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JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOLUME 25, 1935
BOARD OF EDITORS
Joun A. STEVENSON F. G. Brick WEDDE Roxtanp W. Brown BURBAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY BUREAU OF STANDARDS U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
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CHEMICAL SOCIETY
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ERRATA
Vol. 25, 1935
Page 84, line 6: after “longa’’ add a comma.
Page 84, line 14: after “10” add a comma.
Page 84, line 15: after “longa’’ add ‘‘debilia,.”’
Page 84, line 23: for ‘“‘gamosephali”’ read ‘‘gamosepali.”’
Page 84, line 45: for ‘‘amnibus”’ read ‘‘omnibus.”’
Page 85, line 8: for “hand” read ‘‘haud.”
Page 85, line 24: after “Lundell” add “no. 1555.”
Page 85, line 41: delete commas after ‘‘acicula’”’ and “‘longas.”’ Page 85, line 44: add comma after ‘‘9.”
Page 85, line 52: for “‘retrosis’”’ read ‘“‘retrorsis.”’
Page 86, line 5: delete comma after “integra.”
Page 86, line 10: for ‘“‘ablongo’’ read ‘‘oblongo.”’
Page 86, line 26: for “disolutam”’ read ‘‘dissolutam.”
Page 86, line 28: for “fur-furaceae”’ read ‘‘furfuraceae.”’
Page 86, line 31: add period after ‘‘obtectae.”’
Page 86, line 34: for “proper” read “‘prope.”
Page 86, line 36: for ‘‘ven” read ‘‘vena”’ and after “prominenti’”’ add a comma. Page 86, line 37: for “longitudinalibusa”’ read “‘longitudinalibus.”’ Page 87, line 7: for “ferior’’ read ‘‘subinferior.”’
Page 87, line 25: for “derosum”’ read deorsum.”’
Page 87, line 26: after “longa’”’ add a period.
Page 91, line 46: for ““Hurd Karrer” read ‘‘Hurd-Karrer.”
Page 122, line 6: for ‘‘N. Fréderstrém” read ‘‘H. Fréderstrém.” Page 123, line 6: for ‘“‘jupaernse”’ read “‘juparense.”’
Page 503, line 9: for “‘Ponona”’ read ‘‘Ponana.”’
Page 509, line 1: for ‘‘Foral”’ read ‘“‘Forel.”’
Vou. 25 ; JANUARY 15, 1935 No. 1
JOURNALG justo
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JOURNAL
OF THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VoL. 25 JANUARY 15, 1935 No. 1
PSYCHOLOGY.—The frontier of the mind! Wiuu1aAmM A. WHITE, St. Elizabeth’s Hospital, Washington, D. C.
I have been asked to present to the Academy a communication upon the general subject of the ability of man, from the point of view of his mental make-up, to go on adjusting himself to the ever and rapidly increasing complexities of the world he lives in. I take it that the present state of confusion throughout the world has raised the issue in the minds of many that perhaps man is so constituted that there are limits to his capacity for accomplishment along those lines and that perhaps there are indications that those limits have been reached. I shall be very glad to deal with this subject, but in order to do so I feel that it will be essential to attempt to orient you some- what to the new ways of thinking which have affected interpretations of psychological events in recent years, so that you will know the basic features of this new psychology with which you will be enabled to reach some conclusion with reference to the issues stated.
In the first place, I must tell you to begin with that the psychology that many of us were taught in our college days has in large part, and almost entirely in certain very fundamental ways, been super- seded. The psychology of the nineteenth century has rapidly become of interest only from an historical standpoint, and the developments as they are taking place now require an entirely different point of view regarding all things psychological.
In the last century the study of the mind was still more or less entangled with its associations with ethics, on the one side, and philosophy on the other; and it is only in the present century that it can be said to have become a really scientific discipline and a branch, in my estimation, of biology which deals with certain aspects of living beings. In changing, however, in this radical way and becoming scientific it has naturally had to break with many traditions, and these traditions still tend to find expression in the language we use and to contaminate our thinking.
! This paper is the manuscript of a lecture delivered at a meeting of the AcApEMY, November 21, 1934. Received November 28, 1934,
1
2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1
For example, one of the problems that confronted the psychologists of yesterday was the so-called body-mind problem. What was the re- lation between body and mind? The mere asking of the question in- volved the assumption that they were separate one from the other, and, further, that the mind in some way was added to the body in the process of evolution at some particular time—it took up its habi- tation in some special group of living beings and maintained there an existence which was separate from that of the body and yet in a mysterious way intimately related to it. Modern psychology is no longer vexed with this problem, because the way in which we think of man now is such that a query of this sort has ceased to have mean- ing and therefore the question is no longer asked.
You will gather, therefore, from what I have said that what has happened in the realm of psychology is that different ways of think- ing have come to pass, which automatically have disposed of many of the problems of the last century but which quite characteristically have raised many new ones in their stead.
I think, therefore, that I perhaps can serve you best if I give in brief outline some of the ways in which we now look at matters psy- chological, and you will note how they differ from the psychology of the nineteenth century, which not only considered the mind as a separate entity but dealt with its several faculties—intellect, emotion, and will—as if each of them had an existence of its own and controlled a certain group of phenomena, somewhat after alleged bureaucratic methods.
Present-day psychology differs in its way of thinking about the human organism, very much as other disciplines have come to differ in the past few years. It looks upon the organism as a whole, and that aspect of it to which we give the name “mind” we think of as only one point of view, or one facet of a many-faceted surface to which we direct our attention. We do not conceive that mental phenomena were added somewhere in the story of evolution, but because what we call mental are only a part of or only constitute one aspect of the phenomena of living beings, this aspect was present from the first but naturally in a manifestation as simplistic as the correspond- ing bodily structure, so that what we now call mind and body instead of being separate and distinct are merely different aspects of the living organism which have developed together throughout the story of organic evolution. For purposes of convenience, however, we may speak of the mind as such in the sense of the organisms’ reactions at the psychological level and describe its evolution both in the individ-
JAN. 15, 1935 WHITE: FRONTIER OF THE MIND 3
ual and in the race, and, also, it can be studied from its earliest mani- festations in the lower animals. We deal with it in this way precisely as we deal with a living organism: a dynamic, expanding group of processes, becoming more complicated along the way as the problems it has to meet require changes in this direction.
Now this study leads us to the conclusion that what we ordinarily think of as mind, namely, what I prefer to call conscious awareness, or perhaps, better, self-conscious awareness, is the last thing to occur in a long series of developments, and so it is not difficult to understand that if all the time we have been mistaking this for mind in its totality we have necessarily reached many false conclusions regarding its ways of functioning, if for no other reason than because we have been dealing with only a small portion of the total phenomena. I perhaps can illustrate this by a figure of speech. We are all familiar with the modern searchlight. I have watched it many times from the deck of a river steamer at night as it played along the banks and illuminated first one and then another bit of scenery. Now the area of conscious awareness is like this small area illuminated by the searchlight. The content of the area stands out with clear definiteness. It is perceived in the form of concrete objects, and the functions in this area are equally clear-cut and definite. They constitute reasoning, judgment, discrimination, perception. But you will note that this bright spot is only a minute part of the total situation and that outside it there is a region of twilight or darkness in which we see nothing clearly— perhaps vague outlines, little more. This is the region where all clear- cut distinctions and definitions of outline are lost. This region instead of being the region where reason functions and where clear-cut defi- nitions and differentiations prevail, is the region of the emotions, or, speaking more generally, the feelings. It is in this zone that our instincts manifest themselves, our intuitions have play, and instead of being governed by intellectual processes it is the region in which instinctive forces, natural desires, the avoidance of pain, the seeking of pleasure, prevail; in short, the region where the wish holds sway, unimpeded by the necessity for conforming to the limitations imposed by a world of harsh realities and natural laws. Reasoning gives way to phantasies, and things happen because we want them to. The omnipotence of thought, as we call it, rules here supreme. Things are true because they are thought to be true, and for no other reason. It is the land of dreams and their realization. It is the region above all in which we live as the other region is that in which we think.
Now this dark surrounding territory of indefinite extent is just as
4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 1
much a part and parcel of the mind as the small, bright, illuminated spot. In fact it is more necessary because more fundamental; and what we are particularly interested in now is, How valid may be the reasoning from things as they are seen in the illuminated area of the searchlight, with all these forces in the background left out of con- sideration? I seem to have answered my question in the asking. Ob- viously if we wish to arrive at true interpretations, the background against which the brightly illuminated objects are seen can not be neglected.
Now for a moment to indicate how in the course of evolution this central nucleus of brilliant illumination has gradually become differ- entiated from this background of instincts and feeling. There is in all living creatures some impulse—define it as we will, we do not understand it—which ensures what we are pleased to call progress, development, evolution. In the course of that evolution a number of things have happened. Those that interest us at the moment are these: In the lower forms of life reproduction took place at a tremen- dous rate and these organisms could afford, so to speak, to make great numbers of mistakes in dealing with the forces of the environ- ment because myriads of them could be destroyed and the species still persist. But as life attained to a more and more complicated structure in response to its adjustment to the various forces which it had to meet, these adjustments became increasingly accurate and at the same time reproduction fell off accordingly, so that finally our capacity for adjustment has reached such a point that reproduction has only to develop single individuals where before it developed mil- lions. This increased accuracy of adjustment is in itself almost the same thing as conscious awareness, because it involves not only clearer and more clean-cut perceptions of the situation to which it is neces- sary to adjust but it also involves the necessity of delaying immediate response, bringing into the picture the results of past experience and so further illuminating the possibilities of choice and then finally reaching a conclusion which can be carried out in action sometimes extending over many years of time. All this requires an intensity of fixation upon the specific problem of adjustment which is in itself an outstanding characteristic of that very clarity of vision which is part and parcel of conscious awareness.
Now I think if I have succeeded in making myself clear, but I fear that perhaps I have not—that we have a picture of what we call mind as a developing organism which tends to focus in a point of clear con- sciousness but which has back of that clear consciousness all the
JAN. 15, 1935 WHITE: FRONTIER OF THE MIND 5
organized tendencies of the past millions of years, plus those of the individual himself, as motivating factors that modify and control what takes place at that particular locus—a situation already, you see, that involves a complexity which if we try to visualize it is to all intents and purposes infinite.
Such a concept naturally leads to still further and very interesting conclusions. I think it was Bergson who said that he did not know how “‘life insinuated itself into dead matter.” Perhaps we need not undertake to answer that question here, but it would seem obvious that the laws of the cosmos in the course of the origin and evolution of living forms have impressed themselves upon life in such wise that these living forms have incorporated within themselves these very laws, only they are expressed under material conditions modified by the existence of what we call life. In other words, tiny man who creeps about on this planet is not the lord of creation, in spite of the fact that he still thinks he is and acts as if he were. The world within is the impress of the cosmos upon him, and if, as some of the psychol- ogists have expressed it, man projects laws, order, meanings upon the world, these projections are in turn but reflections of the world’s impress upon him. You will see, therefore, that I have drawn here the picture of man and the rest of the universe as acting and reacting upon each other in a process of adjustment which continues to proceed along the lines which we are accustomed to in our understanding of development and evolution.
One of the outstanding facts in the course of the recent history of man was the realization by the astronomers of individual differences as between different observers of celestial events, with the result that the so-called personal equation was evolved as a corrective to these differences and as an assistance to more accurate readings. It began to be appreciated then that man’s observation of the world was by no means infallible. Not only were his sense organs defective, but the time of transition along his nervous pathways was not always the same, in other words, he was a very defective instrument with which to observe and record the outside world. It was not a very great step from this realization to the further one already implied in my account, that the world only exists for him as this imperfect instrument perceives it and that therefore in a very real sense every individual lives in a world of his own, and that that world is a little bit different from anyone else’s.
It has been indicated that the chance of a particular germ plasm combination taking place is one in five million billions. In other words,
6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 1
each of us represented that one chance when we became ourselves. This, from a purely physical point of view, gives us some idea, therefore of what the possibilities of variation are, expressed in terms of chromo- somes and genes. Now, having developed this unique personality different from any other that ever existed or ever will exist, we are confronted by a world which is in constant change and which bom- bards us with a series of sensory impressions, probably by the millions, each hour of our lives, and these impressions are received in a machine which has been built up through millions of years of evolution, as it were, for the purpose of handling this material.
The human organism is a receiver, transformer and transmitter of energy, energy that comes from all these myriad sources and is re- ceived into an organism quite as complicated as the world from which it comes. A single portion of the brain, the cerebral cortex, a thin layer of 2 to 4 mm. in thickness covering the cerebral hemispheres, contains cells (incidentally the most complicated cell structures in the body) somewhere in the neighborhood of nine to ten billions in number. And so if you will think of all these things you will have some idea of what the possibilities are, expressible in matter and en- ergy, with which the organism has to contend. Now these figures are so stupendous and at the same time so vague that they can not have a very great deal of meaning, except that obviously there must be in this organism a plastic capacity which has enabled it to proceed thus far on its path; and I may add that as we go from points of definite structure in the organism and proceed in the direction of the last additions which have been made in the evolutionary process, namely, to the possibilities of psychological function, we are moving in the direction from the least modifiable toward the more modifiable, and that therefore we may expect to find, as we in fact do, that man through the years has changed more in his thinking functions than he has either in the functions of his organs or in their structures. To all intents and purposes so far as we are concerned man’s anatomy and physiology remain fixed and unchanging facts, whereas experience teaches us, to the contrary, that psychologically he continues modi- fiable more or less throughout his life, but of course his modifiability is greatest in the early years. From such facts of observation as are
vailable to us when dealing with human beings, we know that the possibilities of modification in many instances are very considerable; and I may say merely as a result of the precipitates of experience which control my thinking, without perhaps the ability to bring con- crete evidence to bear upon the subject, that there is no indication
JAN. 15, 1935 WHITE: FRONTIER OF THE MIND a
so far as I know of any limitation to this modifiable and adjustable capacity of the human being. There is, on the contrary, all along the way historical evidence that he has always been apprehensive that his adjustment would break down, that he has always seen society as an overwhelmingly complicated affair and felt that the time was coming when he could no longer keep up with the procession. This is his natural response to the pressure which is put upon him to go forward on the path of progress. As he gets older this pressure is felt more and more and develops contemporaneously with lessening pow- ers of adjustment; and then Nature comes forward with her cure for this situation, and her cure is death, and the new generation takes up the problems where the old generation left them. For example, we have today all these new and marvelous results in the realm of physics and mechanics and astronomy which have largely come about as a result of Professor Hinstein’s contributions. There are very few people in the world who are capable of understanding these results, only a handful of people in fact; but if they are true—and I take it they are—I suspect that future generations will understand them as easily as we do that the earth is round. And yet there must have been a time when the fact of the roundness of the earth was quite as difficult of comprehension to the masses of the people as the Theory of Relativity is today; but young, plastic, adjustable minds, un- hampered by the prejudices of yesterday, will grasp these new com- cepts quickly, as they have in the past.
There has never been any question about man’s adjustment to life under the seas or in the clouds, or to temperatures at the poles or the tropics. But his most difficult task is to adjust to his fellow men; and in the present century the emphasis that psychology, and particularly psychiatry, has received is an earnest desire for the probable development of his understanding of himself, which will in time be comparable to his understanding of the rest of the world. At the present time, of course, this is not so. It is generally conceded that his knowledge of himself is far below his knowledge of the world about him. When these two fields can be comprehended with something like equal understanding there will be a new capacity for man’s ad- justment to his fellows far in excess of anything that we have ever imagined.
So much for fundamental principles. It may interest you at this point to consider with me for a few minutes what light, mental disease in its various forms sheds upon the problem under discussion. In the first place, let us look at the development of our thinking from the
8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1
standpoint of the way in which medicine has responded. Nineteenth century medicine was outstandingly characterized by the develop- ment of the various medical specialties. The accumulation of knowl- edge about the human organism, the way it functioned and its various diseases, progresses so rapidly that it became a rather hopeless task for individual physicians to attempt to master the whole field, and so they solved their difficulty in this respect by confining their atten- tion to disorders of certain organs or groups of organs. You are famil- iar with this state of affairs. But unfortunately this development con- tained an inherent defect. Organs could not be adequately considered apart from the rest of the organism and when the concept organism- as-a-whole began to develop this fact became outstandingly clear. Perhaps psychiatry has done more to develop this aspect of the situa- tion than any other department of medicine because psychiatry looks upon the organism as a group of organs associated together in a com- mon purpose, and that purpose is none other than to effect a more adequate adaptation to the environment and to so modify that en- vironment by acting upon it as to bend it to the purposes of the organism. In other words, the purpose of the organism-as-a-whole can only be expressed in psychological terms. The functions of all the organs focus in this psychological objective, and therefore psy- chiatry at once became interested in the whole individual.
This point of view receives a rather startling confirmation in the statistics of mental disease as we see them represented in our public institutions. To begin with, for the most part our mentally ill patients are not physically sick in the ordinary sense of that term. If they have deviations from the normal in their several functions these deviations are so comparatively small that as yet we either are not able to define them or to interpret them. On the other hand, if we take the great mass of mentally ill we do find the startling fact that despite all our efforts to the contrary they die at a rate something like six times greater than the general population. You see this fact confirms what I have said, and in addition it also confirms what I have implied of the organism; namely, that it is an energy system, and when the flow of energy is impeded and the necessary adjust- ments both within and without the organism are therefore impossible of effecting, the organism-as-a-whole functions at a lowered efficiency and the span of life is correspondingly shortened. Now let us see how this works in a particular situation.
Let us revert to the figure of speech I used earlier of the searchlight which brightly illumines only a small spot in an otherwise uniformly
JAN. 15, 1935 WHITE: FRONTIER OF THE MIND 9
dark medium. You recall that I spoke in general of the distinction between these two areas, and that intelligence dominated the former and wishes the latter; and you will recall, also, that the wishes that are formulated in this dark territory express the fundamental instincts of life, and the mental processes that occur in the illuminated space represent those more accurate adjustments to the material facts and the natural laws of the environment, physical and personal, in which the individual lives. It is easy to see from this statement how tenden- cies in these two areas not only may be but must necessarily be fre- quently opposed one to the other. Let me imagine an example. An individual is so situated that his only source of water is a stream polluted with the germs of a deadly disease. If he drinks of the stream he will surely die of the disease. He can only preserve his life by not drinking, but, paradoxically, if he does not drink he will die of thirst. The agony of thirst increases as the hours pass. Temptation to drink from the stream becomes intolerable. He resists it as long as possible because he knows that drinking means death. The desire to slake his thirst, to supply his organism with the necessary fluid, originates in the dark region where the instincts and the wishes govern. The fear of drinking, the apprehension of the result if he does—all these things come from the clearly visioned situation as he actually sees it in the world in which he has to live and to which he has to attempt to adapt himself. The desire that emanates from this larger region, which, in harmony with present usage we will call the unconscious, is in conflict with the knowledge that the individual has and the fear resulting from that knowledge of death if he yields. This, of course, is an extreme example, but it shows how a life and death struggle may take place between the opposing demands of these two regions of the mind. In all our nervous and mental diseases we have, among other things, a similar situation with which to deal. We have this so-called conflict between these two great regions at the basis of these disturb- ances, and one of the outstanding results of this conflict, which I am sure you can comprehend easily from the example which I have just given, is that the energies of the individual are used up in a futile battle and are not, therefore, available for those possible adjustments which would make for greater efficiency of living. And the problem of therapeutics at this psychological level with which we as psychia- trists are most concerned is the very problem of helping the patient to effect some kind of permanent solution, or, if not a solution at least a compromise, with these contending forces so that the energy engaged in the conflict may be released for more effective use.
10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 1
Just a few words at this point by way of hints, so that you will have some idea how this works out actually. The cruder ways in which this conflict not infrequently manifests itself is in alternating swings between the attempts to satisfy each of the two contenders in this intrapsychic conflict. And so we see that the individual lives for a certain time in accordance with his ideals and gets along very well, but during this period the tendencies from the other side are constant- ly nagging him. They are increasing in strength just exactly in the same way that in the example I have given you the man’s thirst in- creased, until they finally reach a point where they have accumulated so much force by this slow process of impounding that they can no longer be restrained and they break forth, sometimes expressing themselves as the epileptic convulsion, and in this breaking forth they not infrequently express themselves in aggressive and destruc- tive conduct. Quite characteristically this destructive conduct is ad- dressed against the world at large, and in the epileptic furor the patient spreads ruin and destruction all about him, and woe to anyone who attempts to interfere with him. It is as though he were wreaking his vengeance upon a world which had created within him by various stimuli certain desires which he was incapable of fulfilling. Then, equally unfortunately, these same aggressive and destructive instincts are turned upon himself and he would destroy those very parts of his body through which these stimuli to which he can not respond transmitted themselves. And so we find patients mutilating themselves in the most hideous manner, digging out their eyes, biting off their tongues, castrating themselves, and, finally, sometimes by the most painful methods, committing that final act, complete and irrevocable, of self-destruction. These are just some of the more terrible things that we see when serious disharmony affects the organism in the ways which I have described and which result in destroying its efficiency and even in destroying its life.
