were delivered to the Committee by the Secretary. Of these, 2 bore no signature and 1 bore the signature of a member in arrears. In the remaining 234 envelopes there were found 184 ballots on the Amendments to the Constitution and 234 ballots for Officers and Manager of the Academy. The count of the ballots on the Amendments showed Hor the Amendments: :-2..!. 5. +: 182 Against the Amendments......... 1 INO OULIE cee oan Seen ne rn oer 1 The count of the ballots on Officers of the Academy showed For President, HArvry L. Curtis 222 For Secretary, FREDERICK D. RossINI 221 For Treasurer, Howarp 8. RAPPLEYE 221 Examination of the preferential ballot for Managers by the Hare system showed 4 un- marked ballots and 30 ballots which were in- valid because marked with crosses from which no first choice could be determined, leaving 200 valid ballots. The Droop quota was therefore (200 -+1)/(2+1) =67. The count of the ballots showed the necessary quotas for RosrertT F. Grices and Frank C. Kracrk, after transfer of votes from the fourth place. Nominations for Vice-Presidents For the respective affiliated societies, the Secretary presented the following nominations for Vice-Presidents of the Academy for 1942: Philosophical Society of Washington: WILLIAM G. BROMBACHER Biological Society of Washington: Ernest P. WALKER Chemical Society of Washington: HERspeErr L. HALLER Entomological Society of Washington: Austin H. CLARK National Geographic Society: ALEXANDER WET- MORE Geological Society of Washington: REESIDE, JR. Medical Society of the District of Columbia: FRED O. Cor JOHN B. VOL. 32, NO. 3 Columbia Historical Society: ALLEN C. CLarK Botanical Society of Washington: Jamgs E. McMuourtrey, JR. : Archaeological HRDLICKA Washington Section of the Society of American Foresters: W1LLt1AM A. Dayton Washington Society of Engineers: WHITNEY Washington Section of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers: FrRANcIsS B. SILSBEE Washington Section of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers: WALTER RAMBERG Helminthological Society of Washington: Em- METT W. PRICE , Washington Branch of the Society of American Bacteriologists: LELAND W. PARR Washington Post of the Society of American Military Engineers: CLEMENT L. GARNER Washington Section of the Institute of Radio Engineers: HERBERT GROVE DORSEY Washington Section of the American Society of Civil Engineers: HERMAN STABLER Society of Washington: ALES PAu: On motion, the Secretary was instructed to cast a unanimous ballot for these Vice- Presidents. Awards for Scientific Achievement for 1941 President CLARK announced the recipients of the Academy’s Awards for Scientific Achieve- ment for 1941, as follows: For the Biological Sciences, to— G. ArTHUR Coopsr, U. 8. National Museum, un recognition of his distinguished service in invertebrate paleontology, notably for discovery of anatomical structures hitherto unknown. For the Engineering Sciences, to— THEODORE R. GILLILAND, National Bureau of Standards, in recognition of his distinguished service in originating automatic ionosphere recordings for continuously variable radio frequencies. For the Physical Sciences, to— STERLING B. Henpricxs, U. 8. Bureau of Plant Industry, in recognition of his distin- guished service in determining the constitution of micaceous and other complex minerals. As business from the floor, remarks were made by ATHERTON SEIDELL and W. J. Humpureys. The former suggested two ways in which the Academy could increase its service ~ to science, one by publishing in the JoURNAL lists of the publications issued by the Govern- Mar. 15, 1942 ment in scientific fields and the other by main- taining in its library a complete file of Govern- ment publications. The latter suggested first, that the Archivist could advertise in the JouRNAL the need for certain old Directories in order to complete the files, and second, that a committee should be appointed to examine the sealed package of ballots (see report of the Archivist), which was requested by the Joint Commission of the Scientific Societies not to be opened within 20 years of March 23, 1898. President CLARK appointed Past Presidents ALEXANDER WetTMoRE and T. WAYLAND VauGHAN to escort the new President, HARVEY L. Curtis, to the chair. After a short address, President Curtis declared the meeting ad- journed at 10:20 p.m., for a social hour. FREDERICK D. Rossint, Secretary. ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY The Anthropological Society of Washington at its annual meeting held January 20, 1942, elected the following officers: President, GrorcE S. Duncan; Vice-President, JULIAN H. STewarp; Secretary, ReGInA FLANNERY; Treasurer, T. Date Stewart; Members of the Board of Managers, Wm. N. Fenton, H. W. Krisecer, R. UNDERHILL, J. E. WeECKLER, and WaLtpo R. Wepe.. A report of the member- ship and activities of the Society since the last annual meeting follows: MeMEMINEMMOERS HS 08s le Oe a ee 2 AGES: TUSTON OY ea 43 PASSMCHALEMMEMIDCIS. 2. ches bcd wce e Tet Sie ee es 56 The members elected during the year were: Sister BERNARD CoLeman, Mrs. Marcarsgt D. Fosrer, S. L. Percuicx, and J. E. WEcKLER, all active members. Through death the Society lost one associate member, Davip Ives BUSHNELL, Jr. The fol- lowing resolution was adopted: Whereas: David I. Bushnell, Jr., a member of this Society for more than 30 years, passed from this life on June 4, 1941, and Whereas: Mr. Bushnell was closely associated with the members of this Society during the greater part of that time, was a collaborator in the work of the Bureau of American Ethnology and the Smithsonian Institution, and the author of numerous valuable papers in ethnology and archeology, which appeared in the publications of the Bureau and the Institution, and in the PROCEEDINGS: ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 91 American Anthropologist, the organ of the Anthro- pological Society, Be it resolved: That the Anthropological Society of Washington hereby expresses its high apprecia- tion of Mr. Bushnell’s work, its deep sense of the loss suffered by our science in his removal] from among us, and on the part of our membership a profound feeling of personal bereavement. The Treasurer’s report is as follows: Funds invested in Perpetual Building Association (with interest to date). $1636.74 21 shares Washington Sanitary Im- provement Co. (par value $10 DELESINATE Ae ceen ew hots. nis oe hs 210.00 2 shares Washington Sanitary Hous- ing Co. (par value $100 per share) 200.00 U.S. Savings Bond, Series G (on order) 500.00 Cashtinpb ame res Sek vet. ee oh eee: 188.20 $2734. 94 Bills outstanding: To American Anthropological Association..... $55.00 55.00 $2679 .94 Total as of January 18, 1941.. 2529.81 IB eV CIEE SS) ata Mittin al aera gear $ 150.13 It was decided to set aside a portion of the annual increase each year as a reserve for pub- lication. When funds are adequate these funds may be appropriated to underwrite the publica- tion of anthropological papers to be known as “Contributions from the Anthropological So- ciety of Washington’? and _ published as Memoirs of the AAA. Special attention will be given to studies of the history and archeology of the early inhabitants of the District of Columbia and vicinity, since no other society assumes responsibility for such studies. Papers presented before the regular meetings of the Society were as follows: January 21, 1941, 697th meeting, WaLpo R. WeEDEL, Archeology and environment in the Great Plains. February 18, 1941, 698th meeting, T. DALE STEWART, Archeological investigations at the historic Indian village of Patawomeke in Stafford County, Va. March 18, 1941, 699th meeting, held jointly with the D. C. Chapter of the American Socio- logical Society, JOHN PROVINSE, Cooperative effort in sociology and anthropology. April 15, 1941, 700th meeting, Ina C. Brown, Social structure and the status of the American Negro. 92 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES October 21, 1941, 701st meeting, RoprerT H. LowiE, Nimuendaji’s findings among the Botocudo. November 27, 1941, 702d meeting, held jointly with the Washington Academy of Sciences, MatrHew W. StTIRuine, Treasure trove of Mexican archeology. December 16, 1941, 703d meeting, WALTER W. Tayutor, Cave exploration in northern Mexico. REGINA FLANNERY, Secretary. CHEMICAL SOCIETY 535TH MEETING The 535th meeting was held in Corcoran Hall, George Washington University, on Thursday, October 9, 1941, at 8:15 P.m., with Dr. H. L. HALLER as Chairman. After routine business of the Society, 14 papers were pre- sented by 24 authors in four sections as follows: Biochemistry, Dr. H. M. Dymr, presiding Plant gonadotropes. J. T. BrapBury and BK. T. Gomez. A comparative study of methods for the de- termination of vitamin C. JosrpH H. Rok and JAMES M. Hatt. Co-carcinogenesis. M. J. SHEAR and JOSEPH LEITER. A crystalline protein fragment from a wheat lipoprotein. A. K. Batis, W. 8. Haus, and T. H. Harris. Organic chemistry, Dr. E. E. FLEcK, presiding The influence of structure on the hydrolysis of glycosides by the enzymes of almond emulsin. WittiAmM Warp PicgMan and Netson K: RICHTMYER. Centers