i: as: ¢ a ate par OR aah * NE ree aa pet cere ee Pe PPE C é pi % ; ; 7 BALA NSE po sai os eri Repost Renee we) syctee fet tine a th i . ~ he aed : A Ie es Va re ede . ore ‘ : ge age < ‘ : Save : ae SA hg Mh ta RIN NTN TT ESTES 3 Peer es se Sct ee tno - fi? brary ne Se : Ske a op br Ba Ls _ a ans. ~" ree eae oe ee eine. : : os 4 os i ot : ; : : ay ee : sretyageeene nt : ; ; yA BRT : tise Sate + wnatict yen 6 oP ee Fir PI ae eRe oT Ne OLS tines Vas te (a) 4 @ nist INSTITUTION xe; Ni NVINOSHLINS S3iu4 s, cont US % SS N DC, “ip NOILNLILSNI NVINOSHLINS iNold INSTI LIBR SMITHSONIAN SMITHSONIAN S saruvugi NOILALILSN INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI NVINOSHLIWS SS'uYvyaglii_LIBRARIE INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI INSTITUTION SS SMITHS ONIAN eS 98St(aoveqgii LIDRANI CD OMIIMNSUNIAN —Sa1YVYEdIT LIBRARIES NVINUOHLITYS SMITHSONIAN NVINOSHLIWS INSTITUTION NVINOSHLIWS NOILLNLILSNI S LIBRARIE LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN 1 Saluvadi) INSSEPUTION NUILIILILON! INSTITUTION NOILALILSN ow : =o its i =a Gypitif | bas GW Yj}, = : “iff (oP) NOILALILSNI NVINOSHLIANS md w a — < = = > S = 5 7 BD, D = Z = = > = 2) a. uw) 7 MITHSONIAN - = * = 3 eee pat SAPs < | : whi a z = 5 “ig > = 3 a “Ys 3 aa = wd we NVINOSHLIWS rg S _ # S 4 - = S 5 5 as . a E D z D we LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN me Uy, 2 ‘ as STIT, = = 7, © &® = Qt < NVINOSHLINS S314 NVINOSHLINS S3IYVHYGIT LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN 4, ASF areal \ 2: Kj SAlYVUGIT LIBRARIES f af Me = ~ NS GLY 2 ; aS BAN Zp EN _p af = a INSTITUTION NOILALILSNI S¢ Ta) Oe - @ Oe fea) a SAIYVUGIT LIBRARIES : a AN > Pe) Ww INSTITUTION NOLLOLILSNI Ne i & = Vy fy, & FF: Zs A ae - p>’ z _LIBRARIES mal WY rz, = (ee a S INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI _ raat oO bf =) ie f= (7) 2 = = ie oO . om fal bs Ss . uw ie INSTITUTION | NOILNLILSNI = e me or «ft Y Oe ra) | ait S31UVUGIT LIBRARIES 7 w A > A Hh INSTITUTION NOILALILSNI F = 7 cf e i: SMITHSONIAN II Y z Ss < = rat O D Z = Sat = NVINOSHLINS S = ik wn 7) SN lu = WAN o 2 BK E 2”! : ro :, = 2 &, _J- SMITHSONIAN” I z. | ia O y = r Gly % be lp fp. > ra ' Uf fe wo? ° , in z w NVINOSHLIWS S: = w < = 2 4 O ze Y) w x O = zy = >" na = a _IN lw rf | & cs oe = 0.” E. = Oo a 2 S z : : ae > a a = ms w = It ep) = < x Sill es rT) Z = : ; 2 e) ee a, a + % c | = oO ‘@) ais z eee SMITHSONIAN IR z G 2) yy as ar Pe) = ee | = é z i NVINOSHLINS S z= wn < wm = Sil <= NVINOSHLIWS 1 NOILNLILSNI ’ INSTITUTION SMITHSONIAN SHLINS SJIYVHYSIT LIBRARIES NVINO , IAN INSTITUTION NOILOLILSN XC MAA SY On DC. NOILNLILSNI Li NOILALILSNI LIBRARIES NOILN LIBRARIES NOILNLILSNI LIBRARIES (ee SMITHSONIAN LIBRARIES NOILALILSNI SONIAN NVINOSHLINS INST SMITHSONIAN ES NVINOSHLIAS NVINOSHLIWS NOILNLILSNI SMITH Gy NVINOSHLINS INSTITUTION SMITH SMITHSONIAN ARIES NVINOSHLIWS INS SAIYVYSITLIBR TIT STOR INSTITUTION NOILALILS NVINOSHLINS SJ? Ni SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI NVINOSHLIWS Saryvygit LIBRARIES [AN Nas OV Ly, he \ if vw ESS = | iS, e ote” 2 ry im > a ross iT tee = 7) . = Vy SSIYVYURIT_LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN = ere g = g YUP 2S FZ 2 z Cy E MQ 2 : 2 le = ae: | = > 79) ra Wee UW) 7 a INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI NVINOSHLINS S3INWYUaII 7 ” . > ewe op) . 