Perhaps with the background thus far developed I can indicate another point of view very briefly, which you may find interesting but which I must warn you, to begin with, is largely speculative. You will see as I have developed my thesis that I have pictured an organism all the several parts of which are constructed for a common purpose, and that purpose only finds its full expression as it heads up in the tendencies which come to expression, in the functions of the mind. In addition to that, the implication seems fairly evident that if I have correctly indicated the forces that are involved in the func- tioning and the purposes of the organism, that this organism is grow-
JAN. 15, 1935 WHITE: FRONTIER OF THE MIND 11
ing, expanding, developing, evolving at this head end, not unlike, by analogy, but of course in a very much simpler state of affairs, the way that the root of a plant develops through the intermediation of the root tip. The further implication of this point of view is that the experience to which the living being is subjected by this constant necessity for adjusting to the environment, and which experience has been in process of evolution through living organisms now for millions of years, is gradually, just as we see it in the growth of the individual organism, laid down in what amounts to permanent structural de- tails. In other words, when a given necessity becomes of survival value, the function that satisfies that necessity is precipitated, as it were, in the form of organic structure; and thus we have at the heart of each organism certain definite, well-defined structures that vary only within narrow limits as between individuals and which repre- sent the answers, so to speak, which the organism has developed in its response to the queries presented to it by the environment through the ages.
In order that this process of adaptation may continue, not only from generation to generation but from youth to old age, there has to be a certain retained plasticity on the part of the organism, a certain possibility of change; and this possibility, as I have indicated, is greatest when we come to the more recently acquired adaptations, as they are expressed in the functions of the mind. Without laboring this point further, let me draw the conclusion, which might be sup- ported by a great deal of concrete evidence, that this modifiable as- pect of the organism represents a strategic point of attack which offers possibility of modification; and, therefore, when the organism is func- tioning inadequately, it is not beyond the possibilities from our pres- ent knowledge to look forward to a time when the field of psycho- therapy will be much larger than it is now, when illnesses will be attacked from this angle much more frequently than they are at the present time, and that much of the therapy which is now ad- dressed directly to the soma, the more definitely fixed portions of the organism, will go out of use, and, correspondingly, therapy addressed to the psyche, the more modifiable forms, will come into practice.
I have given you in this brief paper: first, a discussion of the funda- mentals from which we must proceed if we are to answer the question as to how far we may expect man to go in the future; secondly, some illustrations of how the forces at his disposal may be distorted and impaired in their utilization; and, thirdly, a suggested view of the future. From all of these three points of view I gather a definite feel-
12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1
ing, and that is that the greatest asset of man today is his mind, that the greatest unexplored and largely unknown territory in all the world so far as we know is this same region, so that I feel today that we are entering upon a new chapter in the history of human develop- ment, that we are pressing forward into the unknown along a new frontier of great and apparently inexhaustible riches, and that frontier is the frontier of the mind.
Now just a few words with regard to this frontier territory that we are only beginning to enter upon. What is it like, and what may we expect to find in it? I may reply very generally by saying that it is very much like all frontiers. The explorer who has pushed his way into a new country must always be prepared to meet with hardships and dangers, and the reward of the frontiersman is in proportion to his ability to overcome these obstacles. Extremes of temperature, floods and drouths, great forests and wild animals, to say nothing of tribes of savage men who look upon him as an enemy, represent the types of difficulties he has to meet; but if he succeeds he is rewarded by the fertility of an untilled land and the richness of unexploited deposits of precious metals and the like. It is similar, so far as we know, to this unexplored region of the mind. As soon as we begin to search earnestly, systematically, and assiduously in this territory we find all the terrors and all the obstacles that belong to unsettled and uncivilized regions; and here, as elsewhere, it takes courage to press forward, for, quite contrary to the assumptions which are tacitly made regarding the nature of man, the things that are found are often too terrible to be acknowledged, much less studied and under- stood. Man is neither wholly angel nor wholly devil, but both aspects are intertwined in his character; and just as his capacity for good is very great, so is his capacity for evil. Man prefers to think of himself without these handicapping qualities of which he is not at all proud, and so he lives in a hypocritical atmosphere of self-adulation much of the time. A little thought of the story of man as he has come to be what he is, would make it perfectly understandable why these char- acteristics still cling to him. It is only a very little while ago, compara- tively, in the story of his life on earth, that he himself was a savage, and this savage state existed for hundreds of thousands of years, and before that he was an animal, and that stage lasted much longer. The characteristics of these stages were essentially animalistic, and if he has arrived at what we are pleased to call civilization it is only because he has been able to survive, and if he has been able to survive it is only because through these ages he has been willing to kill. He
JAN. 15, 1935 WHITE: FRONTIER OF THE MIND 13
has reached his present estate literally by leaving a trail of blood be- hind him, and naturally we must expect to find at least the remnants of those destructive and aggressive qualities which I have already intimated exist and which I now say characterize him in large part. The frontiersman, if he wishes to conquer Nature, must have the courage of his convictions. He must be willing to face the dangers that are in his path. It is precisely the same way with ourselves. We can not alter ourselves, or reach higher stages of civilization by ignoring our own characteristics. We must appreciate and understand them if we are to deal with them intelligently, overcome them, capture the energies which now are dissipated in their destructive activities and conserve them for socially useful and acceptable ends. And this method of procedure requires work, hard work, continuous work, in order that it may yield valuable results. The frontiersman lived a hard life, but if he succeeded he reaped untold material riches as well as health and happiness; for it is written: “In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread.” The difference here from the popular conception is that the real dangers that confront him come from within. The thing in all the world that man is most afraid of is himself, the forces that are in him and which if let loose would express themselves in destruc- tion, ultimately destruction of himself. This you will be able to realize when I suggest that the three great crimes which man has been guilty of through the ages, the crimes which are not made by statute but which are, as the lawyers say, “‘evil in themselves’”—murder, incest and cannibalism, are still with us. I do not need to convince you that murder is by no means a lost art. We only have to think of the last war and read the newspapers. Incest, of course, few of you, I am sure, have had any contact with; but those of us who deal with the illnesses of people, and their defects, know that it is far from rare, while canni- balism still exists in remote places and occasionally crops out at our own level of culture under peculiar conditions of stress. It would perhaps be strange if this were not so, for, after all, the patterns in which man has expressed his fear, his hate and his aggressive and destructive tendencies are probably pretty well a part of our funda- mental make-up which we have carried through the centuries and which is still with us even though buried deep in our natures. There- fore I am sure, you can understand with what good cause man should be afraid of himself, afraid lest these instinctive tendencies should be let loose and fall into their accustomed patterns of expression. When we come to the content of our psychic life we find that for the most part we are quite oblivious of anything that is not within
14 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1
the circle of clear conscious awareness, but those of us who are suffi- ciently honest and sufficiently brave, who really and truly examine our own thinking and feeling processes, are aware that on the fringe of this brightly illuminated area quite a good many things are happen- ing which we ordinarily do not take account of. Perhaps one of the most significant symptoms and one of the most widely dispersed is anxiety, and this symptom of anxiety comes into the picture when- ever our safety and security is in any sense jeopardized. It is the red light that warns us of danger, danger from within and danger of the particular character that I have mentioned, namely, that the instinc- tive forces will break through the barriers that civilization has erected and carry destruction with them. In fact, it would seem that the growth of civilization and the various institutions which have been erected as means by which mankind comes to a more effective han- dling of his environment are all of them, in a sense at least, the result of reactions calculated to protect the individual from anxiety, and that we progress along the path of evolution and development rather timorously, one might say, afraid all the time, threatened from forces both within and without, constantly strengthening our position and seeking always for safety, permanency and equilibrium, goals which can never be attained but which as a result of our continuous seeking bring to pass constantly improved methods of adjustment. Every success, every overcoming of an obstacle, every solution of a problem, makes possible new successes, new obstacles to be overcome and new problems which must be met. So that we have a never-ending process of which we are a part. We must always go forward. We are on the treadmill of life and we must advance or die. Anxiety is one of the symptoms which indicate this mechanism, so that we are beginning to see, at least vaguely, what it is that makes the machine work; of course, not really and fundamentally, perhaps, but at least we get the hint.
All these things that I have said to you have grown out of the sug- gestions which the newer developments in our field have thrown up with regard to some of the age-old questions which have con- fronted us. As I have already indicated, my feeling is that we are on the verge of an entirely new era in the development of our under- standing of ourselves, and that the outstanding characteristic of this new era will be our ability to ask of the organism a certain type of questions which we are only beginning to be able to formulate. In other words, we have studied the details of the functioning of the organism now these many years. We are beginning to see back of
JAN. 15, 19835 SOSMAN AND AUSTIN: MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY 15
these details something which we appreciate is the totality of the organism itself, and we have accumulated enough knowledge of this totality by the investigation of these details so that we are beginning to be able to take the next step, which is to ask intelligent questions of this organism which will give some information about it.
I hope, if I have done nothing else, that I have convinced you that at least I think that this region of the frontier of the mind is a long, long way from having its possibilities exhausted, in fact that we are just entering upon a vast territory which will be many, many years in the frontier stage of development, and that the winning of this territory holds out the prospect that for the first time man will really have come to some understanding of himself based upon accepted principles of science.
PHYSICS.—An apparatus for measuring the magnetic susceptibility of liquids and solids at high temperatures.1 R. B. SosmMan and J. B. Austin, Research Laboratory, United States Steel Cor- poration, Kearny, N. J.
The apparatus described in the present paper was developed by the senior author several years ago at the Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington, and results obtained with it have been published, but no description has yet been put into print. It has been found useful in determining the susceptibility of solids and liquids, both paramagnetic and diamagnetic, through a temperature range from room temperature to 1000°C, and it has the advantage of being quickly adaptable to substances having a wide range of proper- ties. It is now in current use at the Research Laboratory, U. 8. Steel Corporation, at Kearny, N. J.
METHOD
The method depends upon the familiar principle of weighing the force acting upon a known mass of the substance in the non-uniform magnetic field of a solenoid.? Any paramagnetic or diamagnetic sub- stance is acted upon in a magnetic field by a force proportional to its magnetic susceptibility, to the field intensity, and to the field gradi- ent. If the magnetic field possesses cylindrical symmetry, the resultant
1 Received Oct. 16, 1934.
2 The method was first used for quantitative measurements of susceptibility by BouTzMANN (Sitzungsber. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Math.-Nat. Cl. 80, Il: 687-714. 1879) and von ErtinesHavsEN (Ann. Phys. u. Chem. 17: 272-305. 1882) and has not been used since that time, possibly because of the complicated calculations necessary to obtain absolute values.
16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO.
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Fig. 1.—Front elevation, and partial cross-section, of apparatus for measurement of magnetic susceptibility. Arrangement for measurements near room temperature.
JAN. 15, 1935 SOSMAN AND AUSTIN: MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY i,
force is along the axis of a cylinder. Hence if the cylinder is set with its axis vertical, the force can be opposed to the force of gravity and weighed with the equal-arm balance, which is one of the most sensi- tive and precise of physical instruments.
With a good analytical balance, and with proper attention to out- side disturbances, the force can be weighed to +0.005 milligram. The sample may be from 2 to 50 grams. With the field constants used in our apparatus, the corresponding variation in the mass-susceptibility is 0.1xX10-* to 0.004 x10-*. On paramagnetic (high-temperature) iron and on iron compounds such as ferrous sulfate this is equivalent to a precision of about 0.3 to 0.01 per cent. The corresponding abso- lute accuracy, which involves a knowledge of the field constants as well as the force, is estimated at 1.0 to 0.2 per cent. Many paramag- netic and diamagnetic substances, however, have such a small sus- ceptibility (equal in some cases to zero) that a statement of per- centage accuracy is misleading; the more informative statement is that the susceptibility is measurable within about 1.0 x10~* divided by the weight of the sample. The larger-sized samples can be used only for measurements near room temperature, since the diameter of the furnace tube is necessarily small and the object or container used for high-temperature measurements cannot be more than 14 mm in diameter.
With a ferromagnetic substance the force depends not only on the factors mentioned above but also on the size of the individual par- ticles, the shape of the particles, their distance apart, the shape of the charge as a whole, and the previous magnetic history of the sample. Therefore, only somewhat crude comparative results are obtainable by this method with a ferromagnetic powder. The same is true toa greater or less degree of all the other methods applicable to such ma- terial.
APPARATUS
The apparatus used in making measurements at room tempera- ture, as shown in Fig. 1, consists of an analytical balance from one pan of which is suspended a container located in the axis of the sole- noids which produce the non-uniform field. For convenience in de- scription the apparatus is divided into four sections: (1) Weighing system, (2) Suspension and container, (3) Solenoids and electric cir- cuits, (4) Furnace and apparatus for control of temperature.
(1) Weighing System. The force acting on the specimen is weighed directly by an Ainsworth analytical balance (A) sensitive to 0.005
18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 1
mg. This sensitivity is ample for all except the most feebly para- magnetic or diamagnetic substances, for which a microbalance would be preferable.
The pointer of the balance is made of a non-ferrous alloy and the knife edges are of agate, thus removing the necessity of correcting for the effect of induction in those parts of the balance that are some- times made of steel. This construction is desirable since experience has shown that the effect of steel parts, even at a considerable dis- tance, is not negligible. While the error caused by a steel knife edge is small and is easily corrected for, the error arising from a steel pointer may be fairly large. To prevent certain irregularities which were found to be due to the accumulation of an electric charge on the balance in cold dry weather, a small amount of carnotite ore is kept in a glass dish in the balance case.
The balance itself rests on an Alberene stone slab which is sup- ported on a pipe frame, making part of a heavy table. The frame as well as all other parts of the apparatus is of brass.
(2) Suspension and container. The suspension consists of a glass fiber in the portion that is at room temperature, and several links of gold wire in the part subjected to high temperature. The glass fiber hooks into a loop under one stirrup of the balance, the pan-arrest being split to make room for the loop. Below the stone slab the whole suspension is enclosed in two telescoping glass tubes to prevent dis- turbance by air currents. The lower and larger tube carries at its upper end a threaded brass head which may be screwed over the brass head of the upper tube. With this arrangement the lower tube can be raised and held out of the way during any adjustment of the apparatus.
The container (B) varies in size, shape, and composition with the substance to be examined, the choice of material being influenced by the temperatures to be used. At room temperature the most satis- factory material for general use is celluloid. A bucket made by cement- ing sheet celluloid combines the advantages of light weight and nearly negligible magnetic susceptibility. Glass may also be used although there is always the danger of breakage to be taken into account. Glass buckets have, however, been employed with success as high as 300°C. Of the metals, iron-free brass has been found satisfactory for measurements at room temperature while gold is the best material available for high temperatures. Gold has a small susceptibility, is stable at high temperatures, and can be easily fashioned into various sizes and shapes. Platinum has too high a susceptibility, while silver changes weight through absorption or release of oxygen.
JAN. 15, 1985 SOSMAN AND AUSTIN: MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY 19
The smallest size of charge which gives the desired accuracy is the best. Containers for use at room temperature may be as large as 40 mm diameter; the height should not be greater than approximately 30 mm in order to minimize the error in estimating the magnetic field in which the specimen is suspended.
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Fig. 2.—Arrangement of solenoids for qualitative study of the form of the magnetization curve of a ferromagnetic powder.
In measurements at elevated temperatures the diameter of the bucket is limited to approximately 14 mm by the size of the furnace tube. In this case, particularly, the height should not exceed 30 mm since there is a temperature gradient as well as a field gradient along the furnace.
It is useful to provide the container with a plunger, which serves to level the surface of a powdered charge and to define exactly its di- mensions.
(3) Solenoids and electric circuits. For measurements of suscepti- bility at a single field intensity the magnetic field is produced by two
20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 1
coaxial solenoids (iS) whose constants are given in Table I. The outer solenoid (O in Fig. 2) is wound with size No. 16 (1.291 mm) and the inner solenoid (JZ in Fig. 2) with size No. 14 (1.628 mm) double cotton-covered copper wire.
TABLE I—DImEnsIonsS OF SOLENOIDS
Solenoid O Solenoid IL Solenoid IU Total number of turns . 2794 3221 3253 Number of layers of wire 14 20 20 Length, mm 320 318 319 Inside diameter, mm 226 88.5 88.5 Outside diameter, mm 265 156 156
It is frequently convenient to examine a substance in a magnetic field of variable intensity but constant gradient. This is accomplished with the aid of another inner solenoid (JU) similar to the inner sole- noid already described (JL) and resting on top of it. A section is shown in Fig. 2. Since the solenoids have no cores the fields are addi- tive. This arrangement makes it possible to examine the form of the hysteresis loop of a substance, since the field at any point can be varied from zero to maximum while the gradient (produced wholly by the outer solenoid) remains constant.’ It is plain, however, that with a ferromagnetic powder only the qualitative form of the loop can be indicated in this way, the true magnetization curve of the material itself being unobtainable either by this or any other method.
It should be remarked here that the particular dimensions given above for solenoids and wire are not the most efficient. The solenoids were built under circumstances where their design was controlled by the available sizes of large brass tubing and also the available sizes of copper wire in pieces of sufficient length. With free choice of ma- terials the solenoids could be redesigned either for a more intense magnetic field or for a more uniform field of force. Account must also be taken of the permissible rate of change of the field with time, because the solenoid is heated by the current and the current there- fore diminishes steadily unless readjusted by manipulating the ex- ternal resistances.
The inner solenoids rest on a cross-bar bolted to the under side of the bottom flange of the outer solenoid. The entire assembly of coils, whose relative positions are thus fixed, is carried by leveling screws set in the flange of the outer solenoid and resting on a brass table (D in Fig. 1). The height of the table is adjustable by means of a hand
’ This arrangement was suggested by the late Dr. C. W. Burrows of the National Bureau of Standards.
JAN. 15, 1935 SOSMAN AND AUSTIN: MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY 21
wheel, gear system, and screw (@). It has a vertical travel of 30 mm and is adjustable to 0.1 mm with the aid of an indicator on the flange and a scale on the table frame.
Fig. 3.—Electrical circuits for control of the magnetic field.
The container can be adjusted axially by shifting the balance on its stone slab. Approximate vertical adjustment is made by changing the gold links and accurate adjustment by moving the solenoid table D vertically. The reference level for the container is the horizontal plane surface of the upper flange of solenoid O, transferred across to the axis by means of a levelling bar made of square brass tubing with surface plates at ends and middle. Since this adjustment cannot be
22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 1
Alundum Water furnace tube~—.. — fackeT,~ dj
Fig. 4——Water-jacketed furnace for the study of magnetic susceptibility to 1000°C. This furnace is inserted in place of the water-jacket shown in Fig. 1.
JAN. 15, 1985 SOSMAN AND AUSTIN: MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY 23
made when the water-jacket or the furnace is in place, it is repro- duced outside the apparatus by means of a micrometer caliper set vertically in a metal block.
The handling of the heavy upper solenoid is facilitated by the use of the air lift (L) shown in Fig. 1, which consists essentially of a large brass tube fitted at its lower end with a piston. The lift can be raised or lowered by admitting air under a few pounds pressure at one valve or releasing it through the other. Attached to the tube are two arms upon which rests the carriage holding the solenoid (Cin Fig. 2).
The two brass plates supporting the solenoids are perforated by a ring of holes which permit the electrical and water connections for the furnace to pass through.
The electrical circuits, including that for the upper inner solenoid, are shown in Fig. 3. When the reversing switch a is closed the outer solenoid (OQ) is connected to the power line through the resistance A and the ammeter Am. Switches b and ¢ are reversing switches for the upper and lower inner solenoids respectively (JU and IL). Switches d are so arranged that the two inner solenoids can be connected singly or combined in series or parallel. At e there is a double-pole double- throw switch flanked by two single-pole single-throw switches, with which a second ammeter (Amz) can be inserted into the circuit of either of the two inner solenoids or can be cut out entirely.
(4) Furnace and control of temperature. Since the susceptibility of most paramagnetic substances changes with temperature, some means of controlling the temperature of the container is desirable. In the neighborhood of, or but slightly above, room temperature the water-cooled jacket (J) shown in Fig. 1 is sufficient. This is nothing more than a double-walled brass cylinder through which water flows. For most purposes where close control is not necessary a small stream of water will suffice to hold the temperature within +0.5°C. For closer control water from a thermostat may be circulated.
For elevated temperatures, say from 50° to 1000°C, the water jacket J of Fig. 1 is replaced by the furnace shown in Fig. 4.
The core of this furnace is an Alundum tube (17 mm i.d.) upon which is wound a helical coil of 0.8 mm platinum wire (resistance = 1.092 ohm, length approximately 3.3 meter). This coil is embedded in a thin layer of Alundum cement. The winding is bifilar and the heating current is alternating, so that the furnace is without appreci- able effect on the magnetic field.
The furnace tube is held in place by two Alundum plates (R; and R2) which grip it at the ends. Insulation is provided by packing
24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1
powdered magnesia around the core. Heat leakage to the solenoids is prevented by the water jacket (J1) which takes in water at the bot- tom (J) and discharges it through the tubes (H) which reach almost to the top. For most purposes a flow of 400 cc per minute is ample. With the furnace operating at 900°C the cooling water when flowing
Top
15
S
on
Distance from bottom, cm
Bottom O 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 300
Temp erature, °C
Fig. 5—Temperature gradients inside of the furnace of Fig. 4.
at this rate was raised from 23° to 30°C. The top of the furnace is covered by a divided disk of sheet zine with a small hole at the center through which the suspension passes.
The thermocouple T is of platinum against the alloy 90 platinum, 10 rhodium, and has its junction located just below and to one side of the bottom of the container.
The upper temperature limit of the furnace is probably well above 1000°C but above this point the zone of reasonably uniform tempera- ture becomes quite short.
The power consumed by the furnace is approximately 0.5 kilo-
JAN. 15, 1985 SOSMAN AND AUSTIN: MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY 25
watt for a temperature of 300° and slightly over 0.8 kilowatt for 800°C.