of asymmetry in the chlorophyll mole- cule. LEwis J. SARGENT. Problems confronting the pharmaceutical chem- ictal Th. Wainy. Physical chemistry, Dr. F. D. Rossint, presiding Transition behavior of some of the sulphide- type compounds of silver. FRANK C. KRACEK. Mechanism of the decomposition of ammonia. STEPHEN BRUNAUER, KATHARINE 9S. Love, and R. G. KEENAN. Photochemical reduction of methylene blue in fats and owls. GEorGE R. GREENBANK and GrorGE E. Hom. Some metallic ton complexes. J. E. DRALEY. VOL. 32, NO. 3 Inorganic and analytical chemistry, Dr. P. 8. RouuER, presiding Preparing refractory materials for analysis by treatment with HCl at elevated temperatures. Epw. WicHERsS and W. G. SCHLECRT. Determination of free silica in the presence of stlicate by hydrofluosilicic acid. F. H. GotpMAN. Some aspects of the coordination chemistry of the platinum group. R. GILCHRIST. 536TH MEETING The 536th meeting was held in Room 108 of the Chemistry Building, Georgetown Uni- versity, on Thursday, October 30, 1941, at 8:15 p.m., with H. L. HaLuer as Chairman. The speaker of the evening was Dr. B. H. NicouteT, of the Bureau of Dairy Industry, Beltsville, Md., who spoke on the subject The use of periodic acid on the study of proteins. 537TH MEETING The 537th meeting was held in the Audi- torium of The Catholic University of America, on Thursday, November 13, 1941, at 8:15 P.M., with H. L. Hatuer as Chairman. Election of officers for the Society for 1942 took place, the results being as follows: President: NORMAN BEKKEDAHL. Secretary: E. R. Smita. Treasurer: M. M. Harina. Councilors: N. L. Draxr, W. D. Couuins, H. L. Hauuer, R. M. Hann, J. H. Hissen, F. O. Rice, F. D. Rossint, M. X. Sunirvan, E. WICHERS. Managers: J. J. Faney, R. Giucurist, 8. B. HeEnpricks, C. Heuricu, D. B. Jonsus, N. K. RICHTMYER. The speaker of the evening was Prof. ALEXANDER SILVERMAN, head of the Depart- ment of Chemistry, University of Pittsburgh, who spoke on the subject Glass: Today and tomorrow. 538TH MEETING The 538th meeting was held in the Audi- torium of the Cosmos Club, on Thursday, December 11, 1941, at 8:15 p.m., with H. L. HALLER as Chairman. The speaker of the eve- ning was Prof. Henry Eyrine, Chemistry De- partment, Princeton University, who spoke on the subject A theory of some rate and thermo- dynamic properties of surfaces, including bound- — ary lubrication. NorRMAN BEKKEDABL, Secretary. = PROGRAMS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES! ca THE AcapEMY (Cosmos Club Auditorium, 8: 15 p. M.): bi: Thursday, March 19. Awards for scientific achievement, 1941. Thursday, April 16. Cosmic emotion. Paut R. Hert. S _ PHILOSOPHICAL Society or WasHINeToON (Cosmos Club Auditorium, 8:15 p.m.): x Saturday, March 28. Adsorption of gases and vapors in solids. SrerHEeN BRUNAUER. a ee roocrcat SocieTy or WasHineTON (U.S. National Museum, 8 P.m.): _ Tuesday, March 17. The Jesuits in South America. ALFRED Mérravx. " Cuemicat Socrmry or WasHINGTON (Cosmos Club Auditorium, 8: 15 P.M.): Thursday, April 9. The electrophoretic study of proteins. D. A. MacInnes. Natronat Grocrapuic Society (Constitution Hall, 8:15 p.m.)?: Friday, March 20. Program to be announced. Friday, March 27. Hawaii. Capt. Jon Crate. Friday, April 3. Familvar birds turn movie stars. ARTHUR A. ALLEN. | Biccorca: Society oF THE District or CoLumsia (1718 M Street, N. W., 8 P.M.): _ ~~ *~Wednesday, March 18. Syphilis looks at the doctor. Neus A. NELSON. a. Sound and color film: Syphilis, its diagnosis and management. & Wednesday, March 25. Presentation of papers selected as meriting prizes among those sub- “a. mitted by house officers in the District of Columbia. i | Wednesday, April 8 (program by Washington Heart Association). Cardioangiography—the x-ray a visualization of the heart chambers and great vessels by contrast substance. IstporE SHUL- MAN. Discussion led by BreRNaRD J. WALSH. Incomplete rupture of the aorta—a cause of cardiac pain and cardiac murmurs. THomas M. PreEry. Discussion led by Joun A. REISINGER. Wednesday, April 15 (program by Obstetrical Board). Report of the Obstetrical Board. HERBERT P. AMSEY. _ Responsibilities of the hospital obstetric staff conference in relation to the problems of maternal welfare. Poitie F. WILLIAMS. The county maternal welfare committee; possibilities for postgraduate education. Harvey B. MatrHEws. Obstetrical care in the United States. EpwIN ¥. Daly. BoranIca. Socrery or WasHINGTON (Women’s Club of Chevy Chase, Md., 7 p.m.): Thursday, April 2. Annual dinner, followed by illustrated lecture: Fairchild Tropical Exped