3 = 7) = v ra oc = 0: = 0: : ~~ S 2 ¢ oad z ee < LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN rc ee 2 2 5 GG,> : 2 =e Ki? ; a wn * mm Vv w = wn = INSTITUTION NOLLALILSNI | NVINOSHLINS Sa lYvud iste ¢ = - <x ea = Ws < — bes aac = ty, = & AD 5 te Hp 5 ae | Be Oo ‘hd ham: bag es a =, ea ty ‘> = = S >’ S Neow 5’ = ; = 7) = 7 S3I1YVYAIT LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN ae Z me ” y = v pou < Ue fU fA < c Lf : Oo ry e) a ai «J = asl INSTITUTION NOILALILSNI NVINOSHLINS S3IyNWYgIT — z se z ie 5 = dis 5 = 5 ae 5 > ea ae ae 0 FE oe = — oe" 2 Neuss" im 2 Nhu" GF Salt uvag ivi BRARIES |. _ INSTITUTION, c= = <x Ne = ‘2 =i Z WS “4 a ale oO co Be Ww) (dp) 7 N (ee) < O Be \ 9 = = = = i 2 Ne 2 _ = INSTITUTION NVINOSHLINS S3IYVUaITT. _ ” = & Wo gee & re 4 mr a |) < = < C a Cc a 4 ~ a, woes NG: 3S » w7 9 a z Sy ; = SAaluyvudiT LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION _ 7 z ‘ - : = w = oO ee 20 > 20 > 20 = =) ie e a ¥ oe U3 | Ww = w | = INSTITUTION NOLLALILSNI_ NVINOSHLINS | $3 iyYvudll a hee ad —& << ow fF fe = en 7 . Poul , -— —_ = 7 ;! : ; 7 - - = ; > a — = q . 1 - . = - 1 > 7 ia > , En _ a 2. = 4.8 -~ P : - : 7 7 ‘ : a ! Mies n . id A i ¢ 1 ’ = f a Le 7 7 > e = . ; ' 14 7 “e 7 | + : > i} a _ 7 : 4 yi von 2 7 7 ov he - ; - ang = ai ; neues : 1 ‘ ‘ ' ‘ a7 — - - 1 on : a { ; ‘ = 1. . D “J wee _ rr , 7 i a 7 : 3 . ‘pt / 5 rp a ‘ : 0 ° 1' a - yo “4 “4 i] = 7 y Pea ; Ait i are rowel ’ A ie : ] - ins. mt ty , : oy 1 7 : 5 = ¥ he ih i 3 i i — i. i A, 7 Te af . 7 Y ' i : 1 an i. i A 7 : mm WD 7 ni : r 7 , : a : i ee = , x A * ‘ hone eis ee ' ae ; a ; - fg ee ed ; oa AL ce : a | ae a ; ey i ; A oe Tere | cree) “ 7 5 : : : ; 9 ; . ; | 5 a v 7 i | : n , . ; : o . : , ‘ " ao : : ‘i - 1 4 7 : ¢ 5 ; - © 7 - _ i= , ‘ es ; ’ ; ; ; pe J i) ie ; : 7 ' , n Un : oe 4 4 : aka are te : re e a ‘ ‘ go _ oe ‘4 : Hi 7 - i - ; ; ; : : i x ‘ . Le : | s : ‘ a af 7 . ov mine 7 Dh | van) - - 7 - 1 ' - ‘ ny 7 | a - ; - ' : ' i _ I : | 5 - s = he i uy 7 au ; - ey } a , at ’ — as 7 - > . - : i i i 1%, . - | 5 , = 6 ; 5 - t Sr a _ : 7 ou ~~ t : 7 : : tf } 7 7! 7 Lan v= St JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY EDITED BY ZAFAR FUTEHALLY, J. C. DANIEL & P. V. BOLE VOL. 67 Nos. 1, 2 and 3 Containing 3 graphs and 28 black-and-white plates, 2 photographs in text, 1 map, and 100 text-figures Dates of Publication Part 1, (pages 1 to 136) . ee 30-6-1970 Part 2, (pages 137 to 364) oe, ... 