The temperature gradient in the furnace under various conditions was investigated with a small exploring platinrhodium-platinum thermocouple used in conjunction with an ice bath and a potenti- ometer. The results for four different conditions are shown in Fig. 5. It is apparent from these curves that while a fairly large gradient does exist near the ends of the furnace, particularly at the higher temperatures, there is always a zone approximately 30 mm long through which the temperature is reasonably constant. This zone is usually close to the center of the furnace. If care is taken to keep the container within this zone, satisfactory results can be obtained and reproduced.
The curves in Fig. 5 are all taken on an empty furnace. If the fur- nace contains a metal bucket it seems likely that the gradients will be somewhat reduced and that the central zone will be more uniform.
CALIBRATION OF THE SOLENOIDS
The constants of the solenoids can be obtained in two ways: (1) in absolute measure, by calculation from their dimensions; (2) em- pirically, by weighing the force acting on a charge of a substance of known susceptibility.
ABSOLUTE MEASURE OF SUSCEPTIBILITY
The ponderomotive force, F,, acting in the direction X upon a small particle of a paramagnetic or diamagnetic substance in a magnetic field in vacuum, is given by the formula‘
SE yee (1) Ox
Poe. 2
in which x is the magnetic susceptibility of the substance, V the vol- ume of the particle, H the magnetic field intensity, and 0H /dz the field gradient in the direction X.
A more convenient constant is the specific susceptibility or mass-sus- ceptibility, x. If dis the density of the substance, x =x/d. Then f., the force per gram of substance, is given by
‘ First specific statement of the principle is by W. THomson (Lord Kertyin) in
Phil. Mag. (3) 37: 241-253. 1850; reprinted in Papers on electrostatics and magnetism (1872, London) pp. 500-513.
26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1
OH fe =xH_. (2) Ox
If the direction X be taken as the vertical, the force can be meas- ured by means of a balance. Then f, = pg and the expression for mass- susceptibility becomes
Pg oH H (3) Ox
Xi
in which p is the vertical pull in the magnetic field, in grams of weight per gram of substance, and g is the force of gravity at the site of the measurement, in dynes.
GEOMETRICAL DETERMINATION OF THE CONSTANTS
The field intensity and field gradient at a given point depend only on the dimensions of the solenoids and the magnitude of the current. The field and the gradient at any point are most conveniently ex- pressed as constants multiplied by the current: ;
oH
én
i= ele k’’T, hence Hair (4) x
in which the constants k’, k’’ and k depend only on the geometry of the solenoid, k being equal to k’k’’. The formula actually used in measurements with a single solenoid then becomes
Pg © pre (6) The field-constant k’ for any point M or M’ on the axis of a single- layer circular solenoid (see Fig. 6) will be called k,’. If the current is measured in amperes, and the wire is so small and so closely wound that the corrections due to its shape and helical inclination® are negligible, then Be k,’ = —0.2mn f sin @-d@ =0.27n(cos 42 —cos 41) (6) 61
in which n = number of turns per cm length,
5 Snow, C., U. S. Bur. Stds. Sci. Papers 21: 431-519 (Sci. Pap. No. 537). 1926.
JAN. 15, 1985 SOSMAN AND AUSTIN: MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY 27
6=angle subtended at M by the radius a of the solenoid.® 6; and @2 are the terminal values of 6 for the nearer and farther ends of the solenoid, respectively, with reference to the positive direction of the axis (see Fig. 6).
Fig. 6.—Geometrical quantities involved in the magnetic field of a solenoid.
For additional layers of wire a formula can be similarly developed which gives the total intensity-constant at M in terms of the inner and outer limiting radii.’ On account of irregularities due to the necessity of providing for the anchoring and the exit of the first turns, it was found better in the present case to calculate k’ for each layer and to add the values to obtain.k’ for the entire solenoid. The required dimensions have been given in Table I. The number of turns and the length were separately recorded for every layer during the process of winding, and the calculation of the field constant k,’ for a series of points along the axis was based on these detailed data rather than on the summarized figures given in the Table, but the details of the calculation need not be given here.
Given the curve of x,’ for each solenoid against axial distance z from
6 This formula, originating with Ampére and with Bior & Savart before 1825, seems to have been first written in the convenient trigonometric form by AUERBACH, in Graetz’s Handbuch d. Elektrizitat u. Magnetismus (1920) Vol. 4: 960-967. One would expect to find that this improvement had been made at a much earlier date, but we have not discovered an earlier reference.
7 AUERBACH, p. 964 of work cited in note °.
n Ho
10 100-—
8 80
7 70
6 60
-3 -2 -1 fo) +1 Axial distance in cm
Fig. 7—Constants of the magnetic field intensities and magnetic field gradients along the axes of the solenoids shown in Figs. 1 and 2.
Field intensity H=k’I (IJ =current in amperes)
Field gradient = IL
JAN. 15, 1935 SOSMAN AND AUSTIN: MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY 29
the zero level a curve for the gradient-constant k,’’ is readily obtained graphically or with the aid of interpolation-formulas. Combination of the two then gives the axial force-constant k,. Fig. 7 shows these curves for our apparatus.
The combined force exerted by two or more solenoids carrying different currents is proportional to the product of the total field and the total gradient. When the outer and the lower inner coils are used in combination, as in most of our measurements of susceptibility in which no information on hysteresis is desired, the total force is there- fore nearly twice as great as the sum of the forces exerted by each alone. We have usually employed currents of 3.40 ampere in the outer and 4.50 ampere in the lower inner solenoid; the field intensity at —3 mm is then 436 gauss.
For a charge of finite size the force varies both axially and radially. If the depth (along the axis) is not more than 15 mm, and if the susceptibility «x is independent of H, as is true for most of the sub- stances studied with this apparatus, the value of k, for the middle point represents the average within the error expected.
For a point near the axis the departure of k’ from the axial value k,’ is given by the formula®
, , z ot k =i), 105 a ae (7)
in which a = radius of solenoid (single layer)
r = distance of the point from the axis z=axial distance of the point from one end of the solenoid 1 =length of solenoid.
At a point distant 0.1 a from the axis, which would be about 12-14 mm for the outer solenoid and 4-8 mm for the inner, the value of k’ in our apparatus differs from k,’ on the axis by only about 0.01 per cent in the worst case. The axial variation is therefore negligible, even for charges of large diameter.
For depths and diameters so large that the value of k at the middle point of the charge cannot be assumed to be the representative aver- age, the formula of Boltzmann® gives an exact result, but the cal- culation is long and complicated and the empirical calibration in terms of a standard substance is usually preferable.
8 We owe the derivation of this formula to Dr. Cuzester Snow of the National
Bureau of Standards. So far as we are aware it has not hitherto been published. * BottzMann & von ETTINGSHAUSEN, article cited in note 2.
30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1
EMPIRICAL CALIBRATION
For the empirical method crystalline ferrous ammonium sulfate, FeSO,-(NH,).SO,-6H;O, is the best standard. A known weight of the powdered salt is placed in a small brass bucket and pressed down to a definite depth by means of a plunger. By suspending the bucket at various positions along the axis, with definite currents in the solenoids, the force exerted at each point can be measured, and values of K in the simple formula
x =Kp (8)
can be calculated. As before p is the vertical pull in grams of weight per gram of substance.
Using values of x for FeSO,-(NH,).SO.-6H2O of 32.3 x10-* and 31.8 X10-* at 20° and 25°C, respectively, we have found that values of K for the combined inner lower and outer solenoids (JZ and QO), within the range —30 to +10 mm from the zero level (end of sole- noids), agree within 1 per cent with the values of K obtained by cal- culation from the dimensions, as described in the preceding section.
This agreement, together with the demonstrated small axial varia- tion in the force, justifies the empirical calibration of the apparatus for larger charges, such as can be used near room temperature in the water-jacket shown in Fig. 1. The calibration is made with a charge of powdered ferrous ammonium sulfate, corresponding in shape and volume with the unknown material, thus giving fairly high precision and accuracy to the measurements on large charges. Strictly speaking, the comparison should be made using the unknown in powdered form with the same air-filled pore space as the sulfate charge, but in these fairly homogeneous solenoid fields the error due to comparing a dense with a porous material will in most cases be negligible.
PROCEDURE IN MEASURING SUSCEPTIBILITY AT HIGH TEMPERATURES
The following notes concerning the method of taking readings may be of use to those employing similar apparatus.
The solenoids and furnace are adjusted in position so that the middle point of the charge is at the desired level, usually at —3 mm since the gradient of k at this level is small and does not change direc- tion.
The furnace is brought to a constant temperature, usually by set- ting the furnace current at a predetermined value and allowing suffi-
JAN. 15, 1935 SOSMAN AND AUSTIN: MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY dl
cient time for equilibrium to be established. While with some ex- perience and a little care a close approximation to any desired temper- ature can be obtained, nevertheless if it is necessary to obtain readings very close to a given temperature, it is well to attach an automatic potentiometric regulator to the furnace circuit and the thermocouple.
The routine in taking observations may be varied with the opera- tor. One scheme which the authors have followed with success is to take readings in groups of three; first, a weighing of the sample with no magnetic field; second, after a known interval of time, a reading of the weight of the sample with known storage-battery currents through the solenoids, the currents being kept constant by adjustment of the rheostats; third, after an interval of time equal to that between the first and second readings, a reweighing without the field. The dif- ference between the second reading and the average of the first and third gives the force exerted by the magnetic field. This procedure has been found satisfactory and appears to minimize the effects of minor or temporary fluctuations in temperature.
In some eases, the force to be measured is less than 0.1 mg or one division of the beam, using a 5 mg rider. A supplementary rider weighing only 1 mg is then used, and the readings are made by the method of swings. It is then often advantageous to leave the balance swinging throughout the set of readings.
Blank determinations should always be made on the container through the range of temperatures at which it is to be used. Celluloid (for room temperature) and gold (for higher temperatures) give the smallest blanks. One gold container, for example, weighing 5.1 gram, gave an average blank reading of +0.011 mg in the combined field at the top of the two lower solenoids.
SUMMARY
An apparatus is described which has been found useful for measur- ing the magnetic susceptibility of materials having a wide range of susceptibilities, at temperatures from 20° to 1000°C. A sensitive analytical balance is used to measure the force exerted upon the sam- ple by the non-uniform magnetic field of a set of solenoids. By com- bining a uniform field with a non-uniform field it is possible to esti- mate the shape of the hysteresis loop of a ferromagnetic powder. A water-cooled furnace inserted into the solenoids serves for the higher temperatures. Calculation of the absolute intensity and gradient of the magnetic field from the dimensions of the solenoids yields con- stants for the apparatus which agree well with those determined
32 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1
empirically by the use of ferrous ammonium sulfate as a standard substance.
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY .—The crystal structure of calaverite’ G. TuNELL and C. J. Ksanpa, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington.
The morphology of calaverite has been thoroughly investigated by a number of crystallographers.? Goldschmidt, Palache, and Peacock® concluded that calaverite crystallizes in the monoclinic system al- though they pointed out that an orthorhombic interpretation was not excluded with certainty by the evidence then available. They deter- mined accurately the following values of the crystallographic ele- ments of calaverite:* a:b:c =1.6298:1:1.1492, 8 =90°08’. Concerning the value of 8 they® wrote: “‘Aus diesen Messungen erhalten wir 89°52’ als besten Mittelwert des Winkels zwischen den zwei Achsen in der Projectionsebene. Dieser Winkel ist so nahe an 90°, dass die Frage, ob der Neigungswinkel von 90° verschieden ist, nicht aus den Messungen entschieden werden kann.” In their comprehensive joint study of the form system of calaverite they report that it has a two- fold axis of symmetry.® From the statements of Penfield and Ford,’ together with his own observations, Peacock® concludes that it has also a plane of symmetry. From its crystal habit, then, calaverite appears to belong to the holohedral symmetry class, 2/m (C',), of the monoclinic system.
Crystals of calaverite from Cripple Creek, Colorado, have been studied by the present authors by means of the Weissenberg X-ray goniometer and the two-circle reflection goniometer. The reciprocal lattice of calaverite was established by means of Weissenberg photo- graphs taken with Cr-, Cu-, and Mo-radiation, although the crystals of calaverite were not single individuals. The structural lattice has elements strictly analogous to the fundamental morphological ele- ments of Goldschmidt, Palache, and Peacock (their S-elements).
1 Received December 8, 1934. :
? See V. Gotpscumipt, C. Patacuer, and M. Peacock, Neues Jahrbuch fiir Min- eralogie, Geologie und Paldontologie, Beilage-Band 63: Abt. A, S. 50-52. 1931, and M. A. Peacock, American Mineralogist 17: 318. 1932, for references to previous work.
* Op. cit., pp. 6, 7, see also M. A. Peacock, op. cit., pp. 324, 325.
* M. A. Peacock, op. cit., p. 325.
* V. Gotpscumipt, C. Patacue, and M. Pzacocx, Op: Cit., p: 5:
* V. Gotpscumipt, C. Pauacue, and M. Pracock, op. cit., pp. 6 and 21.
‘Am. Jour. Sci. (4) 12: 236. 1901.
* Personal communication to G. Tune, dated April 25, 1934.
JAN. 15, 1985 TUNELL AND KSANDA: STRUCTURE OF CALAVERITE 33
The dimensions of the unit cell, determined by purely réntgenographic measurements, are: 2) =7.18 A, bo=4.40 A, co =5.07 A, all +0.03 4, 8 =90° +30’. Our Weissenberg films also yield decisive evidence on the question of the crystal system of calaverite. On the Weissenberg films the planes, hkl and hkl,in general yield diffraction spotsof very different intensity. This would not be possible if calaverite belonged to the or- thorhombic system, irrespective of the space group inthe orthorhombic system with which it might be isomorphous. It is therefore certain that calaverite does not belong to the orthorhombic system. The systematic extinctions of the X-ray diffraction effects on our films limit the monoclinic space groups possible for calaverite to three: C2/m (C2,°), C2 (C2*), or Cm (C,’), the extinctions of these three space groups being identical. The density of calaverite calculated from the X-ray data is 9.31. This agrees well with the measured® densities and fixes the number of molecules of AuTe. in the unit cell as 2. The two gold atoms can only occupy the positions, 0, 0, 0, and 3, 4, 0, no matter which of the three monoclinic space groups listed above is that of calaverite. By means of the intensities alone all arrangements of the tellurium atoms possible in the space group, Cm, have been ex- cluded. From the intensities it is also certain that the tellurium atoms do not occupy fixed positions or positions with one variable param- eter in the space group, C2/m. Hence the tellurium atoms must occupy the positions, m, 0, p; m, 0, p; m+3, 4, p; 3—™M, 5, p, in the space group, C2/m, or the positions, m, n, p; m, n, p; m+4, n+, p; 3—m, n+3, p, in the space group, C2. From the intensities of the successive orders of reflection of (100) and (001) the m- and p-param- eters of the tellurium atoms have been determined to be m=0.69 (217m = 247°) and p=0.29 (2717p =105°) no matter which of the two remaining space groups, C2/m and C2, is that of calaverite. From the intensities of the other reflections the parameter along the b-axis must be close to 0. Thus the tellurium atoms occupy the positions, m, n, p; m,n, p; m+3, n+3, p3 4—m, n+3, p, where m =0.69, n =0.00, and p =0.29, all +0.05.1° The results of the intensity calculations will be given in greater detail in a subsequent communication.
® Cf. S. L. Penrretp and W. E. Forp, Am. Jour. Sci. (4) 12: 246. 1901, Zeit. f. Kryst. und Min. 35: 450. 1901; G. F. H. Smirn, Min. Mag. 13: 149. 1902, Zeit. f. Kryst. und Min. 37: 234. 1902; HE. S. Simpson, Geological Survey of Western Australia, Bulletin 42: 107. 1912.
10 The correspondence between the positive and negative senses of our axes and those of Goldschmidt, Palache, and Peacock has not been established as yet but only
the correspondence between the directions of our axes and those of Goldschmidt, Palache, and Peacock.
34 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 1
PALEONTOLOGY.—Argyrotheca gardnerae, new name.' C. WYTHE Cooxkk, U.S. Geological Survey.
As the name I applied to a new brachiopod in 1919 proves to be preoccupied, I here propose the new name Argyrotheca gardnerae. The specific name is in recognition of the paleontologic researches of Miss Julia Gardner.
Argyrotheca gardnerae Cooke, new name
Argyrotheca dalli Cooke, Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 291: 152, pl. 16, figs. 5a-c. 1919. not Argyrotheca dalli Aldrich Bull. Am. Pal. 5: 13, pl. 4, figs. 9-10. 1911. Occurrence: St. Bartholomew, B. W. I. Geologic horizon: Upper Eocene. Type: U. S. National Museum, No. 167201.
PALEONTOLOGY.—Nanicella, a new genus of Devonian Foramini- fera®. Luoyp G. Hensest, U. 8. Geological Survey. (Com- municated by JoHN B. REESIDE, JR.)
Through the kindness of Prof. A. K. Miller, University of Iowa, an opportunity was offered in 1932 for studying the type specimens of Endothyra gallowayi Thomas (Journal of Paleontology 5: 40. 1931). A close study of the specimens confirmed a notion that I had held for some time that EF. gallowayi belongs to a new genus, but inasmuch as the preservation of the type specimens is hardly adequate for de- termining the shell features with any degree of confidence, it seemed best to wait for better material. Recently, Mrs. F. B. Plummer, Uni- versity of Texas, very generously shared her rich collection of topo- typical material with me, and it now seems appropriate to introduce the generic name Nanicella for the form represented by EF. gallowayz Thomas, which species accordingly becomes the genotype.
The name Nanicella refers to the reduced shape and size of the chambers in their subordination to the general architecture of the shell (Latin nanus, dwarf, +cella, chamber). In this respect, Nanicella resembles Orobias, Nummulostegina, and Staffella somewhat more than Endothyra. In external form it resembles Orobias most closely, but differs significantly from that genus by being more discoid and less involute and having a chamber morphology that is less com- pletely subordinated to the general plan of the shell. In comparison
+ Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. Received November 15, 1934.
? Published by permission of the Director, U. S. Geological Survey. Received December 4, 1934.
JAN. 15, 1985 BOMHARD: SABAL LOUISIANA 35
with Hndothyra, Nanicella is considerably more advanced in regard to the degree of chamber subordination, although our present records indicate an earlier existence for Nanicella. Endothyra as represented particularly by EH. bowmani, the genotype, exhibits several so-called primitive traits not possessed by Nanicella in that it is irregularly coiled, its chambers have a somewhat spherical form, and a distinct boundary between the spiral and septal walls is absent.
Work is under way to make a detailed study of the shell structure.
BOTANY.—Sabal louisiana, the correct name for the polymorphic palmetto of Louisiana.1 Mrrtam L. Bomuarp, U. 8S. Forest Service. (Communicated by E. P. Kriurp.)
Palmettos have always been and are today a conspicuous and familiar part of the Louisiana landscape, especially in the Mississippi Valley. Accounts of early travels through Louisiana show that most of the travelers were profoundly impressed by the vegetation, and mention is frequently made of the palmettos as well as of the large cypress trees, the magnolias, the great vines, and the native cane.
As early as two and a half centuries ago, Le Clercq, in his account of La Salle’s discovery and exploration of the Mississippi River, says, “The whole country is covered with palms... .’”
The works of Robin, Darby, and Flint, in the first quarter of the past century, give perhaps the most interesting and fullest discussions of the distribution and growth of these palmettos. In 1807, Robin published an account of his travels in the New World together with a flora of Louisiana. William Darby, a surveyor, after a residence of sixteen years in the State, published in 1816 the first detailed map of Louisiana, accompanied by A geographical description of Lowisiana, which is replete with careful and accurate observations based upon an intimate knowledge of the region. Flint, who resided for a time in the State, was also an accurate observer, though he acknowledges his indebtedness to Darby and others whose published works preceded his own.
It is interesting to note that the French appellation, latanier or latania, which is commonly used today in Louisiana to designate the native palmettos, appears in the works of most of the early writers.
1 Received November 28, 1934.
2 Le CLERCQ, CHRESTIEN. Premier établissement de la foy dans la Nouvelle France, etc. 2: 229.1691. Paris. Thisisa very rare work. It contains an account of La Salle’s discoveries by two missionaries who accompanied him. The palms were first encoun-
tered on the boat trip down the Mississippi in the territory of the Taensa Indians, near the present town of St. Joseph in Tensa Parish.
36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1
Latanier is the French form of the native name of a group of tall, fan-leaved palms* indigenous to certain islands belonging to France, off the southeast coast of Africa. These palms have long been culti- vated in Europe and elsewhere. The French settlers of the New World undoubtedly carried this name over to the fan-leaved palmet- tos in the new country, Louisiana. Flint even uses‘ the combination Chemaerops latanier as a scientific name for the Louisiana palmetto.
Robin gives a description of the palmettos, using vernacular names, but he offers no Latin specific names. He writes,°
“Louisiana produces, I believe, only two species of this family [Palmae], common in the woods; the first is the camérope or palmier nain (Chamaerops), commonly called latanier, differing from that of southern Europe in that the margins of the leaves are neither toothed nor spiny. The trunk, from which the leaves arise folded in a fan, scarcely emerges from the ground.... [There follows a further description of this species. ]
“The second species, less common and less beautiful, divides its leaves into two portions, of which each is folded at the ends, somewhat like an old- fashioned cravat or collar.’’®
Although he offers a fairly complete botanical description of his first species, he does not describe the second beyond pointing out a peculiarity of the leaf.
Rafinesque, who translated and revised Robin’s Flora and assigned binomial names to many of the species mentioned in it, remarks that Robin “does not appear to have been a professed botanist’’ and, in cataloguing the two palm species, Rafinesque simply places’ the de- scription of Robin’s first species under Sabal adansoni (wrongly as- cribing the binomial to Persoon instead of to Guersent) and applies a name of his own, “‘Sabal ? adiantinum Raf.,” to Robin’s second species, evolving a Latin description partly from Robin’s remarks and, apparently, partly from conjecture, thus:
“29. Sabal adansont. Pers.—Palmier nain ou Latanier. Rob. p. 337. Spadix ensiform elastic, rising seven feet, stem-like, branched, flowers trifid
__ * These palms, which have been given the generic name Latania, are native to the islands of Bourbon, Mauritius, and possibly, also Madagascar.
4 “Palmetto, Chemaerops latanier. This is a perennial plant, strongly marking cli- mate. It commences in the same regions with long moss,—that is to say, about 33°.” Fuint, Timotuy. A condensed geography and history of the Western States, or the Mississippi Valley 1: 85. 1828. Cincinnati.
5 Rosin, C. C. Voyages dans Vintérieur de la Louisiane... Suivis de la Flore Louisianaise 3: 337-338. 1807. Paris.
6 This is an interesting observation in view of the fact that, under certain trying growth conditions (open situations exposed to intense insolation and where the ground becomes hard and dry in the summer), the leaves of palmettos in Louisiana are often divided midway into two halves, which curve downward and away from each other.
‘ RaFINesQueE, C. S._ Florula Ludoviciana; or, A flora of the state of Louisiana.
Translated, revised, and improved from the French of C. C. Robin. pp. 16-17. 1817. New York.
JAN. 15, 1935 BOMHARD: SABAL LOUISIANA 37
white sessile odorate, blossoming in June: berries like a pea, black and sweet. The fibrous netting of the short caudex are used as canvas to clear and scour: the leaves are used to make hats and thatch houses, ete.
“30. Sabal ? adiantinum. Raf. Acaule, foliis inermis bipartitis, flabel- latis, plicatis. Raf.—2. Latanier. Rob. p. 338.”
In the same work, Rafinesque includes® an Appendix to the trees and shrubs of Louisiana in which he lists and comments upon the plants appearing in Darby’s work. He seems to have been acquainted only with the second edition, which, although somewhat amplified, includes much the same material as the first edition, but has a dif- ferent order of treatment.
Darby’s accounts of the topography and general vegetation of Louisiana are not only interesting but particularly clear, and, for the most part, amazingly accurate. Of eight specific references to pal- mettos, the following is® of especial interest and is the one to which Rafinesque alludes:
“The Arundo gigantea grows in immense brakes in all parts of the parish of Ascension, not liable to annual submersion. Much of that majestic grass has been destroyed by the clearing of the lands; but a vast quantity still re- mains. Along both banks of New river, in the rear of the plantations on the Mississippi, and on the banks of the Atchafalaya, are the places where most of the Arundo yet exists. Here, as well as in every other part of Louisiana, where the land sinks too low for the Arundo, is found the Chamaerops louisi- ana.* The latter vegetable cannot itself exist, where the inundation exceeds in depth 15 or 20 inches. The land is commonly of the best quality. Much of the surface of the country low upon the Mississippi, now cultivated in cot- ton, maize, rice, and sugar, was originally covered with the palmetto. From the greater depression of the surface, the palmetto land is more difficult to reclaim, than that naturally covered with Arundo gigantea; though equal in fertility when reduced to a state of cultivation.
“The timber trees most usually associated with the palmetto, are, the Quercus phellos, Quercus rubra, Acer rubrum, Acer negundo, Liquidambar styraciflua, Ulmus aquatica, Cornus alba, and Celtis crassifolia. The Quercus tinctoria, and Quercus virens, are often found growing upon palmetto land, but not so frequent as the preceding. The Nyssa aquatica, and Cupressus disticha, would appear from their general history, to be congenial to the palmetto land; the latter tree is sometimes found intermingled, and the
8 “While the Supplement of this work was under the press, the Geographical De- scription of Louisiana, by William Darby, fell into my hands. Having perceived in it, several elaborate Catalogues of the trees and shrubs, growing in the different parts of the State, some of which had not been observed by Robin, Bartram, etc. and some additional geographical and economical remarks on others, I have been induced to enumerate those additions, for which we are indebted to Mr. Darby; correcting, at the same time, several errors of nomenclature, into which he appears to have fallen... . ”’ Rafinesque. op. cit. 157.
® Darsy, WiuLIAM. A geographical description of the state of Louisiana: . . . being an accompaniment to the map of Louisiana. ed. 1. 193-195. 1816; ed. 2. 81-82. 1817. Philadelphia. The eight references appear on the following pages in the 1816 edition: 68, 77, 88, 193-195, 205, 206, 216, 230.
38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1
former growing on inundated land adjacent to; but neither are so com- monly met with on palmetto land, as might be expected.
“The palmetto may be correctly considered the vegetable that marks the limit of annual inundation. In all places where we have had good reason to consider the overflow annual, the palmetto ceased. Though able to resist partial and occasional immersion of its roots in water, we are led to believe this shrub would perish if the ground upon which it grew was subject to annual overflow. This does not agree with the writer’s observation.
‘“*/Footnote appears on p. 194 of the original text.] We have given to this vegetable the name of Chamaerops lowisiana in the text; and are of the opinion that there is a specific difference between the Chamaerops palmetto hitherto known to botanists, and that of Louisiana. The Chamaerops ser- rulata of Muhlenberg is certainly not the same with the palmetto of Louisi- ana; the latter bears a much greater resemblance to the cabbage tree, though much more humble in elevation, than to the saw-leaved palmetto of Georgia.”
Rafinesque takes sufficient note of Darby’s new specific name to reprint it, but he dismisses!® both it and Darby’s interesting notes in the following manner:
“Chamaerops Louisiana! Palmetto or Latania! D. This Palm which Mr. Darby in a note, p. 81, thinks a new species, and to which he gives two er-
roneous Latin and French names, is merely the Sabal adansoni sp. 29. It marks the limit of annual inundation, as it grows above the reach of it.”
Rafinesque, in spite of his never having seen Louisiana or its palms, did not hesitate to pass judgment upon Darby’s new species. This is especially remarkable in view of Rafinesque’s lack of justification for establishing Sabal ? adiantinum as a species. There seems to be no valid reason for his considering Darby’s binomial name, Chamaerops louisiana, erroneous in any respect. This name appears" five times in the text of both the 1816 and 1817 editions and in his vocabulary of terms (immediately following the last page of the text) he lists ““Cham- aerops louisiana, . . . Palmetto, or latania.” It is worthy of note that Flint later reprints” Darby’s list of plants, as it appears in the vocabu- lary of terms, but without citing the source.
In another work of broader scope, Darby gives a general list of trees most likely to be found in Louisiana and adds" “On the banks of the streams immense brakes of Arundo gigantea (great cane), and on the outer margin of the cane, the palmetto or latania (Chamaerops Louisiana), fill the slope between the cane and the dead overflow. . . . The palmetto can support inundation a longer time and deeper than
10 RAFINESQUE. op. cit. 159-160.
4 DaRBy. op. cit. ed. 1. 194 (twice), 205, 206, 216.
2 FLINT. op. cit. 2: 486-488. Appendix, Table II.
18 DarsBy, WILLIAM. The emigrant’s guide to the western and southwestern states and territories, etc. 81. 1818. New York. : ; a
JAN. 15, 19385 BOMHARD: SABAL LOUISIANA 39
the cane. .. .”’ This reference to the occurrence of palmettos in a zone or belt is an accurate picture of their present distribution in certain situations.
In discussing Prairie Mamou (mostly included in the present Acadia Parish), Darby says," ‘‘In the low grounds near the river, the palmetto, called by the French latania, abounds, but not of the gi- gantic size of its kindred species on the more eastern waters.” This statement is doubtless to be interpreted as a comparison with the size of the Sabal palmetto of the Carolinas, Georgia, and Florida, which Darby recognizes as a species related to the Louisiana palmetto.
A perusal of Darby’s various works should convince anyone who knows Louisiana that he was thoroughly familiar with the material of which he writes. His use of scientific plant names, his references, especially in footnotes, to Miller’s Gardeners Dictionary, to Michaux, Bartram, Muhlenberg, and other botanists show that he was ac- quainted with the botanical literature of that time, and it seems un- likely that he would have suggested a name for the Louisiana pal- metto without due consideration. His descriptions and names of plants are, however, incidental to his discussions of Louisiana, which probably accounts for his giving only informal notes concerning Chamaerops lowisiana.
It is unfortunate that Darby gave no formal botanical description of this palm. The following diagnosis, however, may be gleaned from his remarks concerning the Louisiana palmetto: (1) It is fan-leaved— Darby refers to it as the Fan Palmetto” or Latania and also com- pares it with Chamaerops palmetto (Sabal palmetto) and with C. ser- rulata (Serenoa repens); (2) It is unarmed, since Darby expressly states that it is “not the same” as C. serrulata [in, not of, Muhlen- berg]; (8) It develops a trunk, otherwise there is no reason for saying that it is “not of the gigantic size” of the cabbage-tree, but ‘‘much more humble in elevation’’; (4) It is indigenous to Louisiana and a very characteristic part of the vegetation; (5) Definite localities are given for its distribution; (6) The list of associated species, including remarks concerning its association with the live oak, Quercus virens (Q. virginiana), its proximity to tupelo gum, Nyssa aquatica, and bald- cypress, Cupressus disticha (Taxodium distichum), and its occurrence bordering the giant-cane, Arundo gigantea (Arundinaria gigantea), is adequate to cover situations in which the Louisiana palmetto grows today; (7) The definite claim is made that it is a new species allied to,
1 DarBy. <A geographical description, etc., ed. 1. 88. 15 Tbid., 68.
40 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1
but different from, the cabbage palmetto, Sabal palmetto, that grows farther east. A proper binomial was used by Darby several times and in several publications.
Chamaerops louisiana Darby is the oldest name which the writer has been able to discover which is based upon palmettos growing in Louisiana. The second oldest name, similarly applied, is Sabal adian- tinum Raf. Rafinesque is responsible for repudiating Darby’s name and causing it to have been disregarded by botanists for so many years. The record in the Kew Index, oddly enough, reads “‘Cham- aerops louisiana Rafin. Fl. Ludov. 159=Rhapidophyllum Hystrix?” The needle palm does not occur in Louisiana.
Rafinesque, by consigning both Robin’s first species and Darby’s new species to Sabal adansoni, is the first botanist to apply that name to palmettos growing in Louisiana. To be sure, Robin’s diagnosis coincides fairly well with descriptions of the acaulescent Carolina palmetto but Darby’s statement that Chamaerops louisiana is not as tall as the cabbage-tree should, of itself, have caused Rafinesque some concern. The next year, 1818, Nuttall applied'® Guersent’s name for the Carolina plant to palmettos in Louisiana, thus: ‘‘Species 1. S. Adansoni. In troublesome abundance around New Orleans; but less frequent than other species in Georgia and Carolina.”
Earlier botanists, including Bartram, Jacquin, Walter, Michaux, Persoon, and Pursh, ascribed the native locality of the Carolina pal- metto (also called dwarf palmetto and blue palmetto) to Carolina, Georgia, Florida, or the “sea islands.”” The nomenclatorial history of this palmetto has been somewhat complicated, the plant having re- ceived various names both in this country and in Europe even be- fore 1818. Seeds found their way into the Old World at an early date and it was already in cultivation abroad in the latter part of the eighteenth century. It is not the purpose of this paper to attempt to discuss the applicability of these various names to the dwarf palmetto other than to note that Sabal adansoni Guers. (1804) is one of the specific names which was in good standing for many years, although S. minor (Jacq.) Pers. is an earlier name.
Martius indicates!’ the range of S. adansoni as including New Orleans and the Mississippi Valley as well as Georgia and Carolina. In fact, the extension of the range of the Carolina palm to include
16 NUTTALL, Tuomas. The genera of North American plants, etc. 230. 1818.
17 “Crescit gregaria in depressis arenosis udis maritimis Georgiae et Carolinae, frequens in uliginosis in vicinia fluvii Mississippi e. g. propre Aureliam novam, nec non
one in regionibus sinus floridani.”” Martius, Historia naturalis palmarum 3: 246.
JAN. 15, 1935 BOMHARD: SABAL LOUISIANA 4]
Louisiana and the identification of the palmettos native to Louisiana with this species and this one alone has been a common practice in floras and manuals and in various works on palms for more than a century. The area covered by Chapman’s flora!® does not embrace Louisiana, the western range limit being Mississippi and Tennessee, but it should be noted that he does not even include Mississippi in the distribution of the dwarf palmetto.
However, in 1926, Dr. J. K. Small described’ a new species, Sabal deeringiana, from Louisiana. This is the ‘‘palmetto-with-a-stem,”’ the new species being based upon certain trunked palmettos in the gen- eral vicinity of New Orleans. In a later paper, Dr. Small gives?® a more detailed discussion of these trunked palms, including illustra- tions of specimens of a very fine stand growing at Frenier Beach, on Lake Pontchartrain, about 40 miles west of New Orleans. Dr. Small points out that Schott must have had trunked palms in mind when he referred”! to a gorgeous growth in the Mississippi Valley and he quotes Schott in both his papers.
Other botanists have been aware of trunked palmettos in Louisiana and have even mistaken them (as also probably did Schott) for the cabbage-tree, Sabal palmetto, the range of which is not believed to extend westward beyond St. Andrew’s Bay in western Florida.” Featherman writes” concerning Grand Isle: ““The principal growth is live oak and yaupon in the form of low thickets. A few tree pal- mettos are seen here and there near the beach. The live oak is low and stunted and grows on a few ridges;...’’ and, in his catalogue of plants in the same publication, we find:
“Sabal adansonii Guerns., Dwarf Palmetto, New Orleans, Orleans [Parish]; “Sabal palmetio, R. & S. [sic], Tree Palmetto, Grand Isle Jefferson [Parish].”’
Palmettos of various ages and sizes, including hundreds of trunked specimens, may be seen today stretching uninterruptedly for almost
18 CHapMAN, A. W. Flora of the Southern United States. ed. 1. 438. 1860.
19 SMALL, JOHN K. A new palm from the Mississippi Delta. Torreya 26: 33-35. 1926.
20 SMALL, JOHN K. Palmetto-with-a-stem—Sabal deeringiana. Journ. N. Y. Bot. Gard. 30: 278-284, 2 figs. 1929.
"1 ScHotr, ARTHUR. Substance of the sketch of the geology of the lower Rio Bravo del Norte, Part I1in Emory, William H. Report on the United States and Mexican boundary survey 1: 44. 1857.
22 SMALL, JoHN K. The cabbage tree—Sabal palmetto. Journ. N. Y. Bot. Gard. 24: 157. 1923. St. Andrew’s Bay is nearly 100 miles east of Pensacola.
23 WEATHERMAN, A. Report of botanical survey of southern and central Louisiana made during the year 1870. 25. 1871. New Orleans.
24 Grand Isle is a well-known resort on the Gulf of Mexico, about 60 miles south of New Orleans; it is east of the mouth of Bayou Lafourche. Access has been by boat by way of Barataria Bay until 1933, when a road was finally completed to it, connecting with the road which parallels Bayou Lafourche along part of its course.
42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY. OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1
30 miles from Golden Meadows nearly to Grand Isle. They occupy the slightly elevated ridge land and slope flanking Bayou Lafourche and the road, and may be numbered by the thousands.
Langlois apparently also mistakes” the trunked palmettos for the cabbage-tree. Because of his error, some of the earliest records of fungi parasitic on Louisiana palms have been wrongly recorded as occurring on Sabal palmetto.”
After several years of field observation of palmettos in Louisiana, especially in the vicinity of New Orleans, the writer undertook, in 1933, a detailed survey of the State with the especial aim of discover- ing, if possible, the distribution and relationship of the trunked and stemless palmettos. The survey was begun in May and continued into November so that flowers and fruits might be studied as well as ex- ternal vegetative characters. The survey entailed a statistical study of trunked palmettos in more than 40 separate localities in Louisiana and eastward in a few stations along the Gulf Coast as far as western Florida.
Although palmettos are widely distributed over much of eastern and southern Louisiana, they attain their most luxuriant develop- ment in the southeastern portion of the State, where the trunked forms occur. Trunked palmettos are much more widespread in Louisiana at the present time than has been supposed, having been found by the writer westward nearly to Opelousas and south almost to the Gulf of Mexico. They are by no means unknown to persons intimately acquainted with the vegetation of the Lower Mississippi Valley, but are ordinarily not seen by the casual observer, since the acaulescent plants are often easily visible from the roadside whereas the trunked palmettos usually occupy the more inaccessible, wetter places beyond. Certain excellent stands of palmettos with nearly erect trunk above ground are readily accessible; e.g., at Frenier Beach, along Bayou Lafourche, and along Paris Road only 4 miles east of the city limits of New Orleans. These, however, are notable exceptions.
Moreover, the palmettos in southeastern Louisiana, at least, give every evidence of constituting a polymorphic species, which shows a remarkable response to a varying combination of habitat factors, of which water and light seem to be of the greatest significance. The writer discovered that the trunked palmettos, wherever they occur, are related to the acaulescent plants by countless transitional forms of
** Lanctots, A. B. Catalogue provisoire de plantes phanérogames et cryptogames de
a Basse-Louisiane, Etats-Unis d’ Amérique. p.17, 1887. Saint-Etienne. *° Unpublished data of the writer.
JAN. 15, 1935 BOMHARD: SABAL LOUISIANA 43
clearly intermediate character. There are situations in which a line transect, run from slightly elevated ridge land to standing water, passes through stemless, intermediate, and trunked palmettos, which show a faithful series of gradations in the size of the leaves, the num- ber of segments, the development of filaments in the sinuses of the blade, the extent of the prolongation of the petiole into the blade, and in the height and branching of the flower stalks.
Variations in the thickness, height, and degree of branching of the flower stalks appear to be most closely correlated with leaf size and general vigor of the plant and secondarily with the presence or ab- sence of a trunk. Variations in the size and texture of the flowers and in the size and proportions of the fruits and seeds are, as far as the writer has been able to determine, slight, and similarly traceable to growth conditions.
The tallest trunk seen by the writer was slightly over 2.5 meters in height; it was one of the palmettos in the senescent stage with re- duced leaf crown and telescoped flower stalks. The average actual trunk height of these palmettos in their prime (climax form) is from 1 to 2 meters and the diameter, when devoid of leaf bases, scarcely exceeds 30 cm; with the leaf bases, the diameter may be nearly twice as great. The leaf blades may attain 2 meters in breadth and over 1 meter in length with petioles as much as 1.5 meters long. The erect flower stalks, averaging 5 cm in thickness at the base, become from 3.0 to 4.5 meters tall in the more vigorous specimens, thus making the total height of the climax form, at most, less than 7 meters.
An account of the distribution and growth of the palmettos in Louisiana together with detailed descriptions of the various forms as well as ecological data will be given in another paper.
Until the palmettos of the Southern States have been more fully studied in the field, with especial attention given to their morpho- logical characters at different stages of growth and to the environ- mental factors, in addition to the study of their flowers and fruits, it cannot be definitely decided what the relationship of the dwarf pal- metto is to the Louisiana palmetto, especially in the acaulescent forms. Available data, however, indicate that they are specifically distinct. The dwarf palmetto, S. minor (Jacq.) Pers. (S. adansoni Guers.), is not known to produce a subarboreal climax form (it has always, in fact, been described as acaulescent or with the caudex slightly elongated); the leaves are sparingly filamentose or without filaments, whereas the Louisiana palmetto has persistent filaments, sometimes occurring in abundance; the petiole is prolonged for only
44 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1
a few centimeters into the blade, whereas in the Louisiana palmetto the prolongation may extend for as much as 40 cm. Important dif- ferences also appear in the number and width of the segments and in the size of the fruits and seeds (the Louisiana palmetto usually has a smaller fruit with a proportionately larger seed). When the erect habit is assumed, the underground portion of the Louisiana palmetto slants from the horizontal and gradually turns upward.
The palm referred to by Darby is unquestionably a species of Sabal, and, since Sabal deeringiana Small, applied definitely to Louisiana trunked palmettos, is antedated by Darby’s name, the plant should be known as Sabal louisiana (Darby) Bomhard, comb. nov., the syn- onomy being as follows:
Chamaerops louisiana Darby, Geog. Descrip. Louisiana ed. 1. 194, also 205, 206, 216. 1816.
Sabal adansoni Raf. Fl. Ludov. 16. 1817, not Guersent, 1804. Sabal ? adiantinum Raf. Fl. Ludov. 17. 1817.
Chemaerops [sic] latanier Flint, Condensed Geog. & Hist. West. States 1: 85. 1828.
Sabal deeringiana Small, Torreya 26: 34. 1926.
ORNITHOLOGY.—Avian bones from prehistoric ruins on Kodiak Island, Alaska.1. HeRBERT FRIEDMANN, U. S. National Mu- seum.
During the summer of 1934 Dr. Ales Hrdlicka, curator of physical anthropology, United States National Museum, continued his work on Kodiak Island, and amassed, among other materials, a large col- lection of bird bone. A smaller lot, collected two years before, yielded so much of value that the study of the present much more extensive material was looked forward to with interest. That it has not been disappointing may be seen from the following account.
The age of the sites from which the bones were exhumed is not known with any accuracy, but they are definitely prehistoric, that is, pre-Russian (late 18th Century). This, of course, involves a span of years too short to be of significance as far as the birds are concerned, however much it may mean anthropologically. The specimens herein reported on were marked in the field according to the relative depth
1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re- ceived November 23, 1934.
JAN. 15, 1935 FRIEDMANN: AVIAN BONES 45 at which they were found—deep, intermediate, or superficial. The deeper the deposit, the older are the bones, but here again the time seale for the deposition rate is only inferential. Dr. Hrdlicka esti- mates the difference in age between the deepest and the superficial layers at about 1500 years.