31-10-1970 Part 3, (pages 365 to 646) ee a 25-3-1971 Agents in England WHELDON AND WESLEY LTD., Lytton Lodge, Codicote, Nr. Hitchin, Herts, England PRINTED AT LEADERS PRESS PVT. LTD., BOMBAY 1972 Aaa, a fi ALPHABETICAL LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS ABDULALI, HUMAYUN, A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of the Bombay Natural History Society-6. Scolopacinae (part) — , 7, Scolopacinae (part) to Laridae a —______—_—_—_§——§_§,On the occur- rence of Swinhoe’s Snipe, Capella megala (Swinhoe) near Bombay and a note on its identification ——, Notes on Indian Birds-11. On the Distribution of Sterna fuscata Linnaeus in Indian limits—A Correction ——_—_-___________—_.,An addition to the list of Indian Birds. —The Mig- ratory Jungle Nightjar, Caprimulgus indicus jotaka Temm. and Schl. ——_—_____—_—_—,Notes on Indian Birds-12. Extension of the southern limits of the Eastern Stock Dove (Columba eversmanni Bonaparte) ——_—__________—_—., and RoseErT B., GrusBH, A New race of the Black- crested Baza Aviceda leuphotes (Dumont) from the Andaman Islands ————_—_—__—_—_——————, and SHANTA, Nair, Occurrence of ‘the Great Snipe, Capella media (Latham), in Burma and India AS Hig ee AHMED, FAHIM, see RANADE, M.R. AHUJA, K. K., see PATASKAR, R. D. ALI, RAUF, Occurrence of Least Frigate Bird (Fregata ariel iredalei Mathews) in Bombay f AMADON, DEAN, Taxonomic categories below the level of genus : Theore- tical and practical aspects ANANTHAKRISHNAN, T. N., Trends | in intraspecific sex-limited variations in some mycophagous Tubulifera (Thy- sanoptera) tee BABu, C. R., The identity of Solanum khasianum Cl. var. chaliericeaten Sen Gupta (Solanacea) BAL, D. V., see WaGcu, A. B.: “WAGH, ARUN B. BALAKRISHNAN, N. P., Nomenclatural Notes on some Flowering Plants-II —_—_—_____—__—___—, Studies in Indian Euphorbiaceae—IV ... BANERJI, M. L., and B. B., THAPA, Or- chids of Nepal- 3 ; BENNET, S. 8. R., The Taxonomic Status of the Section Fissendocarpa (Haines) Raven of the ee Genus Ludwigia L. x wi ey Page yl Pathe) 108 110 331 351 137 109 609 | oy) 299 139 iZ5 BENNET, 8S. S. R., Nomenclature of two Indian Plants ... BHARGAVA, R. M. S., The fecundity of Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch) oe BHATNAGAR, R. K., The spider Lycosa carmichaeli Graveley as a predator of small frogs. . BuatTt, V. S., Studies on the Biology of some Freshwater Fishes... Biswas, S. N. and R. PrRAsap, On the occurrence of Buddleja davidii Franch (Loganiaceae) in India ee Basco, F., Aspects of the Flora, and Ecology ‘of Savannas of the South Indian Hills BRAHMACHARY, R. ie B. Natives and B. RAKSHIT, An attempt to de- termine the food habits of the Indian Rhinoceros CAUGHLEY, GRAEME, Habitat. ‘of the Himalayan Tahr, Hemitragus jemla- hicus (H. Smith, 1826) : CHAUDHARY, J. P., Johnson Grass, Sorghum halepense—A new host of Sugarcane Green Borer, Raphime- topus ablutellus Zeller (Physitidae : Lepidoptera) ... DAKSHINI, K. M. M., Flora of Mothron- wala Swamp Forest (District : Dehra Dun, U.P., India) ve DANIEL, Af C, The Tiger in ‘India : An Enquiry—1968- -1969 oh , The Nilgiri Tahr, Hemi- tragus hylocrius Ogilby, in the High Range, Kerala and the southern Hills of the Western Ghats | Das, DEBIKA and BHABESH