In order to appreciate the full ornithological significance of the collection, it was first necessary to ascertain just what kinds of birds were known to occur on Kodiak Island. A search of the literature re- vealed how little work has been done there, especially considering its size and proximity to the mainland of Alaska. No paper dealing ex- haustively with the avifauna of Kodiak appears to have been pub- lished; this I hope to do in the near future for the benefit of other stu- dents of Alaskan ornithology as all the data are now assembled before me.
The present collection contains bones of 40 species of which 7 have not been recorded in literature before from Kodiak Island. These are as follows:
Black-footed Albatross Trumpeter Swan Ross’s Goose
Lesser Scaup Golden-Eye
Gray Sea Eagle Long-tailed Jaeger
Diomedea nigripes Cygnus buccinator
Chen rossi
Nyroca affinis Glaucionetta clangula Haliaeetus albicilla Stercorarius longicaudus
In Dr. Hrdlicka’s 1932 collection, reported on in an earlier paper,’ were bones of 8 other species that were unrecorded in literature from Kodiak Island. Of these, 5 are also represented in the present collec- tion. These 8 are Common Loon Chinese Cormorant Old Squaw
Spectacled Eider White-winged Scoter
Gavia immer
Phalacrocorax carbo sinensis Clangula hyemalis Arctonetta fischeri Melanitta deglandi
Melanitta perspicillata Bubo virginianus algistus Surnia ulula caparoch
Surf Scoter Saint Michael Horned Owl American Hawk Owl
Thus, in two summers’ excavating, in a field to one side of the major work of the expeditions, no fewer than 15 species have been added to the recorded avifauna of Kodiak Island. Inasmuch as the total bird population, as far as recorded, comprises about 125 forms, we must credit nearly one-eighth of them to osteological records.
2 FriepMAN, H. This JourNAL 24: 233-236. 1934.
46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1
The following annotated list deals only with the 1934 collection.
GAVIA IMMER (Briinnich). Common Loon.
Two metacarpals were found in the superficial layer. On the basis of geography, these records should refer to the lesser loon, Gavia immer elasson, but the races are not to be told with certainty from the bones.
GAVIA ADAMSI (Gray). Yellow-billed Loon.
This large loon was represented in all three depths, the super- ficial stratum yielding a synsacrum, a tibiotarsus, and a tarsometa- tarsus; the intermediate depth revealed a metacarpal; a metacarpal and a tarsometatarsus come from the deepest layer.
GAVIA ARCTICA PACIFICA (Lawrence). Pacific Loon.
Represented by a single metacarpal from the deepest layer.
GAVIA STELLATA (Pontoppidan). Red-throated Loon.
A tarsometatarsus from the superficial stratum and a metacarpal from the deepest layer represent this species.
CoLYMBUS AURITUS Linnaeus. Horned Grebe.
A tarsometatarsus from the intermediate depth and a humerus from the superficial stratum are the only bones of this grebe found.
DIOMEDEA NIGRIPES Aububon. Black-footed Albatross.
This species, represented by a femur from the deepest layer, 3 femora from the intermediate area, and by 5 femora, 1 synsacrum, and 1 tarsometatarsus from the superficial layer, has not been previously reported from the island.
PHALACROCORAX PELAGICUS Pallas. Pelagic Cormorant.
The bones of this species show great variation in size; if only the two extremes were present, one might think them different species. This cormorant is one of the common birds on Kodiak Island and it is represented by numbers of bones as follows: deepest layer, 5 tarso- metatarsi, 4 tibiotarsi, 3 coracoids, 6 femora, 4 humeri, 7 ulnae; inter- mediate layer, 13 tarsometatarsi, 11 tibiotarsi, 8 coracoids, 21 femora, 18 humeri, 21 ulnae; superficial layer, 2 tarsometatarsi, 10 tibiotarsi, 4 coracoids, 16 femora, 8 humeri, and 11 ulnae.
On the basis of geography these specimens should be of the typical race, Ph. p. pelagicus.
JAN. 15, 1935 FRIEDMANN: AVIAN BONES 47
CYGNUS COLUMBIANUS (Ord.) Whistling Swan.
The whistling swan is represented by a “‘thumb”’ phalanx found in the superficial layer.
CYGNus BUCCINATOR Richardson. Trumpeter Swan. The intermediate depth revealed 2 right coracoids and the head of a humerus of this bird. The humerus was notably large, somewhat greater in size than any specimen available for comparison. It had the shaft cut off and had been worked by the early Eskimos as a beveled edge had been made around the cut surface. The superficial layer yielded a fragmentary humerus.
PHILACTE CANAGICA (Sevastinaoff). Emperor Goose.
The emperor goose is represented by a coracoid from the deepest stratum.
ANSER ALBIFRONS (Scopoli). White-fronted Goose. A metacarpal, found in the intermediate layer, is of this species.
CHEN ROSSI (Cassin). Ross’s Goose. A single ulna from the superficial layer represents this species which is new to the Kodiak fauna. The previous record’ is erroneous; the
bone, a skull, is found, on further study to be that of a black brant, Branta nigricans.
ANAS PLATYRHYNCHOS Linnaeus. Mallard.
The mallard is known to breed in the Aleutian Islands and the whole Alaskan peninsula, so its occurrence on Kodiak is wholly to be expected, and the scarcity of previous records must be looked upon as solely due to lack of observation and work in that place. It is repre- sented in the present collection by 54 humeri; of these 3 come from his deepest layer, 16 from the intermediate depth, and 35 from the superficial stratum.
DaFiua AcuTA (Linnaeus). Pintail.
The pintail is represented by 25 humeri, 3 from the deepest, 5 from the intermediate, and 17 from the superficial layers. These bones probably refer to the American subspecies tzztzihoa.
NyYROCA AFFINIS (Eyton). Lesser Scaup Duck. Four humeri, 1 from the intermediate, and 3 from the super-
3 This JoURNAL 24: 234. 1934.
48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 1
ficial layers, are the only evidence of this duck’s occurrence on Kodiak Island.
GLAUCIONETTA CLANGULA (Linnaeus). Golden-eye.
Of this duck the intermediate layer yielded a coracoid; the super- ficial stratum a syrinx, a skull, and 2 humeri. By virtue of geography the bones should be referred to the American subspecies, G. c. ameri- cana. The species is new to the Kodiak avifauna, as far as published records go.
CLANGULA HYEMALIS (Linnaeus). Old Squaw.
This duck is represented in all three depths, as follows: deepest layer, 1 humerus, 2 coracoids, intermediate area, 8 humeri, 2 cora- coids, superficial layer, 12 humeri, 3 coracoids.
HISTRIONICUS HISTRIONICUS (Linnaeus). Harlequin Duck.
A single coracoid of this duck was found in the superficial layer. It is undoubtedly of the western race pacificus.
POLYSTICTA STELLERI (Pallas). Steller’s Eider.
Bones of Steller’s eider were found in all three depths. The deepest layer revealed 2 humeri; the intermediate layer yielded 9 humeri; the superficial stratum produced 14 humeri, 1 coracoid, and 1 tarsometa- tarsus. :
SOMATERIA V-NIGRA Gray. Pacific Eider.
The Pacific eider is represented by a sternum and a metacarpal from the deepest layer, 3 metacarpals from the intermediate layer, and 2 skulls, 3 tarsometatarsi, and 2 metacarpals from the super- ficial deposits.
SOMATERIA SPECTABILIS (Linnaeus). King Eider.
This is one of the most abundant waterfowl on Kodiak Island, if we may judge from the number of its bones found. The deepest layer yielded 13 humeri, 1 metacarpal, 4 ulnae, and 3 tarsometatarsi; the intermediate depth produced 17 humeri, 5 metacarpals, 3 ulnae, and 7 tarsometatarsi; from the superficial layer were taken 46 humeri, 2 sterna, 1 skull, 11 ulnae, 2 femora, and 7 tarsometatarsi.
MELANITTA DEGLANDI (Bonaparte). White-winged Scoter.
The collection contains 56 bones of this duck, distributed as fol- lows: deepest layer, 2 coracoids, 3 metacarpals, 6 femurs; intermedi- ate layer, 1 humerus, 1 coracoid, 2 metacarpals, 19 femora; super- ficial layer, 1 skull, 3 metacarpals, 18 femora.
JAN. 15, 1935 FRIEDMANN: AVIAN BONES 49
MELANITTA PERSPICILLATA (Linnaeus). Surf Scoter. The surf scoter is represented by a femur from the deepest layer, 7 femora and a tibiotarsus from the intermediate stratum, and 6 femura, 3 tibiotarsi, 2 skulls, and 2 sterna from the superficial de- posits. OIDEMIA AMERICANA Swainson. American Scoter.
A coracoid and 2 humeri from the intermediate layer, and a cora- coid and 6 humeri from the superficial stratum are of this species.
HALIAEETUS ALBICILLA (Linnaeus). Gray Sea Eagle.
This eagle is represented by 2 tarsometatarsi and 1 metacarpal from the surface deposits. It is not only a new bird for Kodiak Island, but is the fourth known record for North America, the others being from Unalaska, Cumberland Sound, and off the coast of Massachusetts.
HALIAEETUS LEUCOCEPHALUS (Linnaeus). Bald Eagle.
The bald eagle is abundant on Kodiak Island and is well repre- sented in the present collection. From the deepest layer come 2 humeri, 2 coracoids, 1 clavicle, 1 scapula, 2 tarsometatarsi and 3 metacarpals; from the intermediate stratum are 1 synsacrum, 2 humeri, 3 femora, 4 coracoids, 4 tibiotarsi, 1 scapula, 4 tarsometa- tarsi, and 11 metacarpals; from the superficial layer are 2 sterna, 4 fragments of synsacra, 12 skulls or fragments of skulls, 10 humeri, 15 femora, 6 coracoids, 10 tibiotarsi, 2 ulnae, 1 scapula, 10 tarsometa- tarsi, and 12 metacarpals.
THALASSOAETUS PELAGICUS (Pallas). Steller’s Sea Eagle.
This fine eagle was previously known from Kodiak Island on the basis of one record, a bird shot there on August 10, 1921 by C. H. Gilbert.‘ It is of interest to find that bones referable to it are included in the present collection, as follows: from the deepest layer 2 humeri, from the intermediate layer, 1 synsacrum (fragment), 2 humeri, 1 metacarpal, 2 tarsometatarsi, 1 caracoid, 2 tibiotarsi, and 1 claw; from the superficial layer, 1 sternum, 1 synsacrum (fragment), 1 pair of mandibles, 2 metacarpals, 2 ulnae, 1 tarsometatarsus, 4 femora, and 3 tibiotarsi.
GRUS CANADENSIS (Linnaeus). Little Brown Crane.
This bird has been recorded but once previously from Kodiak Island. It is represented in the present collection by a radius from the
4 Condor 24: 66. 1922.
50 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 1
intermediate area, a coracoid, a tarsometatarsus, and an ulna from the surface deposits.
STERCORARIUS LONGICAUDUS Vieillot. Long-tailed Jaeger.
Three humeri from the intermediate and superficial layers represent this species. It is new to Kodiak Island.
LARUS GLAUCESCENS Naumann. Glaucous-winged Gull.
A good number of bones of this gull were found, as follows: in the deepest layer, 1 humerus, 2 ulnae, 3 femora, 2 tarsometatarsi and 4 metacarpals; from the intermediate layer, 6 humeri, 2 tibiotarsi, 1 coracoid, 2 femora, and 9 metacarpals; from the superficial layer, 4 humeri, 1 coracoid, 1 femur, 2 tarsometatarsi, and 11 metacarpals.
LARUS ARGENTATUS Brunnich. Herring Gull.
From the deepest layer 1 metacarpal was collected; from the inter- mediate depth came 4 humeri, 1 coracoid, 1 tarsometatarsus, and 9 metacarpals; from the superficial layers 2 humeri, 1 coracoid, 2 tarsometatarsi, and 2 metacarpals were collected. The bones may refer to the race smithsonianus, or to thayeri, or even to vegae!
LARUS CANUS BRACHYRHYNCHUS Richardson. Short-billed Gull.
This gull is represented by 3 tarsometatarsi from the superficial layer.
URIA AALGE CALIFORNICA (Bryant). California Murre.
URIA LOMVIA ARRA (Pallas). Pallas’s Murre.
Bones of these two murres are practically indistinguishable and accordingly I have had to treat them together. Both species are very common on Kodiak Island and both are undoubtedly present in the following series of bones. From the deepest layer, 57 humeri, 1 skull, 1 tarsometatarsus, 1 tibiotarsus, 26 ulnae, 2 metacarpals, 10 femora; intermediate layer, 53 humeri, 3 skulls, 1 synsacrum, 1 tarsometa- tarsus, 2 tibiotarsi, 18 ulnae, 3 metacarpals, 6 femora; from the super- ficial layer, 43 humeri, 1 sternum, 7 skulls, 1 clavicle, 15 ulnae, 5 coracoids, 6 metacarpals, 12 femora.
CEPPHUS COLUMBA Pallas. Pigeon Guillemot. This bird is represented by 2 ulnae from the deepest deposits and 2 ulnae and 2 humeri from the surface layers. CYCLORRHYNCHUS PSITTACULA (Pallas). Paroquet Auklet.
Of this auklet there are 14 humeri, 7 from the deepest, 3 from the intermediate, and 4 from the superficial layers.
JAN. 15, 1935 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS ol
LUNDA CIRRHATA (Pallas). Tufted Puffin.
The tufted puffin is represented by bones from all three depths, as follows: deepest layer, 3 humeri and 3 ulnae; intermediate layer, 2 humeri, 1 femur, 1 metacarpal, and 6 ulnae; superficial layer, 1 ster- num, 1 humerus, 1 femur, 2 ulnae, and 1| tibiotarsus.
Pica PICA HUDSONIA (Sabine). American Magpie.
One femur from the deepest layer; 1 humerus from the intermediate stratum; and 2 skulls, 1 tarsometatarsus, and 1 femur from the super- ficial layer refer to this species.
CoRVUS CORAX PRINCIPALIS Ridgway. Northern Raven.
The raven is common on Kodiak Island and is well represented in the present collection as the following list shows. From the deepest layer, 1 skull, 1 humerus, 3 ulnae, 1 tibiotarsus, 3 metacarpals, 1 coracoid, and 4 tarsometatarsi; from the intermediate layer, 6 humeri, 6 ulnae, 1 radius, 6 tibiotarsi, 5 metacarpals, and 1 tarsometatarsus; from the superficial layer, 3 skulls, 8 humeri, 7 ulnae, 5 tibiotarsi, 11 metacarpals, and 4 femora.
CoRVUS BRACHYRHYNCHOS CAURINUS Baird. Northwestern Crow.
The small, northwestern crow is a common inhabitant of Kodiak Island. Its bones were found in all the layers of the excavations, as follows: from the deepest stratum, 2 femora, 1 tibiotarsus, and 3 ulnae; from the intermediate depth, 6 femora, 4 tibiotarsi, and 2 ulnae; from the superficial layers, 1 skull, 5 humeri, 3 femora, 5 tibiotarsi, and 17 ulnae.
SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS
Prepared by Science Service
NOTES
Science Advisory Board.—Through the Science Advisory Board, created by presidential executive order last year, scientists not on the Government payroll have been active in the reorganization of the work of not less than six bureaus in various departments of the Federal Government, under the program authorized by act of Congress early in 1933. They have also ad- vised on the scientific problems confronting a number of independent Government agencies not connected with any special department.
Major revisions and extensions of program were contemplated by the Government in the Weather Bureau and the Bureau of Chemistry and Soils of the Department of Agriculture, in the National Bureau of Standards of the Department of Commerce, and in the Bureau of Mines, the Geologi-
52 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, No. 1
cal Survey, and the Soil Erosion Service of the Department of the Interior. In all these studies the Science Advisory Board participated by invitation of the Government; and it was also invited to take part in such diverse non- departmental matters as the modernization of railroads, the study of peoples’ fitness for new jobs, and the unearthing of valuable archaeological data from mounds and other Indian sites in the Tennessee valley before they were drowned forever under the backwaters of the new dams.
Many of the tasks of the Board are already finished. The first one, which was indirectly responsible for the creation of the Board, was the reorganiza- tion of the U. 8. Weather Bureau. This has been completed, and we are on the way toward a better knowledge of the weather and its practical fore- casting. The saving of the old Indian records, which necessarily had to be done rapidly, is also a closed job.
Some of the Board’s tasks are still in progress. Notable among these is the work of the committee on land use, and also the development of better coordination between the numerous separate mapping agencies of the government.
Some of the Board’s activities are of necessity continuing projects, since they concern problems that either have no end, or at least will require decades of work to close them up. Such are the decentralization of industry and the application of scientific knowledge to the technical and medical problems of the Army and Navy.
The first report of the Science Advisory Board tells of progress during its first year of existence. Government officials are in general agreement with prominent scientists, that the Board has proved an effective mechanism for making available to the country its own resources in scientific knowledge.
More Research Called For.—Vigorous support for a program of funda- mental scientific research featured Secretary WALLACE’s annual report to President Roosevett. In normal times it enables farmers, stockmen and foresters to get the best returns from the land with the least outlay in money and labor. And in the present period of emergency a number of hitherto un- dermanned research projects have been enabled to go ahead by turning the efforts of unemployed men and women against some of the very ills that made them jobless.
“Research is the Department’s biggest job; indeed, research is the founda- tion of everything it does,’’ Secretary WALLACE declares. “‘It could not help farmers to plan their production, to reduce their costs, to fight the diseases and pests that attack animals and plants, to produce better crops and live- stock, and to market their products efficiently, without first studying how these things may be done.”
The frequently-offered criticism, that research increases crops just when the Department is trying to reduce surpluses, the Secretary combats as a fallacy. By discarding the benefits of science, crops could be reduced, he ad- mits, but it would be at the cost of wasted labor and exhausted land re- sources. The right method of control, he insists, is first to reduce unit costs of production, and then adjust the number of units produced to the ca- pacity of the market to absorb them.
Smithsonian Institution.—A camp site abounding in Folsom-type culture remains was discovered in an arroyo in Colorado by Dr. Franx H. H. RoBerts, JR., of the Bureau of American Ethnology. The finds consisted not only of Felsom points but of the cores from which they were struck, as well as bones split for marrow and charcoal hearths, indicating permanent
JAN. 15, 1935 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 53
occupation. This represents the first known Folsom settlement. The site has not yet been explored, but only prospected.
An expedition into the jungles of Panama, led by Dr. Witiiam D. Strong, has produced culture remains believed to be of great importance in tracing the history of the development and migrations of indigenous Ameri- can cultures. The finds, consisting of star-headed stone warclubs, pottery, and human figurines, all show South American affinities.
A fossil vertebra of a veritable sea serpent, picked up at Belvedere Beach, Va., by Dr. W. GARDNER Lynn of the Johns Hopkins University, has been turned over to the U. S. National Museum. It represents a new species of Paleophis, a swimming python-like snake perhaps 25 feet long. It has been described under the name of P. virginianus by C. W. GiLMorE.
The present revival of gold mining in Mexico has been of indirect benefit to the U. 8. National Museum; a large quantity of specimens of rare miner- als, including livingstonite and vesuvianite, has been obtained from mines in the southern part of that country by Dr. W. F. Fosnaa, curator of minerals.
Pan-American Union.—Surgeon General H. 8. Cummine and Dr. B. J. Luoyp, Director and Assistant Director, respectively, of the Pan American Sanitary Bureau, were two of three delegates of the United States at the Ninth Pan American Sanitary Conference, held in Buenos Aires, November 12-22, 1934. Dr. Joan D. Lone, Traveling Representative of the Bureau, also attended.
Dr. A. A. Mott, scientific Editor of the Pan American Sanitary Bureau, gave a lecture before the Johns Hopkins Medical History Club on Phy- sictans in public life, especially in Latin America.
Surg. Gen. H. S. Cumming has been re-elected Director of the Pan Ameri- can Sanitary Bureau of the Ninth Pan American Conference.
The Cuban Government has just granted the Finlay decoration to Dr. L. O. Howarp, former Chief of the U. S. Bureau of Entomology; Brig. Gen. J. R. Kuan, and Dr. A. A. Mout. The latter is the author of a biographical essay on Finlay.
New officers of the Washington, D. C. Chapter of the Pan American Medical Association are Dr. Henri Dr Baye, Charge d’Affaires of Nica- ragua, President, Surg. Gen. Ropert U. Patrerson, Vice President, and Dr. A. A. Mott, Secretary.
National Bureau of Standards.—The many friends of Dr. Paut R. Hnyi will be glad to learn that he has returned to his work at the Bureau after a remarkably rapid recovery from his serious accident last October.
Dr. H. C. Dicktnson addressed the student section of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers at George Washington University on the evening of December 5. His subject was An invitation to clear thinking about the organism which controls the distribution of work and wealth in civilized society.
Dr. H. C. Dickinson presided at the traffic session of the engineering and industrial research division, Highway Research Board on December 6. This session formed part of the fourteenth annual meeting of the Board which was held at the National Academy of Sciences, Washington.
Terrestrial Magnetism Observations.—The United States Coast and Geo- detic Survey and the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington are making a joint attack on the problems of more rapid and convenient absolute magnetic observations and of more con-
54 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1
sistent performances of variometers for vertical intensity at observatories. The program includes exhaustive tests of existing instruments and de- velopment of new ones particularly electrical methods of recording, with the special aim of a combination of accuracy, rapidity, and convenience which has not as yet been attained by other methods.
Sruart L. Seaton, of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, sailed from New York November 15, 1934, for Watheroo, Western Australia, where he will join the staff of the Magnetic Observatory operated by the Department at that place. He will pay especial attention to ionospheric research. En route he will call on various officials in Australia who are inter- ested in the work in which he will be engaged.
Cause of Stratosphere Balloon Failure.—Because the giant stratosphere balloon, Explorer, on its ill-fated flight in July had the lower part of its rubber-sticky fabric tucked up inside the balloon, great tears occurred which brought a precipitate ending to the flight. This was the finding of a scientific inquiry as to the cause of the accident made by a board of review consisting of Dr. L. J. Briges, Chairman, National Bureau of Standards, Dr. Joun O. La Gorce, National Geographic Society, Brig. Gen. O. Westover, U.S. Army Air Service, Dr. W. F. G. Swann, Bartol Research Foundation, and Dr. L. B. TuckERMAN, National Bureau of Standards, as reported by Dr. Briaes and Dr. TucKERMAN.
To avoid difficulty in inflation and launching, great folds of fabric that would not be expanded by gas until the balloon had risen about 60,000 feet in its 75,000 foot projected climb were accordion folded inside with the idea that as the bag increased in size in the rarefied atmosphere it would come loose neatly. But the designers did not realize that the new way of folding would not allow the adherent rubber-coated fabric to peel loose, as happens with the usual method of folding. The inside layers became taut first, setting up shearing stresses that broke the fabric. So at 60,000 feet, the tears began and forced a descent. An explosion of the lifting hydrogen gas mixed with air oxygen admitted by the torn balloon was the final act in the disaster an caused the disintegration of the balloon. .
The Fight for the Elms.—With the $527,000 of PWA funds, Department of Agriculture forces fighting the elm disease have moved into the area around New York City, to start a campaign of extermination against all trees found to be harboring the disease or the beetles that carry its causal fungus. In the wooded country, men of the CCC will cut down and destroy the sick and dead elms. In the cities, workmen under the direction of experts will take out the doomed trees, sawing them limb by limb as they stand rather than felling them, to avoid damage to telephone and electric wires as well as to buildings. This greatly increases the cost of removal, but the expense cannot be avoided.
An area with a radius of some 45 miles around New York City is known to harbor the diseased trees. Elimination must be made complete in this region, or the disease will start over again. In addition, a ten-mile “safety zone” out- side the known infested area is also marked for cleaning up. In all, 5,000 square miles, containing 3,000,000 trees, must be policed.
Self-Reporting Earthquakes.—Earth’s rigid rocks, and its iron core, proved faster messengers of the Chilean and Honduran earthquakes than did the wires man strings along the surface. The Honduran earthquake oc- curred on the night of Sunday, December 2. Early on Monday morning telegrams began to arrive in Washington, informing the U. S. Coast and
JAN. 15, 1935 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 55
Geodetic Survey and Science Service of the records traced on seismographs of observatories all the way from Tucson, Ariz., to San Juan, P. R., and making possible the location of an epicenter in Honduras. Only on Tuesday, December 4, did meager reports trickle through a patched-up communica- tion system to tell the world of wreckage in the interior of the Central American country.
Similarly, instrumental reports of the Chilean earthquake were in the hands of seismologists some hours before telegraphic reports of damage in the northern mountain provinces came through.
The instrumental reporting of earthquakes is maintained through a co- operative arrangement of the U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Science Service, the Jesuit Seismological Association and numerous universities in the United States and abroad.
NEWS BRIEFS
Approximately 1800 lots of seed, mostly of grasses and other plants of sand and soil-binding value, have been brought back from Russian Turkes- tan and Asiatic Turkey by H. L. Westover and C. R. ENtow of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. They represent the fruits of a seven months’ expedition.
The Bureau of Entomology, U. 8. Department of Agridulture, expects a severe outbreak of chinch bugs in the central grain areas in 1935, but antici- pates less trouble from grasshoppers than there has been during the past few years.
PERSONAL ITEMS
A bronze plaque, the annual award for meritorious service in the fields of medicine and science given by the New Jersey Health and Sanitary Associa- tion, was presented in absentia on November 16 to Dr. THEOBALD SMITH, formerly of the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
One of the outstanding honors that can be won by students of the life sciences, the Joseph Leidy medal, has been given to Grrrit SmitH MILER, Jr., of the U. S. National Museum, by the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. The Leidy medal is awarded for distinguished work in the natural sciences. In announcing the selection of Mr. MiLueEr as its fourth recipient, the committee cited “his extensive and fundamental studies on the structure, classification, distribution and evolution of the mammals.”’
Dr. H. E. Ewrne, entomologist in the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, has accepted an invitation to deliver ten lectures to the class in medical entomology at the Johns Hopkins University School of Hygiene and Public Health.
Dr. CHARLES ARMSTRONG, attached to the National Institute of Health, U.S. Public Health Service, has recovered from a three weeks’ attack of an unknown illness, which may have been an attack of encephalitis. He has been conducting research on that disease continuously since the epidemic in St. Louis in 1933.
Prof. H. M. Jounson of American University lectured at Yale University on Friday evening, November 23, and at the University of Virginia on Fri- day evening, December 8.
56 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 1
Dr. 8. F. Hitpesranp, senior ichthyologist of the U. 8S. Bureau of Fish- eries, has been elected to honorary membership in the Panama Canal Natu- ral History Society in recognition of his contributions to the knowledge of neo-tropical ichthyology.
Assistant Director Conrap L. Wirt, in charge of the branch of planning and the State Park Division, U. 8. National Park Service, has been named chairman of the Committee on National, State and Provincial Parks of the American Institute of Park Executives.
CONTENTS
ORIGINAL PAPERS —
Psychology. —The frontier of the mind. WituiaM A. Wurre.........
Physics. —An apparatus for measuring the magnetic susceptibility of liquids and pollde at high temperatures. R. B. Sosman and J. B. NUS TIN oo ia ea ie PE Rie cae aa Oa
Crystallography.— The ory ar structure of calaverite. G. TUNELL and C. J. Ksanpa Re ce rn as eat RAS GS SS: ee ee he
Paleontology. —Argyrotheca gardnerae, new name. | C. WyTHE COOKE.
Paleontology. —Nanicella, a new genus of Dartaeten Foraminifera,
Luoyp G. HENBEST............} Ones ay det erase PUNY Ba tating bee eo M
Botany.—Sabal louisiana, the correct name for the polymorphic pal- metto of Louisiana._— Miriam L. BOMHARD............ Fike anne
Ornithology.—Avian bones from prehistoric ruins on Kodiak Island, Alaska.— HERBERT FRIEDMANN....... Halewes Cum tisten rash: Sean
ScientTiFIo NoTESAND NEWS.............--- ae ea hee Ret cg .
This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals
Page
34
39
VoL, 25 FrpBruary 15, 1935 No, 2
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JOURNAL
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Vou. 25 Frpruary 15, 1935 No. 2
PHARMACOLOGY .—The relationship between time of administra- tion and effectiveness of remedies for cyanide poisoning.1 JAMES
F. Coucu, H. Bunyga, and A. B. Ciawson, Bureau of Ani- mal Industry.
In the studies previously reported? it appeared that promptness in administration of the remedy in cyanide poisoning was an important factor in protecting the animal against a fatal outcome. Data as to just how soon the remedy must be given were lacking, however, and it was with the idea of supplying some definite information on this point that the experiments reported in this paper were conducted. We had previously shown that the combination of sodium nitrite and sodium thiosulphate is the most effective remedy for cyanide poison- ing in both cattle and sheep, and that it is possible to protect against
TABLE 1.—Errect or VARYING INTERVAL BETWEEN DRENCHING WITH 5 M.L.D. OF CYANIDE AND GIVING THE REMEDY
> seit Time from end of drench ; EEE Se ee aa ee 1934 Nae ee to first to to giving Remedy Effect symptoms} collapse | remedy Aug. min. min. min. 29 1493 | 43.6 1 1.5 | 11.5 | lg nitrite & 2g thiosulphate| Died 29 1537 | 45.9 15 e703) 78 do Died 29 1487 | 39 0.5 2 1 do Survived 29 1485 | 39 1 Mod |) W225) do Died 29 1480 | 34.45) 1 2 3 do Survived 29 105A | 39.5 1 15 9.5 do Died 29 1509 | 43.1 pee Wah) Shore do Died 29 1488 | 45.45) 1.5 3 8 do Died 30 1467 | 40.8 1 15} || B65 do Survived 30 1479 | 41.2 2 4 18.5 do Survived 30 1482 | 31.7 5 Dye 4 do Survived 30 1526) | 37.5 1 3 5 do Died 30 100A | 35.8 15 2 6 do Died 30 101A | 34.9 1 2 7 do Died 30 USI) | Bats 1 3 5 do Died 30 1484 | 36.2 1 2 5 0.5g methylene blue | Died 30 103A | 34.9 15 2 7 do Died 30 1500 | 39.9 1 2 Uf do Died 30 1466 | 48.07} 1 2 4 do Died
1 Received January 3, 1935. 2 This JouRNAL 24: 369- 385, 528-532. 1934.
57
FEB 254
58 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2
2 m.l.d. of potassium cyanide in cattle and 2.75 m.l.d. in sheep. It remained to determine how soon after the cyanide was given the rem- edy must be injected in order that the animal might survive. This paper records only the results obtained with sheep.
The results are summarized in table 1. Nineteen experiments were performed with sheep of which 15 were given 1g of sodium nitrite and 2¢ of sodium thiosulphate in water solution, and four were given 50 c.c. each of 1 per cent methylene blue solution for comparison. As previously described the potassium cyanide was given by mouth. The dose of cyanide given was calculated to equal 1.5 m.l.d. or just high enough to ensure death in all cases and yet much smaller than the upper limit of possible protection (2.75 m.l.d.). The remedy was ad- ministered intraperitoneally at varying times following the comple- tion of the drenching. The animals exhibited the first symptoms, accelerated respiration, in from 4 to 2 minutes after the drench, averaging 72 seconds, and collapsed in 1.5 to 4 minutes after the drench averaging 132 seconds. Dyspnea was present in all cases at the time the remedies were injected and was very marked in the de- layed cases.
Three cases were encountered in which the course of the poisoning was atypical. Sheep No. 1487 after showing symptoms in 4 minute and collapsing in 2 minutes after the drench, showed improvement, recovered consciousness, rolled upon the sternum and remained there. Six minutes later the sheep began to show dyspnea and one minute after was breathing with considerable difficulty. She was then given the combination remedy 12 minutes after the drench. Forty-eight minutes after the injection of the remedy she rose to her feet and shortly appeared fully recovered.
Sheep No. 1467 behaved similarly. After collapsing the sheep re- mained down for 1.5 minutes and then got to her feet and remained standing for 20 minutes before lying down. The animal developed symptoms of dyspnea and 32.5 minutes after the drench was very sick. She was then given the remedy and improved, got on her feet in 51 minutes and recovered. Sheep No. 1479 likewise got to her feet after collapsing and remained standing for 6 minutes when she went down and became dyspneic. In 18.5 minutes after the drench the sheep was very sick. She was given the remedy, got back on her feet in 21 minutes and recovered.
In the other cases more regularity was observed. There was a pro- gressive development of symptoms without periods of improvement be- fore the remedy was injected. When 3 and 4 minutes only had elapsed
FEB. 15, 19385 SKINKER: A NEW OOCHORISTICA 59
between the completion of the drench and the administration of the nitrite-thiosulphate combination the sheep recovered. A longer interval was followed by death. As methylene blue has been recom- mended as a remedy, for purposes of comparison 4 sheep were treated with 50 c.c. of 1 per cent solution intraperitoneally at 4, 5, 7, and 7 minutes after the completion of the drench and all died.
SUMMARY
The combination of 1 gram sodium nitrite and 2 grams of sodium thiosulphate used as a remedy in cyanide poisoning is effective when administered promptly. The combination protected when injected intraperitoneally within 4 minutes after drenching an average sized sheep with 1.5 m.1l.d. of potassium cyanide, but did not protect after a longer interval except in the cases of unusually resistant sheep. One half of a gram of methylene blue in solution similarly administered did not protect in 4 minutes. Three sheep out of 19 showed atypical behavior when poisoned with the cyanide.
ZOOLOGY.—A new species of Oochoristica from a skunk. Mary Scott SKINKER, Bureau of Animal Industry. (Communicated by E. W. Price.)
Members of the genus Oochoristica are found in a wide range of vertebrate hosts, but they occur most frequently in reptiles. Meggitt (1934) gave a comparative table of most of the species of the genus; he did not include 5 species described by Harwood (1932) or O. parva (Sandground, 1926) Meggitt, 1934. He explained that the omission of O. parva was due to the fact that no description was available, and it is probable that none was available for the species described by Harwood. The description of O. thapari Johri, 1934 from Calotes sp. has been published since Meggitt’s paper appeared. Of the species included in Meggitt’s table, 5 (including O. parva) are from carnivore hosts. These 5 species and the one described in this paper represent the known species from carnivores; a comparative table of these is included.
Family ANOPLOCEPHALIDAE Cholodkowski, 1902
Subfamily LINSTOWINAE Fuhrmann, 1907 Genus Oocuoristica Luehe, 1898
Generic diagnosis.—Genital pores usually unilateral, only infrequently irregularly alternating. Genital ducts passing between or dorsal to longitu- dinal excretory vessels. Longitudinal excretory vessels variable in number,
1 Received November 6, 1934.
60 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2
frequently with secondary ramifications. Testes numerous, i.e., usually more than 10. Female reproductive organs median; uterus a transverse tube breaking up into egg capsules, each containing a single egg. Adults in pri- mates, carnivores, insectivores, edentates, marsupials, and reptiles; larval stages unknown.
Oochoristica mephitis, n. sp.
Scoler.—Maximum diameter 429 to 689u; suckers usually somewhat longer than wide; only rarely circular in outline, 159 to 220u long by 130 to 183 wide.
General anatomy of strobila.—Length of gravid strobila 11 to 25 mm.; width usually variable, up to 1.3 mm. Neck (unsegmented region) present or absent according to state of contraction, if present usually only slightly
Figs. 1-2.—Oochoristica mephitis. Fig. 1—mature segment. Fig. 2.—Region of genital atrium. Drawn from cross section. C., cirrus; C. P., cirrus pouch; G. A., genital atrium; L. Exe. V., longitudinal excretory vessel.
narrower than greatest diameter of scolex. Segments about 40 to 70 in num- ber in strobilae with fully developed oncospheres; immature segments 20 to 40 in number, the posterior 5 to 10 segments showing only testes (ie., ovary not yet developed); fully mature segments 2 to 10 in number, usually about 3, these usually widest of strobila; gravid segments 7 to 23 in number, usually narrower than mature segments and usually longer than wide, some- times approximately square; in a specimen 11 mm. long, gravid segments 715 square. Genital papillae about one-third segment length from anterior margin in mature segments, usually in middle of segment margin in gravid segments. Genital atrium (Fig. 2) conspicuous, variable in shape, usually about 35 to 40u in greater diameter. Longitudinal excretory canals incon- spicuous and difficult to demonstrate in whole mounts, variable in number and arrangement, usually 4 to 6 (Fig. 1) on each side, most laterally situated canals usually about 110u from segment margin; transverse canals irregular in arrangement (Fig. 1) but tending to form a somewhat definite posterior canal in each segment. Longitudinal muscular layer poorly developed; trans- verse muscles scattered, few in number. Calecareous corpuscles few in the material available.
Male reproductive system.—Testes 44 to 77 in number, sometimes slightly oblong, size varying with stage of development, actively functioning testes up to about 40u in greater diameter, distributed posterior and lateral to
FEB. 15, 1935 SKINKER: A NEW OOCHORISTICA 61
ovary with tendency toward distribution in two groups in mature segments, poral group smaller, testes not extending laterad beyond most lateral ex- cretory canal. Cirrus pouch usually extending nearly to most lateral longi- tudinal excretory canal, usually approximately spherical, 55 to 65y in di- ameter, sometimes slightly greater in the diameter which lies along trans- verse axis of strobila. Vas deferens without coils in early development, in wide coils in mature segments, sometimes disappearing abruptly in early gravid segments, usually still visible in terminal segments, passing along the middle of ventral surface of ovary.
Female reproductive system.—Ovary at first distinctly bilobed, later va- -riable in shape, but with tendency toward crescentic outline. Oviduct (Fig. 3) passing from middle of posterior margin of ovary to vagina, surrounded
Lie Vas DEFERENS.
—Tlomm. ee UTERINE STEM.
serie Lan SEMINAL RECEPTACLE.
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Fig. 3—Oochoristica mephitis. Details of median reproductive organs. Ovary not fully developed.
by large nucleated cells. Vitellarium at first erescentic in outline, later usu- ally irregular in outline, composed of numerous lobules made up of cells slightly smaller than those of ovary; vitelline duct surrounded by large nu- cleated cells. ‘Shell gland” (Fig. 3) approximately globular in shape, com- posed of (or surrounded by?) large cells. In a gravid specimen 11 mm. long with about 40 segments, other measurements as follows: Typical mature segment 1.23 mm. wide by 0.65 mm. long; ovary about 192 long and 192u wide; shell gland about 40u in diameter; vitellarium about 92u in diameter. Ovary not developing until after testes are well developed; ovary then de- veloping rapidly and disappearing abruptly at appearance of first eggs in uterus. Uterine stem passing from ‘“‘shell gland” along longitudinal axis of segment to a point approximately parallel to anterior edge of ovary, sur- rounded by relatively large nucleated cells; with further development, uter- ine stem (Fig. 3) bifureating anteriorly and forming a transverse tube, the tube eventually breaking down and egg capsules filling entire segment. Va- gina without coils, opening posterior to opening of cirrus sac. Seminal re- ceptacle conspicuous, about 145y to 185u long by 43yu to 50u in maximum width, dorsal to poral lobe of ovary, frequently visible along with vas def-
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FEB. 15, 1935 SKINKER: A NEW OOCHORISTICA 63
erens in terminal gravid segments. Eggs, when containing fully developed oncospheres, about 30u in diameter.
Hosts.—Definitive: Mephitis elongata; intermediate: Unknown.
Location.—Smaill intestine of definitive host.
Disiribution.—United States (Georgia).
Type specimen.—United States National Museum No. 32859, collected by Dr. Eloise Cram of the Zoological Division.
Specific differentiation.—The present writer considers the number and ar- rangement of testes, the size of the cirrus pouch and its position with reference to the other genital organs and especially to the excretory canals and nerve, the presence or absence of a seminal receptacle, the type of genital atrium, i.e., whether massive or with relatively little musculature, the relative po- sition of the genital ducts and excretory canals, and the size of the egg the best characters for specific differentiation. Oochoristica mephitis may be sep- arated from the other members of the genus by comparison of the species with regard to these characters as shown in Meggitt’s table. In some cases such as O. cryptobothria (Linstow, 1906) La Rue, 1911 the description is so inadequate as to prevent comparison, but where relatively complete de- scriptions are given, one or more of the characters listed above will serve to separate all species from O. mephitis. The accompanying table gives only the species found in carnivores, and in it O. mephitis may be distinguished from O. amphisbeteta and from O. ichneumontis on the basis of the presence of a seminal receptacle in O. mephitis; in O. amphisbeteta the testes are dis- tributed lateral to the most lateral excretory canal, whereas in O. mephitis no testes lie outside the most lateral excretory canal. O. herpestis is a much larger worm than O. mephitis and the eggs also are larger. The conspicuous seminal receptacle in O. mephitis separates it from O. incisa which, accord- ing to Baer (1927), has only a very small one, and in O. incisa the genital ducts pass between the excretory vessels, while in O. mephitis they pass dorsal to the excretory vessels. O. parva may be distinguished from O. me- phitis by the testes in the former having a distribution (see table 1) quite unlike that in the latter, and by the cirrus pouch in the former extending well past the excretory vessels; the musculature of the genital atrium of the former also serves to differentiate it from other species. Meggitt (1934) pointed out that the number of testes and the size of the cirrus sac vary, and should, therefore, be regarded as not infallible specific characters. The present writer finds that an accurate count of testes can be made only in young segments before the testes have developed to a size which results in crowding. In O. mephitis the writer does not find the variation in the size of the cirrus pouch greater than the normal limits of variation for sucha character. It is, therefore, considered a relatively constant character. Meg- gitt cautioned against accepting unquestioningly the measurements of eggs and oncospheres since they vary according to the medium in which the eggs are measured. The measurements here given are for eggs mounted in bal- sam.
64 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2
The characteristic appearance of these specimens is that of thin, nearly translucent worms, with the width usually greatest in the region of the ma- ture segments, and the transition from mature segments to gravid segments so rapid as to seem abrupt.
Discussion of table 1.—Meggitt (1934) considered O. amphisbeteta Meg- gitt, 1924 a synonym of O. erinacei Meggitt, 1920, but in the opinion of the present writer both these specific names are probably synonyms of O. incisa Railliet, 1899. Joyeux (1927) considered O. incisa very similar to O. erinacet and described the egg capsules of O. erinacei var. rodentium as 45y in di- ameter with the oncosphere 23u by 17y. Marotel (1899) described the egg capsules of O. incisa as 45y in diameter and the egg itself as 35y by 22y with the hooks of the embryo as 17y long. Meggitt (1934) did not give the egg size of either O. erinacei or O. amphisbeteta. Baer (1927) gave the diameter of the eggs of O. erinacei as 15y, and that of the eggs of O. amphisbeteta as 30u. With such conflicting data it is difficult to come to any conclusion other than that the measurement “‘15y”’ given by Baer is probably a typograph- ical error. The number of testes recorded by Meggitt (1924) for O. amphis- beteta is 22 to 24 and for O. erinacez is 30 to 50, but it is probable that these were counted in mature segments only, and judging from the variation found by the present writer in young segments of O. mephitis in which the testes could be accurately counted, variations from 22 to 50 is not beyond specific limits. It is on the authority of Baer (1927) that O. amphisbeteta is described as being without a seminal receptacle and O. incisa as having a small one. It seems quite possible, since Meggitt fails to state definitely that the seminal receptacle is absent in O. amphisbeteta, that a small one may be present but demonstrable only in sections or in well extended seg- ments. However, Meggitt described O. erinacei as being without a seminal receptacle, and since he later came to regard O. amphisbeteta as a synonym of O. erinacei for the present both species must be considered as lacking this structure.