PRAMANIK, A Note on Chrysanthemum leucan- themum Linn. Asteraceae : Das, M. S., and B. H. PATNAIK, A new host of the brinjal shoot and fruit borer JLeucinodes orbonalis Guen and its biology... DavipaR, E.R. C., Wild Dog’s Courage Rating Ay — — a White Bison of Manjampatti ... Davis, T. A., Pre-foliation in ‘Seindap- SUS officinalis Schott ee Desal, J. H., The White Tiger ... ——_—__—_—., see SANKHALA, K. S. Desal, M. H., see KULKARNI, A. R.» DESFAYES, MICHEL, The Blackbird Tur-~ dus merula maximus in Nepal | DESHPANDE, R. R., see RAWAT, R. R. DHAMDHERE, SV: ‘see KAURAVA, A.S. DHAWAN, RAJINDER. M., Page 358 583 589 194 359 522 558 103 aya Stranding © : of four Whales along "Goa coast. vi LIST OF CONT RI BUT ORS Page between December 1968 to April 1970 = 327 FUTEHALLY, ZAFAR, 10th General As- sembly and 11th Technical Meeting of the International Union for Con- servation of Nature and Natural Resources ie a ae o' 30 — —, Peculiar accident to the Butterfly, Delias eucharis Drury aa Stace LRG | GARRILOV, E. I., and A. F. KovsHar, Breeding Biology of the Himalayan Rubythroat, — Erithacus _pectoralis (Gould) in the Tien Shan ae 14 Guosu, R. B., On a newly recorded host species of Dendrophthoe falcata (L.F.) Ettingsh se res ise saat eySoe —————., and R. PrRasapD, Cleome rutidosperma DC. (Capparaceae)— GONZALVES, ELLA A., and G. R. SONNAD Aplanospore formation or GOPALAKRISHNA, A., and A. MADHA- VAN, Sex Ratio in some Indian Bats 171 GRUBH, ROBERT B., see ABDULALI, HUMAYUN GuPTA, B. M., Fishing methods for the Spiny Eel Mastocembelus armatus in Madhya Pradesh me eg PM Bs) GUPTA, RAJENDRA, See SINGH, j. P. Gupta, RITA, see MUKHERJEE, Paks HALDER, D. D., Observations on the food of young Hilsa ilisha (Ham.) of rious to Pisciculture KAHL, PHILIP M., Observations on the breeding of storks in India and Ceylon | KAPoorR, S. L., see HUSAIN, IBRAHIM Kaurava, A. S., S.C. Opak and S. V., DHAMDHERE, Studies on the biology of Phytomyza_ atricornis Meigen (Agromyzidae : Diptera) | KHACHER, LAVKUMAR J., Notes on the White-eye (Zosterops palpebrosa) and White breasted Kingfisher (Halcyon smyrnensis) i KHOsHOO, T. N., see MUKHERJEE, Iva. KovsHar, A. F., see GAVRILOV, E. I. KRISHNAMURTHY, K. V., see SWAMY, B. G. L. _ KRISHNAN M., The estuarine crocodile A new record for Assam aie sah rel aL Sa the Hooghly estuarine system iyi O18 | HEMADRI, K., see RAO, R.S. HIMMATSINHI, Interesting Eagles in Western India .. 330 ,Grey headed Myna, Stur- - nus malabaricus (Gmelin), in Kutch 332 HoimEs, J. R. S., Himalayan Tahr, He- mitragus jemlahicus (H. Smith 1826) HoMgI-MEHER, VY. M., Notes on some peculiar cases of Phytogeographic Distributions ... a a ey 81 —_—__—_—_———-, Analogous Bio- climates and introduction of Econo- mic Exotics 398 MUKHERJEE, Asit Kumar, Is the correct HUSAIN, IBRAHIM §. and §.L. KAPoor Some interesting plants from Luck- Crocodilus porosus Schneider off the Orissa coast | KULKARNI, A. R., and M. H. Desat, outcome of Parasitic attack ? 