The specimens of O. incisa which were but 10 mm. long were regarded by Baer as a forma minor.
The massive musculature of the genital atrium of O. parva (Sandground, 1926), Meggitt, 1934, appears to be a specific character which would serve to separate this species from other members of the genus. The specific name parva was proposed by Baylis (1929) for a member of the genus Oochoristica, but when Atriotaenia parva Sandground, 1926 was identified as belonging to the genus Oochoristica, it created the necessity of renaming Oochoristica parva Baylis, 1929. Dr. Baylis has suggested, in correspondence which the present writer had with him, that if necessary Oochoristica parva Baylis, 1929 be renamed Oochoristica lygosomatis, and he indicated his willingness to have the new name published by anyone in a position to express a defi- nite opinion that Sandground’s species is a member of the genus Oochoris- tica. Since Oochoristica parva (Sandground, 1926), Meggitt, 1934 possesses no
FEB. 15, 1935 SHOEMAKER: NEW AMPHIPOD 65
characters which serve to separate it from the genus Oochoristica, the pres- ent writer proposes the new name O. lygosomatis for O. parva Baylis, 1929.
LITERATURE CITED
Bazr, J. G. Contributions to the helminth fauna of South Africa. Thése (Neuchatel), 79 pp., 1 map, figs. 1-48. Pretoria. 1925.
Monographie des cestodes de la famille des Anoplocephalidae. 241 pp., figs. 1-43, 1 fold. diagr., pls. 1—4, figs. 1-24. Paris. (Supplements au Bulletin Biologique de France et de Belgique, Suppl. 10.) 1927.
Jouri, L. N. Report on a collection of cestodes from Lucknow (U. P. India). Ree. Indian Mus., Calcutta, 36: 153-177, figs. 1-138. 1934.
JoYEUX, CHaRLES Epovuarp. Recherches sur las faune helminthologique algérienne (cestodes et trématodes). Arch. de I’Inst. Pasteur d’Algerie, Alger., 5: 509-529, lfig. 1927.
Marotet, M. G. Sur un Téniadé du Blaireau. Compt. rend. Soc. de biol., Par., 51: 21-23. 1899.
Meseairt, F. J. On some tapeworms from the bullsnake (Pityopis sayi), with remarks on the species of the genus Oochoristica (Cestoda). Jour. Parasitol., 20: 181-189, fig. 1. 1934.
ZOOLOGY.—A new species of amphipod of the genus Grandidierella and a new record for Melita nitida from Sinaloa, Mexico.1 CLaR- ENCE R. SHOEMAKER, U.S. National Museum. (Communicated by Mary J. RaTHBuN.)
In 1923 Mr. W. E. Chapman, American Consul, at Mazatlan, Sinaloa, Mexico, sent some amphipods to the U. 8. National Mu- seum which were taken by Mr. Harry Notton in connection with the shrimp investigations which he was carrying on at Mazatlan. The material contained two species, Melita nitida Smith, which is re- ported for the first time from the west coast of America, and a spe- cies that I believe to be new to science and which I designate as Grandidierella nottont.
GRANDIDIERELLA Coutiére, 1904
The first species of this genus, when described by Giles in 1888, was placed in the genus Microdeutopus with which it, however, did not agree by the possession of a uniramous third uropod. Coutiére in 1904, when he described his new species, mahafalensis, created the genus Grandidierella to receive it, and considered its affinities closer to the Corophiidae, in which family he placed it. Coutiére, and later Stebbing in 1908, called attention to the close alliance of Grandidierella with both Unciola and Chevreuxius, and Stebbing placed his new spe- cies, G. bonnieri, in the Corophiidae. Chilton (1921, p. 549) said, ‘The
1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Re- ceived December 8, 1934.
66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2
general resemblance of the animals to Microdeutopus and to Aora is so great that in my opinion the genus should be placed under the Aoridae. The third uropods certainly are one-branched, but I do not consider this sufficient to outweigh the resemblance in all other char- acters which, as will be seen from the following description, is very close.’’ He lays particular stress upon the resemblance of the first gnathopods of the male, the uropods, and the telson to those of Microdeutopus. Schellenberg (1925, p. 164) calls attention to the very indefinite limits of the family Corophiidae as established by Stebbing in Das Tierreich, and suggests the alteration of the family Aoridae to include genera with either biramous or uniramous third uropods in order to include the genus Grandidierella.
In comparing Grandidierella with the genera now placed under the Corophiidae, there appear to be so many characters in common that it seems more natural to include it in this family rather than to alter the Aoridae for its reception. Grandidierella is depressed, possesses a very strongly developed second antenna in the male, has very small side- plates which are not in continuity, and has the third uropods uni- ramous. These characters are very strongly emphasized in Grandid- zerella elongata Chevreux (1925, p. 393, fig. 32) and in the present species, and are also possessed by the genera Corophium, Unciola, and Stphonoecetes. Chevreuxius, Ericthonius, Neohela, and Unciolella are depressed with small disconnected side-plates, and have uniramous third uropods, but without the strongly developed second antenna. Camacho is depressed and has the small disconnected side-plates, but has a minute second ramus to third uropods. Cerapus is depressed, has the separated side-plates, and uniramous third uropods, but has the first antennae strongly developed. In the genera Cerapus, Coro- phium, Ericthonius, and Siphonoecetes, the second gnathopods are larger than the first, but in Neohela, Unciola, Chevreuxius, and Un- ciolella the first gnathopods are larger than the second. In the genera Chevreuxius, Unciolella, and Grandidierella the first gnathopod of the male is strongly developed and very similar in structure, the fifth joint being enlarged with a short, transverse palm defined by a strong tooth at the lower distal extremity. The second gnathopods in these three genera are very similar in structure, being weak, slender, and subchelate. In the species of Grandidierella here described, besides other points of resemblance, the fifth or last peraeopod and the sec- ond antenna of the male bear a very close resemblance to Corophium; the fourth and fifth joints of this antenna bearing the characteristic distal tooth of that genus.
FEB. 15, 1935 SHOEMAKER: NEW AMPHIPOD 67
Chevreux (1925, p. 392), when describing his species, G. elongata, placed it in the family Corophiidae.
In view of the foregoing considerations, it would seem more natural to place Grandidierella with other closely related genera in the family Corophudae rather than alter the characters of the family Aoridae to accommodate it.
Grandidierella nottoni, n. sp.
Male.—Head with lateral lobes well developed and bearing the ill de- fined, black eye. Antenna 1 with first joint stouter, but a little shorter than second, third joint about one-third the length of second, flagellum nearly
Fig. 1.—Grandidierella nottoni, new species, male. a, anterior portion of animal. b, end of gnathopod 2, greatly enlarged. c, peraeopod 5, same scale asa. d, uropod 3, greatly enlarged.
as long as peduncle and composed of fifteen joints, accessory flagellum mi- nute, about half the length of the first joint of primary flagellum. Antenna 2 robust, but slightly shorter than antenna 1, first and third joints very prominent and strongly developed, fourth joint very strongly developed and nearly twice as long as fifth, flagellum shorter than fifth joint and composed of two long joints and four shorter joints. The fourth and fifth joints of the second antenna of the male bear a distal tooth, thus completing the very close resemblance of this antenna to that of the male Corophium. The mouth- parts bear a very close resemblance to those figured by Coutiére (1904, p. 5, figs. 6-9) for G. mahafalensis. Gnathopod 1 is very robust and strong, the fifth joint being produced backward into a very prominent rounding lobe
68 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2
Fig. 2—Melita nitida Smith, male from Mazatlan. a, anterior portion of ani- mal. 6, posterior portion of animal. c, accessory flagellum, greatly enlarged. d, maxilla 1. e, maxilliped. f, gnathopod 1. g, gnathopod 2. h, inside of gnathopod 2 showing shallow groove bounded by spines into which the dactyl fits. 7, peraeopod 3, same scale as a and b. j, peraeopod 5, same scale as a and b. k, peraeopod 4 of female. Jl, uropod 3. ™m, telson.
—
FEB. 15, 1935 SHOEMAKER: NEW AMPHIPOD 69
much as figured by Chilton (1921, p. 550, figs. 10,n and 10,0) for G. megnae but there is not the slightest suggestion of a forward-pointing tooth in the center of the palm either in young or old individuals, nor is the small tooth figured by Chilton (1921, p. 550, fig. 10,e) on the posterior margin of the fifth joint present in any of these specimens from Mazatlan; the prominent tooth on the sixth joint of Chilton’s figures (1921, p. 550, figs. 10,n and 10,0) is not present in any of my specimens. Gnathopod 2 bears a close re- semblance to Chilton’s figure (1921, p. 550, fig. 10,2), except that in the pres- ent specimens the second joint is comparatively longer and slenderer and the palm is more nearly transverse. Peraeopods 1 and 2 bear a close resem- blance to those of the genera Microdeutopus and Corophium, but the seventh joint is as long as the sixth, as in Corophiwm. Peraeopods 8 to 5 increasing consecutively in length, peraeopod 5 closely resembling that of Corophium, the second joint bearing posterior plumose marginal setae. Side-plates all very shallow, narrower than their respective segments and not in conti- nuity. Pleon segments 1 to 3 with postero-lateral corners broadly rounding. Uropod 1 extending back slightly farther than 2, and the peduncle without a stout spine at distal extremity, as figured by Coutiére (1904, fig. 17) for G. mahafalensis. Uropod 2 extending back very slightly farther than 3. Tel- son wider than long, distally truncate, and having a small seta at either lateral corner.
Length.—Male about 7 mm.
The female in general like the male. Antenna 2 not so strongly developed, but the lower lateral margin of the head deeply incised to receive the en- larged first peduncular joint as in the male. The fourth joint of antenna 2 bears on the lower inner margin a distal forward-pointing spine and another similar spine nearer the proximal end. In younger females the distal spine only appears to be present. Gnathopod 1 not much larger than 2 and simply subchelate, the oblique evenly convex distal margin of the sixth joint form- ing the palm against which the seventh joint exactly fits. Gnathopod 2 like that of the male, though somewhat proportionately shorter. Peraeopods and uropods as in the male. Female about as long as male.
Type.—Male, taken at Mazatlan, Sinaloa, Mexico, February, 1923, by Harry Notton; water brackish, salinity, 13.5 per mill. U.'S.N.M. Cat. No. 69742.
Chilton demonstrated that Grandidierella megnae (Giles) was subject to great variation in some of its characters, and concluded that G. mahafalen- sis Coutiére and G. bonnieri Stebbing were synonyms of Giles’s earlier spe- cies. Later authors have adopted Chilton’s view. Recently Dr. Stephensen (1933, pp. 484 and 446) has reported G. megnae as being extremely common in shallow salt-water pools, and in cisterns, on the islands of Bonaire and Curagao off the coast of Venezuela.
As neither young nor old males of the present Mexican specimens show any vestige of a central palmar tooth, nor a tooth on the under side of the sixth joint of gnathopod 1, and as Chilton’s figure (1921, p. 550, fig. 10,c) of the second antenna of a mature male does not show the Corophium-like development of the present specimens, I have concluded that they represent a new species.
70 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2
The collection of the U. 8S. National Museum contains specimens of what I believe to be G. megnae (Giles) from two new localities from the West Indian region.
The first lot, consisting of males and females, was taken in February, 1933, by Mr. R. M. Bond from Etang Saumatre, a brackish lake of Haiti. The largest male, measuring about 5 mm. in length, has in gnathopod 1 only the rudiment of the central palmar tooth, no lower marginal tooth on fifth joint, and no tooth on the under margin of the sixth joint. The largest female with eggs bears on the lower inner margin of the fourth joint of antenna 2 four evenly placed forward-pointing spines. These spines are quite conspicuous, but apparently have not been mentioned in any of the descriptions heretofore.
The second lot consists of three male specimens taken from the stomach of a flounder at Tortugas, Florida during the summer of 1933 by Dr. Harold W. Manter. The largest of the specimens has the first gnathopod nearly as figured by Chilton (1921, p. 550, fig. 10,f). It bears the small central palmar tooth and the small marginal tooth on the lower margin of the fifth joint, but lacks the tooth on the under margin of the sixth joint as does Chilton’s. The two smaller specimens bear the central palmar tooth, but not the small tooth on the lower margin. The largest specimen only retains one of the second antennae which appears to be much slenderer than that figured by Chilton (1921, p. 550, fig. 10,a). The first antenna of this male is considerably longer than the second and proportionately much slenderer than that figured by Chilton (1921, p. 550, fig. 10,a). The largest of the specimens measures about 3.5 mm.
As far as we can learn from the published records of the genus Grandid- verella, it appears to inhabit mainly brackish waters. Tattersall records it from fresh water in China, Stephensen from slightly saline cistern water in Bonaire Island. The specimens from Tortugas, however, were found in the ordinary water of the Gulf of Mexico in the vicinity of the Gulf Stream. The species here described, G. nottoni, was taken in brackish water, salinity 13.5 per mill.
MELITA NITIDA Smith
This species was described by Prof. S. I. Smith in 1873 from the coast of New England. Since then it has been reported from widely separated localities along the east coast of the United States as far south as Louisiana, by Paulmier (1905, p. 162), Holmes (1905, p. 505), Pearse (1912, p. 371), Fowler (1912, p. 187), and Kunkel (1918, p. 99).
The present specimens taken in February, 1923, by Mr. Harry Notton are the first to be recorded from the west coast of America. In 1933 Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt, while a member of the Hancock Galapagos Expedition, collected specimens at La Plata Island, Ecuador; Cocos Island, southwest of Costa Rica; and Bahia Honda, Panama.
FEB. 15, 1935 SHOEMAKER: NEW AMPHIPOD 71
In west coast specimens the flagellum of antenna 1 is a little shorter than the peduncle and not longer, as Smith (1873, p. 560) records of the New England specimens. The fourth joint of antenna 2 is slightly longer than the second joint of antenna 1 and not scarcely shorter, as stated by Smith. The seventh joint of gnathopod 1 of the male projects inward nearly at a right angle to the sixth joint, as recorded by Smith, but this joint is per- fectly developed to fit the palm, so it is probable that the animal has the ability to close it against the palm if necessary. In gnathopod 2 of the male, the dactyl closes against a row of short spines on the inside surface of the sixth joint. As in Smith’s specimens, the fifth pleon segment bears posteri- orly a row of three or four short spines on either side of the median dorsal line:
In the female the sixth side-plate has the lower front corner produced into a peculiar and characteristic lobe much as that of Melita palmata (Montagu).
The largest specimens that I have seen from the west coast of America measure about 6 mm., while Smith gives 7-9 mm. for the New England spec- imens.
LITERATURE CITED
CuHEVREUX, E. Voyage de la Goélette Melita aux Canaries et au Sénégal 1889-1890. Amphipodes. I.—Gammariens (Suite). Bull. Soc. Zool. France. 50: No. 10: 365- 398, figs. 13-35. 1925.
Cuitton, C. Fauna of the Chilka Lake. Mem. Ind. Mus. Calcutta 5: 521-558, figs. 1-12. 1921.
Coutirers, H. Sur un type nouveau d’amphipode Grandidierella mahafalensis prove- nant de Madagascar. Bull. Soc. philomath. ser. 9, 6: 1-11, figs. 1-2. 1904. Fowurr, H. W. Crustacea of New Jersey. Ann. Rep. New Jersey State Mus. for
1911: 35-461, pls. 1-150. 1912.
Gites, G. M. VII.—WNatural history notes from H. M.’s Indian marine survey steamer “Tnvestigator.”” Commander Alfred Carpenter, R.N., D.S.O., commanding. No. 9. Further notes on the amphipoda of Indian waters. Jour. Asiatic Soc. Bengal. 57: Pt. II, No. III: 220-254, pls. 6-12. 1888.
Houmss, 8S. J. The amphipods of Southern New England. Bull. U. 8. Bur. Fish. for 1904. 24: 457-529, text-figs. and pls. 1-18. 1905.
Kunxet, B. W. The arthrostraca of Connecticut. State of Conn. State Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 26: 1-261, figs. 1-84. 1918.
Pautminr, F. C. The higher crustacea of New York City. N. Y. State Mus. Bull. 91: Zool. 12: 117-189, figs. 1-59. 1905.
Prarss, A. S. Notes on certain amphipods from the Gulf of Mexico, with descriptions of new genera and new species. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 43: 369-379, figs. 1-8. 1912.
ScHELLENBERG, A. Crustacea VIII: Amphipoda. Beitraége zur Kenntnis der Meeres- fauna Westafrikas. 3: 113-204, figs. 1-27. 1925.
Smita, S. I. in Verrini, A. E. Report upon the invertebrate animals of Vineyard Sound and adjacent waters, with an account of the physical characters of the region. Rep. Commis. Fisheries for 1871 and 1872, Art. 18: 295-747, pls. 1-37. 1873.
StperHEeNsEN, K. Fresh- and brackish-water amphipoda from Bonaire, Curagao, and Aruba. Zool. Jahrb., Jena, Abt. f. Syst. 64: 415-436, figs. 1-8. 1933.
SterHensen, K. Amphipoda from the marine salines of Bonaire and Curagao. Zool. Jahrb., Jena, Abt. f. Syst. 64: 437-446, figs. 1-4. 1933.
72 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2
ENTOMOLOGY.—A new species of blister beetle from Arizona.' yuIpO G. MaypELL.2, (Communicated by Harotp Morrison.)
Epicauta crassitarsis, n. sp.
Reddish pitchy brown, clothed with luteous or cinereoluteous pubescence; on each elytron a whitish longitudinal line. Head black, shining, coarsely but sparsely punctate and clothed with a sparse pubescence; median line distinct; eyes large, feebly emarginate anteriorly, coarsely granulated; antennae dark brown, the first joint enlarged apically, reddish except the apex and provided with rather long cinereous hairs, the second joint with the basal half reddish, the third joint elongated not quite as long as the first two combined, the following decreasing in length and somewhat flattened apically. Prothorax subquadrate, a little longer than wide, parallelsided in three-fourths of the length; median line distinct, punctation and pubescence the same as on the head. Elytra parallelsided, finely punctate-granulate; on each elytron a narrow median line of lighter pubescence not quite reach- ing the apex; the sutural, apical and lateral margins also whitish. Abdomen and sterna black, the legs reddish, both sparsely clothed with cinereous pubescence. The hind tibial spurs stout, acuminate to the tip. Length 10-11 mm.
Male.—Anterior tibiae with a single short and curved terminal spur. The tarsi of the intermediate legs with the three basal joints bulb-like, enlarged; the first joint the largest and curved in its basal half.
Female——The anterior tibiae bicalearate; the tarsi of the intermediate legs normal.
Type.—Male, Tempe, Ariz., Sept. 7, 1933, K. B. McKinney (4-145); 3 paratypes, 1 male, 2 females, labelled in the same way, all in the collection of the U.S. National Museum, Washington, D.C.
[Just before his death a supplementary series of this species, 20 speci- mens, was received from the same source, but collected by Mr. McKinney on alfalfa Sept. 20, 1934, about a year after the type series above described. Mr. Maydell unfortunately had no opportunity to reconsider his first draft based on only the four above listed types. H.S.B
ZOOLOGY.—New nematodes of the genus Longistriata in rodents.’ G. Dixmans, Bureau of Animal Industry. (Communicated by Maurice C. Hatt.)
Longistriata musculi, n. sp. Figs. 1-7.
Specific diagnosis—Longistriata: Worms small, with anterior end of body usually coiled in a loose spiral. Cephalic cuticle slightly inflated and marked with annular striations, inflation extending for a distance of 65 to 75y; beyond this point a cuticular expansion marked by longitudinal striae in-
1 Received December 3, 1934.
* During the few days before his sudden death on September 28, 1934, Mr. Maydell had been adding to his manuscript revision of the Meloid genus Epicauta from the data assembled in the U. S. National Museum. The abrupt termination of his labor leaves this revision uncompleted. Among his last written additions the following de- scription of a peculiar southwestern species about which he had spoken with much interest is complete and ready for publication. H. S. Barber.
3 Received December 11, 1934.
FEB. 15, 1935 DIKMANS: GENUS LONGISTRIATA 73
creasing in number from anterior to posterior end. Immediately posterior to cervical inflation longitudinal striae numbering about 6 to 8; in posterior portion striae numbering about 18 to 20, all striae being marked by fine cross striations. Head rounded; mouth and circumoral papillae inconspicu- ous. Esophagus 320 to 450u long by 30 to 40u wide in its terminal portion. Nerve ring near middle of esophagus. Excretory pore near beginning of posterior fourth of esophagus.
Male 3.25 to 4.5 mm. long by 95 to 100u in maximum diameter immedi- ately anterior to bursa. Bursa relatively large and symmetrical. Ventro- ventral ray shortest and slenderest, and externo-dorsal longest and thickest, of paired rays; remaining paired rays about equal in size; tips of rays ap- proximately equidistant at margin of bursa except for postero-lateral and externodorsal, these rays approximated to each other. Dorsal ray divided into 2 branches in its distal third, each branch again dividing near tip, ex- ternal branch of second bifurcation longer than inner branch. Spicules 390 to 420u long, straight and filiform, with triangular enlargement at distal ends. Gubernaculum absent.