507 | Tubers in Eriocaulon ritchieanum Ruhl ah - ee my —__-_____——, and P. V. MUDbDGAL, Family Commelinaceae in Kolhapur and its environs KULKARNI, C. V., Spawning. “habits, eggs and early development of Dec- can Mahseer, Tor khudree (Sykes _ Lancaster-Percy, S., An abnormal Psidium mutation | MADHAVAN, A., see GOPALAKRISHNA, MAJUMDAR, N. C., Notes on Stellaria saxatilis Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don, Stellaria yestita Kurz and Stellaria sikkimensis Hook. f. MALLICK B., see BRAHMACHARY, R. t MATHEW, K. M.,, The Flowering of the Strobilanth (Acanthaceae) . - MOHANASUNDARAM M., and C. Vv. SIVA- in Bhutan it 106 | KUMAR Swarming of Butterflies and Moths ... ys ae pie ui Mubaat, P. V., see KULKARNI, A. R. | MUKHERJEE, P. K., and RITA GUPTA, now and its neighbourhood 618 © HUSSAIN, S. A., Blackbuck, Antilope cervicapra (Linnaeus) swimming... 106 JAIN, A. P., see PRAKASH, ISHWAR JAIN, S. K., A rich but little known col- lection of Indian Plants in U.S.S.R. 620. JOGLEKAR, AsHA, and P. K. TALWaR, The occurrence of Pennahia macro- cephalus (Tang) (Pisces: Sciaeni- _ NApDKERNY, N. T., Notes on some But- dae) in Indian seas ... SD JosepH, A. N. T., First record of Coe- nomyia Latreille (Diptera : Coeno- mylidae) from India ... 346 | JULKA, J. M., On a Hymenopterous Egg-parasite of Aquatic Bugs inju- | Field identification of Tephrosia Pers. name of the Mangrove Whistler : Pahycephala cinerea (Blyth) or Pa- chycephala grisola (Blyth) ? MUKHERJEE, IvA, and T. N. KHOsHOO Genetic- evolutionary studies on cul- tivated Cannas. MourtTny, T. S. N., The ‘occurrence of the dog-faced water snake, Cerberus rhynchops (Schneider) (Serpentes ; Co- lubridae) around Madras terflies in the collection of the Bom- bay Natural History Society _ NAGABUSHANAM, A.K., and K.V. RAMA- Rao A review of the Taxonomy of the Indian enoe-Pienes (ean Bat- rachoididae) Page 120 453 597 333 S73 134 616 510 133 135 574 (487 329 EIST NAIR, SHANTA, see ABDULALI, HUMAYUN NATARAJAN, A. V. and S. PATNAIK Observations on the breeding ground and development of the Chilka Mullet Liza macrolepis (Smith) NayaR, M. P., A Synopsis of the Genus Ejisocreochiton Quisumb and Merr. ... NEELAKANTAN, K. fen The occurrence of the Sanderling (Calidris albus) in Kerala NEUHAUSER, HANs N., ‘First Positive record of Pipistrellus savii (Chirop- tera : Vespertilionidae) from India ... OpDAK, S. C., see KAURA, A.S. PANDEY, N. D., DAYA RAM YADAVA, and T. P.S. TeotrA, Growth Poten- tial of Red hairy Caterpillar, Ams- acta moorei Butler, in relation to certain Food Plants PANICKER, K, N., The Flight speed of the House Crow, Corvus se neees Vieillot ; a PARRACK, Dwain W., “and “JAcOB., THOMAS, The Behaviour of the Lesser Bandicoot Rat, Bandicota bengalen- sis (Gray and Hardwicke) : PATASKAR, R. D., and K. K. AHUIA, Interesting Plants from Maharashtra State PATEL, R. J., On Chaetosphaeridium glo- bosum (Nordst.) Klebahn from India PATNAIK, B. H., see Das, M. S. PATNAIK, S., see NATARAJAN, A. V. PRAKASH, IsHwarR, and A. P. JAIN Eco- Toxicology and control of