Female 4.25 to 6.75 mm. long and about 100 to 160 wide in region of proximal portion of ovejector. Ovejector single, stout, muscular, about 100y long. Vulva to anus, 90u; anus to tip of tail, 30u. Eggs 55 to 60u long by 30 to 32u wide.
Host.—Mus musculus.
Location.—Smaill intestine.
Locality.—Jeanerette, Louisiana, U.S. A.
Type specimens.—U. 8. National Museum Helminthological Collection No. 30456.
Figs. 1-7.—Longistriata musculi. Fig. 1. Lateral view of bursa. Fig. 2. Dorsal rays of bursa. Fig. 3. Terminal portion of spicules. Fig. 4. Anterior portion of head. Fig. 5. Anterior portion of body. Fig. 6. Posterior portion of body of female, showing pyslector: Fig. 7. Posterior portion of body of female, showing longitudinal striations of cuticle.
Figs. 8-12.—Longistriata norvegica. Fig. 8. Posterior portion of body of female, showing ovejector. Fig. 9. Anterior portion of body, showing cuticular inflation. Fig. 10. Terminal portion of spicule. Figs. 11 and 12. Bursa.
74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2
Longistriata norvegica, n. sp. Figs. 8-12.
Specific diagnosis.—Longistriata: Worms small, usually coiled in a loose spiral. Cervical inflation characteristic of this group of nematodes, about 75 to 80u long by 25 to 30 wide, the anterior widest portion marked by an- nular striations. Width of head, exclusive of inflation, about 1l6u. Cuticle of body inflated and marked by longitudinal striae, each striation showing cross striations. Esophagus 275 to 300u long and 20 to 25y wide in its distal portion. Nerve ring about 150 to 175y, and excretory pore about 20 to 27p, anterior to termination of esophagus.
Male about 4 to 4.5 mm. long by 45 to 50u wide just anterior to bursa. Cuticular inflation extending on ventral side of body to within 30 to 35yu anterior to commencement of bursa. Bursa symmetrical, with 2 lateral lobes and 1 dorsal lobe. Spicules 350 to 375y long, filiform, distal ends divided into 2 branches enclosed in a sheath. Gubernaculum absent. Ventro-ventral ray shortest and slenderest of the paired rays, directed forward and widely separated from latero-ventral ray. Latero-ventral, externo-lateral and me- dio-lateral rays of about equal thickness and length, the first 2 being par- allel and diverging only slightly in their distal portions; externo-lateral the thickest ray; medio-lateral ray the longest ray and directed straight towards margin of bursa. Postero-lateral ray originating from a common stem with medio-lateral and directed dorsally; these two rays widely separated at their tips. Externo-dorsal rays and dorsal ray originating from a common stem, the former being very slender and curving outward from dorsal; stem of dorsal very wide and bifurcating at middle; each branch divided at tip, outer branch longer than inner. None of rays reaching margin of bursa.
Females 5 to 5.5 mm. long and about 90y wide in region of vulva. Single ovejector, including sphincter, about 100u long by 40u wide. Vulva about 100. from anus; anus about 30, from tip of tail; tip of tail narrowing ab- ruptly about 5u from end and terminating in a conical, blunt point. Eggs 60 to 65u long by 30 to 35y wide.
Host.—Rattus sp.
Location.—Small intestine.
Locality.— Jeanerette, Louisiana, U.S. A. ee specimens.—U. 8S. National Museum Helminthological Collection
0. 30457
The nematode here described under the name of Longistriata norvegica is very similar to the nematode described by Chandler (2) as Longistriata adunca from the cotton rat, Sigmidon hispidus. Chandler, however, de- scribed an accessory piece or gubernaculum as being present in the nema- tode described by him. No such structure has been observed in the nematode described here as Longistriata norvegica. The writer, therefore, must accept Chandler’s description as correct, pending some reexamination of his mate- rial or a comparative study of these two nematodes.
Longstriata carolinensis, n. sp. Figs. 13-17.
Specific diagnosis.—Longistriata: Worms small, usually rolled in a loose spiral. Cervical inflation about 50u long by 30u wide. Cuticle of body inflated and marked with distinct longitudinal striations or bands, these in turn dis- tinctly marked with cross-striations. Head rounded, mouth opening and circumoral papillae inconspicuous. Esophagus 280 to 310u long by 35 to
FEB. 15, 1935 DIKMANS: GENUS LONGISTRIATA 75
40u wide in its terminal portion. Excretory pore about 120 anterior to ter- mination of esophagus. Nerve ring slightly anterior to excretory pore. Male 2.7 to 3 mm. long and 70 to 80u in maximum diameter immediately anterior to bursa. Bursa symmetrical, 125 to 130u long and 225 to 250u wide when fully expanded. Ventro-ventral rays short and slender, directed forward; latero-ventral ray widely separated from and somewhat larger than ventro-ventral ray and also directed forward; externo-lateral, thickest of the paired rays, widely separated from latero-ventral, but parallel to medio-
o1nmmM
Figs. 13-17.—Longistriata carolinensis. Fig. 13. Posterior portion of male, showing spicules and gubernaculum. Fig. 14. Posterior portion of female, showing ovejector. Fig. 15. Bursa. Fig. 16. Posterior portion of female, showing relative positions of vulva andanus. Fig. 17. Posterior portion of female.
Figs. 18-20.—Longistriata dalrymplet. Fig. 18. Posterior portion of female, show- ing ovejector. Fig. 19. Posterior portion of male, showing bursa and spicules. Fig. 20. Anterior portion showing cuticular inflation.
lateral except at tip, here the latter two rays diverging slightly, externo- lateral bending ventrad and medio-lateral running straight toward margin of bursa; postero-lateral ray originating from medio-lateral ray and di- rected posteriorly to margin of bursa, the tips of these rays widely sepa- rated, all these rays reaching margin of bursa. Externo-dorsal rays originat- ing separately from dorsal ray; dorsal ray divided into rather long branches, each of these bifurcated at tip; branches of bifurcation equal in size. Spicules 400 to 450u long, filiform, with expanded proximal ends. Gubernaculum about 25uilong by 15u wide.
Female about 3.5 mm. long. Ovejector single, about 80u long. Vulva 60 to 65u from anus; tip of tail 40 to 50u from anus. Tail narrowing abruptly shortly before its termination and ending in a blunt point. Eggs 58y long by 30 to 35u wide.
Hosts.—Peromyscus maniculatus (Deer mouse), and Microtus ochrogaster (Prairie meadow mouse).
Location.—Small intestine.
76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2
Localities —Great Smoky Mountains, North Carolina, and Vincennes, Indiana, U.S. A.
Type specimen.—U. 8. National Museum Helminthological Collection No. 30458.
Longistriata dalrymplei, n. sp. Figs. 18-20.
Specific diagnosis.—Longistriata: Worms small, delicate, usually rolled in a loose spiral. Cervical inflation 45 to 60u long by 27 to 43u wide. Cutic- ular inflation with prominent longitudinal lines marked with cross-stria- tions. Esophagus about 250 to 300u long and 20 to 25y wide in its terminal portion. Position of nerve ring and excretory pore not determined owing to condition of specimens.
Male 3.7 to 4 mm. long and 40 to 50u wide in maximum diameter. Bursa symmetrical, about 1254 long and 300u wide when fully expanded. Ventro- ventral ray directed forward and widely separated from latero-ventral ray at the tip; latero-ventral ray slender and pointed, directed ventrad and ex- tending to margin of bursa; externo-lateral thickest of bursal rays, directed toward lateral margin of bursa, but bending slightly forward before reach- ing margin. Medio-lateral ray straight and directed toward margin of bursa; postero-lateral ray originating from medio-lateral ray and directed dorsad, tips of two latter rays far apart. Externo-dorsal ray slender, originating from dorsal ray 30u from its base; dorsal ray about 75y long, dividing into 2 branches about 20u from distal end, each branch bifurcating at the tip; outer secondary branch longer than inner branch. Spicules straight, fili- form, 340 to 360u long. Gubernaculum small, almost colorless, about 25 to 30u long by 154 wide. Genital cone well developed and prominent.
Female 4 to 4.7 mm. long, and 70 to 80u in maximum diameter in region of ovejector. Ovejector single, well developed, about 100u long. Vulva to anus, 50 to 60u; anus to tip of tail, 40 to 60u. Tail ending in a sharp point. Eggs 55 to 65y long and 35 to 40y wide.
This nematode closely resembles Longistriata vexillata (Syn. Heligmoso- mum vexillatum Hall, 1916). It differs from the latter in the possession of a ~ gubernaculum, in the absence of spurs on the dorsal ray between the origin of the externo-dorsal rays and the bifurcation, and in the absence of maculae on the bursal membrane.
Hosts—Ondatra zibethica (Muskrat) and Mrucrotus pennsylvanicus (Meadow mouse).
Location.—Small intestine.
Localities —New Jersey, Indiana, and Minnesota, U.S. A.
Type specimens.—U. 8. National Museum Helminthological Collection No. 30459.
Longistriata noviberiae, n. sp. Figs. 21-27.
Specific diagnosis.—Longistriata: Worms small, delicate, spirally coiled, bright red in color when freshly collected. Cephalic cuticle slightly in- flated, showing distinct transverse striations; inflation 45 to 60u long by 25 to 30u wide. Cuticle of body inflated, showing longitudinal striae marked with cross-striations. Esophagus 270 to 300u long by 25 to 32u wide near its termination. Nerve ring 165 to 175u from anterior end. Excretory pore situated from 15y anterior to 25u posterior to termination of esophagus.
FEB. 15, 1935 DIKMANS: GENUS LONGISTRIATA a
Male 4 to 5 mm. long by 55 to 654 in maximum diameter. Bursa sym- metrical, about 130 to 150u long and 240 to 2604 wide when expanded. Ventral rays of approximately the same size, divergent at tips and directed forward, reaching margin of bursa; latero-ventral ray terminating in a slight projection on bursal margin; externo-lateral and medio-lateral rays close together and parallel for greater part of their length, diverging near
Figs. 21-27.—Longistriata noviberiae. Fig. 21. Female. Fig. 22. Bursa. Fig. 23. Terminal portion of female. Figs. 24 and 26. Anterior portion of body, showing cerv- icalinflation. Fig. 25. Posterior portion of female, showing ovejector. Fig. 27. Male.
their termination; externo-lateral ray bending sharply ventrad, and medio- lateral ray continuing straight to bursal margin; postero-lateral ray origi- nating from medio-lateral ray, diverging sharply from latter, and directed dorsad, reaching posterior margin of bursa, tips of these two rays widely separated; externo-dorsals originating from a common stem with the dorsal ray and approaching posterior margin of bursa in close proximity to termina- tion of postero-lateral rays; dorsal ray bifurcated, forming 2 fairly widely divergent branches, the latter also bifurcating to form 2 terminal branches. Bursal margin slightly indented in region of dorsal ray. Spicules slender, filiform and equal, 420 to 430u long. Gubernaculum present, about 35u long by 15y wide.
Female 5.5 to 6.5 mm. long by 75 to 80u wide in region of vulva. Tail pointed and bent sharply ventrad in all specimens examined. Vulva with 2
78 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2
prominent lips, about 100 to 120y from tip of tail; anus 45 to 55 from tip of tail. Ovejector single, about 165y long. Eggs 70 to 75y long by 35 to 40 wide.
Host.—Rabbits (probably Sylvilagus floridanus alacer and Sylvilagus palustris littoralis).
Location.—Small intestine.
Locality. Jeanerette, Louisiana, U.S. A.
Type specimens.—U. 8. National Museum Helminthological Collection No. 30460.
THE GENUS LONGISTRIATA
In their key to the genera of the family Heligmosomidae, Yorke and Maplestone (1926), regard the spiral rolling of the body as a generic char- acter, and on the basis of that character they separate the genera Helig- mosomum and Viannaia. The acceptance of this feature as a character of generic value has led to confusion and has resulted in the inclusion in the genus Viannaia of nematodes which obviously do not belong to it. Schulz (4) proposed, therefore, the subgenus Longistriata in the genus Viannaia to include those nematodes in which the body is spirally rolled as in Viannaza, and in which there are comparatively long spicules and a cuticle distinctly marked with longitudinal striations as in Heligmosomum. Travassos and Darriba (6), after noting that the spiral rolling of the body cannot be con- sidered as a distinguishing character, raised Schulz’s subgenus Longistriata to the status of a genus, with Longistriata depressa (= Strongylus depressus Dujardin, 1845) as type, transferred several nematodes placed by Travassos (1921) in the genus Heligmosomum to the genus Longistriata, and made the genus Heligmonella Monnig, 1927, a synonym of the genus Viannella Tra- vassos, 1918.
The genus Heligmonella was created by Monnig (3) with the following diagnosis: ‘‘Heligmosominae: body red, spirally coiled, cuticle with marked longitudinal striations; cephalic cuticle inflated and transversely striated. Male: bursa with ventral rays separate and diverging, postero-lateral di- verging from externo- and medio-lateral, externo-dorsal arises from a com- mon dorsal trunk, dorsal bifurcated near its extremity, the branches also bifurcated; spicules slender, gubernaculum distinct. Female: vulva near anus, a single uterus. Parasites in stomach and intestine of rodents.”
The genus Heligmonella differs, therefore, markedly from the genus Vian- nava in the character of the spicules and in the course and direction of the bursal rays, and its proposed inclusion in the genus Viannaia appears to be unwarranted. The genera Longistriata and Heligmonella resemble each other in the possession of (1) transversely striated cephalic inflation, (2) an expanded and longitudinally striated cuticle, (3) comparatively long and slender spicules, and (4) comparably directed bursal rays, and on the basis
of these resemblances the genus Heligmonella is here made a synonym of the genus Longistriata.
FEB. 15, 1935 DIKMANS: GENUS LONGISTRIATA 79
Baylis (1) described a number of new species in the genus Heligmonella. These species also are here transferred to the genus Longistriata.
It is recognized that the nematodes described in this paper as Longistriata muscult, L. norvegica and L. carolinensis, while resembling other members of the genus Longistriata in the possession of an inflated and transversely striated cephalic cuticle, an expanded and longitudinally striated body cuticle, and long and slender spicules, differ from each other and from other members of this genus in the character and direction of the bursal rays, and that their inclusion in this genus may seem to be unwarranted. However, since only a limited amount of material was available for study it was not considered desirable to create new genera for them at the present time.
Heligmostrongylus hassalli Price, 1928, also is here placed in the genus Longistriata because in all other species of the genus Heligmostrongylus the dorsal ray is completely doubled and in Heligmostrongylus hassalli this feature is absent.
The generic diagnosis is amended as follows:
LONGISTRIATA
Generic diagnosis.—Heligmosomidae: Body more or less strongly rolled in a spiral. Cephalic cuticle inflated, marked with annular striations. Cuticle of body expanded and distinctly marked with transversely striated lon- gitudinal lines, continuous or interrupted at intervals. Bursa symmetrical or asymmetrical, with well developed single bifurcated dorsal ray. Spicules comparatively long and slender. Gubernaculum present or absent. Female with well developed single ovejector close to posterior end of body. Vagina short. Vulva close to anus.
Type species.—Longistriata depressa (Duj., 1845).
KEY TO SPECIES OF LONGISTRIATA
1. Gubernaculum present and well developed......................--- 2 Gubemacuilumpabsentienmudimentanya sme teres ae ae 16 2. Longitudinal striae interrupted at regular intervals....... L. hassalli Honertudimalistriae continous.) ce oe oe sit eo oteted eee 3 So Gubermeacnlum asyammetrical. “2... 3.2. oa. nae L. seurate GuberiacwlumrsyANINSLMCA ys 00s. ae ch du sa eee oR Re oot 4 APE SPICULES Melas TIN w LOM Ggair, soucyle Be Las atys oe. . ceo etary L. monnigt Spicules varying in length from 230 to 450yu.....................--- 5 5. Dorsal margin of bursa deeply indented.................. L. cristata
Dorsal margin of bursa only slightly indented or without indentation. .6 6. Externo-dorsal rays originating separately from dorsal ray........... 5S Atcuies PRONG Tie TURNER OREN Ss ce: SS eee 7 SO ey ae L. carolinensis
Cio, LBAUIGSED, Bash ans eA Scie) Ee Nee eh ee eg a 8 JBXUIERS EER GrnNga CS H tells ape pene A eae ce eee, ee 9
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23.
JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 25, NO. 2
Bursa large, 500 to 600u wide; branches of dorsal ray close together
and each provided with 2 terminations............. L. streptocerca Bursa about 2504 wide; branches of dorsal ray fairly wide apart and each provided with 3 terminations................. L. trifurcata Branches of dorsal ray as long as or longer than main stem.L. intermedia Branches of dorsal ray shorter than main stem................... 10
. Externo-dorsal rays very slender..................... L. dalyrmplet Externo-dorsal rays comparatively stout... ./....... 2.5 a) =e 11
. Terminal branches of dorsal ray equal................: L. wolgaense Terminal branches of dorsal ray unequal... -> 2°22... .--> eee 12
. Males 2.6 to 3.25 mm. long; females 3.4 to 3.9mm. long............. 13 Males 3.8 to 5.5 mm. long; females 5.5 to 9.2 mm. long............. 14
. Spicules 400u long by 4 to 5yu wide; vulva 120 from tail end. L. affinis
Spicules 230 to 280u long by 2.5 wide; vulva 150yu from tail end.....
er em OME eres teh hdog 9 PASS Se oes L. gracilis Spicules 270 to 360u long; vulva 150y from tail end....... L. impudica Spicules 410 to 430u long; vulva either 120u or 165y from tail end... .15 Spicules 410y long; vulva 165y from tail end; ovejector 310y long.....
s Be ' W e Sig ok Soe eae L. spira Spicules 420 to 430u long; vulva 120u from tail end; ovejector 165y LOWE Sie oo soe care Rete: heeled ona os Ste ee eae ee L. noviberiae Dorsal ray with accessory branch.....>. +522 see eee ee L. vexillata Dorsal ray without accessory branchy. 1+... .-.. > 4-2 eee 7, Stem of dorsal ray 20, wide... ./2-2.0 ee eee L. norvegica Stem of dorsal ray 5 to 15 wide. ....... °.2 22 ae 18 Externo-dorsal rays largest of bursal rays; distal ends of spicules en- Jargedis. oui: vc cp5toa/ane ee ketenes ce eee L. muscula Externo-dorsal rays larger than some and smaller than other bursal rays; distal ends of spicule not enlarged...................-- 19 Spicules 600 to S00p lone... -. 26a. 2 ese eee 20 spicules 340 to 5602 longs. 42. . 7. ee eee eee 22 Dorsal ray doubled for more than half its length... . .L. nematodiriforme Dorsal ray divided into 2 branches, each less than half the length of dorsal, Taye. 25 oie ec dot Ce ee eer eee Pei Externo-dorsal ray very slender; inner branch of terminal bifurcation of dorsal ray with slight projection................. L. didelphe Externo-dorsal ray stout; inner branch of terminal bifurcation of dorsal ray without projection:.../.0.c).- 2 eee eee ee eee L. alpha Terminal branches of dorsal ray not divided.............. L. gamma Terminal branches of dorsal ray divided................--++----+- 23 Terminal branches of dorsal ray equal................---. L. delta
Terminal branches of dorsal ray unequal, outer branch longer. L. beta Longistriata adunca Chandler, 1932, is similar to L. norvegica, differing only in the presence of a gubernaculum described for L. adwnca.
FEB. 15, 1935 BARTLETT: THE GENUS DESMONCUS 81
LITERATURE CITED
(1) Bayuts, H. A. On a collection of nematodes from Nigerian mammals (chiefly rodents). Parasitology 20: 280. 1928.
(2) CHanpuER, A.C. A new species of Longistriata (Nematoda) from the cotton rat, Sigmidon hispidus, with notes on the division of the Heligmosominae into genera. Jour. Parasitol. 19: 25. 1932.
(8) Monnic, H. O. Ona new Physaloptera from an eagle and a trichostrongyle from the cane rat, with notes on Polydelphis quadricornis and the genus Spirostrongylus. Trans. Royal Soc. South Africa 16: 262. 1927.
(4) Scuunz, R. Ep. Zur Kentniss der Helimninthenfauna der Nagetiere der U.S.S.R. Proc. Gov. Exper. Vet. Inst. 4: 5. (In Russian with German Summary) 1926.
(5) Travassos, Lauro. Contribuigoes para o conhecimento da fauna helmintolojica brasileira. Ensaio monografico da familia Trichostrongylidae Leiper, 1909. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz 13: 5-125. 1921.
(6) Travassos, L., » Darripa, A. R. Notas sobre Heligmosominae. Sciencia Med- ica 7: 432. 1929.
BOTAN Y.—Certain Desmonci (Palmae) of Central America and Mex- ico,| H.H. Barruert, University of Michigan.’
The genus Desmoncus provides one of the characteristic features of tropical American vegetation. It is often remarked that in the west- ern hemisphere the Desmonci take the place of the far more viciously armed climbing palms of the Oriental tropics, such as Calamus and Daemonorops, which are systematically not closely related, but in their climbing habit, armature, and ecological relations offer some points of resemblance.
To secure specimens of the climbing palms takes much of a col- lector’s time and effort, since they are often not found in fertile con- dition or easily secured even if found, because of their spininess and difficulty of disengaging them from the limbs of the trees through which they clamber. Good specimens are therefore disproportionate- ly rare in our herbaria, in consideration of their importance in the