Indian Desert Gerbil, Meriones hurrianae (Jerdon) a PRAMANIK, BHABESH, see ‘Das, “DEBIKA ae i, , see BISWAS, S. N. ; GHOsH, RAJAGOPAL, A. S., Occurrence of the snail Lymnaea (Galba) truncatula (Miller) (Mollusca : Pulmonata) at Malad, Bombay City—A new record for Peninsular India RAJAGOPALAN, P. K. Breeding beha- viour and ” development of Rattus rattus wroughtoni Hinton, 1919 (Rodentia : Muridae) in the labo- ratory +... Ae oc Sed —__——_——,, see Rao, K. RAMaA- CHANDRA RAJASINGH, IRENE V.—see RAJASINGH, SIMON G. RAJASINGH, SIMON G., and RAJASINGH, IRENE V., Birds and Mammals eating the fruits of yellow oleander (Thevetea peruviana) : a ee i RAKSHIT, B., see BRAHMACHARY, R. L. RANADE, M. R., SAKUNTALA S. SHENOY, and FAHIM, AHMED, Capture of a Whale Shark Rhineodon typus Smith Page 577 87 570 319 40 11 67 126 130 274 588 | 572 | 552 | OFTEONTRIBUTORS in Ratnagiri waters Rao, K. KAMESWARA, Foraminifera. of the Gulf of Cambay . RAo, K. RAMACHANDRA, “A new record of Br achydeutera longipes Hendel (Diptera: Ephydridae) from West Bengal ra: ae Le ae Rao, K. V. RAMA, see A. K. NAGA- BHUSHANAM. ; Rao, R. S., and K. HEMADRI, identity of peeereus lateriflora Dalz. : _ The eS , ‘Nomen- clatural notes on Indian Plants Rao, T. ANANDA, A new locality record of Cordiac renata Del in Piram Island off South Saurashtra Coast be Mee fs and A. R. K. Sastry, New distributional records for coastal plants from Andhra Pradesh i Rao, T. RAMACHANDRA, and P. K. RAJGOPALAN, Arthropod Fauna of the nests of some common Birds in Poona, India, with special reference to Blood sucking Forms RAO, V. VISWESWARA, A redescription of Sirembo jerdoni (Day): (Pisces: Brotulidae) RATHorR, M. S., Notes on the Indian ; sand skink Ophiomorus resis (Blyth) a RAVI, R., A new record Ge Cr otalari. ia incana Linn. from south India |, Lindernia angusti-- folia (Bent.) Whettst. (Scrophularia- ceae)—A new record for south India Rawat, R. R., Sterility and abnormal copulation behaviour in Agrotis in- fusa (Boisol) (Agrotidae: Lepidoptera) in relation to high temperature i es, ~ and :R.-R. DESHPANDE. An assessment of damage and _ loss by Linseed Caterpillar Laphygma exigua Hb. | Roserts, T. J., A note on the Yellow vii Page 2337 259 345 355 357 128 614 414 114 334 132 611 596 344 Throated Marten, Martes flavigula ~ Boddaert) in West Pakistan . SAHASRABUDHE, J. D., Abnormality in the breeding behaviour of the Indian Fruit Bat, Pteropus- giganteus ERR teus (Brunnich) SAMPATHKUMAR, R., Further studies on the host range in Loranthus longiflorus -° Desv. a On the production of adventitious roots from the excised petioles of some Angiosperms .. SANKARANKUTTY,, G:, “Studies. on the larvae of Decapoda Brachyura 1. Xenophthalmus garthii Sankarankutty 321 550 360 Vill SANKHALA, K. S., and J. H. Desai, Re- productive behaviour of Browant- lered deer 7 hee sh mid SANKOLLI, K. N., The Thalassinoidea (Crustacea, Anomura) of Maharashtra SANTHAKUMARAN, L. N., Preliminary * observations on the natural resistance of sixty-nine species of Indian Timber to Marine borer attack at Bombay ... Sastry, A. R. K., see RAO, T. ANANDA SATYAMURTI, S. T., A record of the ’ Tiger Bittern, Gorsachius melanolo- phus (Raffles) from Karaikudi, Rama- nathapuram District, Tamil Nadu ... SAXENA, D. K. , Honey Bees and Wasps as pests of Grape § SCHALLER, GEORGE B., Observations on the Nilgiri Tahr (Hemitr agus hylocri- us Ogilby, 1838) a SHAH, C. K., A note on the toadrush Juncus bufonius L. from India SHAH, J. D., Some observations on distribution of alae dulcis Linn. in India ae nen SHENOY, S. SAKUNTALA, see RANADE M.R. SINGH, C. S., Studies on bottom living Diatoms of a Freshwater Fish Pond SINGH, J. P., and RAJENDRA, GUPTA, - The Red Pumpkin Beetle Raphidopal- pa foveicollis (Lucas) as a pest of the Japanese Mint : aa a , Chafer beetle, Adoreiits sp. (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) a new pest on guava in India ‘ SINGH, VUJENDRA, Occurrence ‘of Cera- topteris thalictroides (Linn.) Brongn. in Rajasthan SIVAKUMAR, C. V., DARAM, M. SIVAPRAKASAN, mL E. , Amphipoda from the East Coast of India-2... SOANS, A. B., and J. S. SoAns, The time of emergence and the periodicity of occurrence of the Tiger Beetle, Cicindela_ cancellata Dej. (Order: Coleoptera, Family: Cicindelidae) ... —_—_—_____________., Observations on the mating behaviour in the Ant Monomorium gracillimum Smith (Hy- menoptera: Formicidae) an SOANS, A. B., and Joyce S. SOANS, Anemotactic response in the Firefly Luciola sp. (Coleoptera: Lampyridae) SOANS, J. S., see SoANS, A. B. SOANS, Joyce S., see SOANS, A, B, see MOHANASUN- Page 430 443 £23 354 153 347 350 122 _ SURYANARAYANA, | Tawar, P. K., | TEOTIA, | THAPA, _ THOMAS, JACOB, see PARRACK, DWAIN DIST OF .CONTRIBOCT ORS SONNAD, G. R., see GONSALVES, ELLA A. STAIRMAND, D. A., Occurrence of the Indian Skimmer or Scissorbill (Rhyn- chops albicollis Swainson) in Salsette Island | STARKEL, LESZEK, Cause and ‘Effects of a heavy rainfall in Darjeeling and in the Sikkim Himalayas ... SuRVE, V. G., The breeding of the Indian Giant Soe Coe indica) in captivity M. ro. Plietesiat species of Strobilanthinae (Acan- thaceae) in the Western Ghats (India) SWAMINATHAN, M. S., Agricultural Research—Progress, Problems and Prospects ibs Swamy, B. G. L., ‘and K. V. KRISHNA- MURTHY, Cyclonic damage to plant tissues ... Apt ae aus si see JOGLEKAR, ASHA T. P. S., see PANDEY, N. D. B. B., see BANERN, M. L. TIKADER, B. K., Spider Fauna of India: Catalogue and Bibliography VAIDYA, VIDYADHAR G., The feeding behaviour of Lemon Butterfly, Papilio demoleus L. VENKATAREDDI, B., T wo new records of Araceae from the Upper Gangetic Plain | WaGu, AB. and D. v_ BAL, ‘Various 603 | associates of Sessile Barnacles Bombay waters WaauH, ARUN B., and D. V. BAL, Dia- metrically opposite result of human activity on Barnacle populations in WHITAKER, ROMULUS, Slight reaction from bites of the rear-fanged snakes, Boiga ceylonensis (Gunther) and Dryophis nasutus (Lacepede) — , Cannibalism in the Indian Rat Snake, Pryas mucosus (Linnaeus) ae a AS, ——_—________-__—-—., Notes on bites by the Saw-Scaled Viper, Echis carinatus, in the Deogad area of Ratnagiri District, Maharashtra YADAVA, DAYA RAM, see PANDEY, N. D. YIN, Tun, The Dugong, Dugong dugon (Muller), in Burmese waters , Record of the Himalayan Monal Lophophorus impejanus (Latham) in Burma if Page Sui 45 551 604 466 462 212 118 129 351 589 113 (114 3395 326 328 INDEX OF SPECIES Note—Page reference in bold print refers to illustrations. abdimii, Sphenorhynchus Ablepharus , ablutellus, Raphinetopus- abnormis, Spindasis absus, Cassia Acacia acaulis, Crepis ———., Impatiens acherusicum, Corophium acicularis, Nitzschia acmella, Blainvillea aculeata, Lantana © aculestus, Gasterosteus ... acuminata, Ehretia —, Plumeria acuminatus, Calidris acuta, Sida acuticauda, Sterna ". 450-452, 448 Page 117, 118 156, 158 296 acuticornis, Nesothrips 483, 484, 495, 499, 500 acutiflorum, Cirrhopetalum’ adenocarpa, Jurinea Adoretus : Adraneothrips aegyptica, Sphex aenariensis, Bolivina Aerides a affictitia, Macroglossa he affine v. longiceps, Neidium affinis, Cypselus —-—-, Orchomenella —-—-, Synedra agama, Kleothrips : agamemnon, Graphium agelenoides, Hippasa , Pirata aglea aglea, Danaus Agropyrum Agrostistachys ajax, Themeropis ——, Thelcticopis alaicus, Ablepharus alata, Laggera , Leea ——, Paracaprella , v. nepalensis, Terminalia alba, ’Eclipta ae , Eria ——., Plumeria monte, Gygis albicilla, Haliaeetus albicollis, Rhynchops albida, Crotalaria ; albifrons albifrons, Sterna - —_——. “445, Ps 446 525 545 OSE 212/213 94 349 422 164 444, ie 452, 446 483 180 - 163, 164, 164 436, 439, 440 93, 362, 362 see -~ 149 101 298 330 298-571 son 180 297 albifrons saundersi, Sterna sinensis, Sterna albipinnes, Culicoides albiventer, Petaurista Albizzia ... Be albus Calidris alecto, Colias i‘ alexandrinum, Trifolium alismoides, Ottelia alliaria, Guarea ... on , Hartighsea _ ... alliarum, Dysoxylum Allothrips almana, Precis alpestre, Dendrobium alpina, Brassaiopsis —_——., Euaraliopsis alpinus alpinus, Calidris centralis, Calidris schinzii, Calidris , Cuon : Alternaria yas amabilis, Azaleothrips sa , Leptacanthus —-—-—, Sonerila amara, Albizzia ... amaryllis, Balanus Amblypharyngodon americana, Mycteria americanus, Oreamnos .. Ammophila a amoenum, Dendrobium ampala, Katherinea ; amphioxys vy. densestriata, chia) 4. amphitrite, Balanus amplum, Bulbophyllum... , Dendrobium ... : Epigeneium amplus, Pygothrips anaethetus, Sterna anaethetus, hs antarctica, Sterna fuligula, Sterna anagallis, Lindernia Anastomus anceps, Dendrobium _ ... andamanica, Araliopsis ... aneus, Johnius angulata, Melothria a angustifolia, Lindernia ... annandalei, Lycosa ee annandeli, Sphaeroma .. Hantzs- . ---- 450, 451, 448 352, 590, 591 iho ts .. 148 148, 151 see 488, ae aes “306 S299 RAMS Sr, | 612, 613, 619 of 1, Gi 245D 140, 143, 142 er aey 60 575 fouiacS25 7611: -613, 612 2206 x Page annulatum, Dichanthium es ee 33 anolis, Nesothrips 5 Re 500 anomala, Cardanthera .., 7 oe 64 , Orchestia oe soe tn LOS. ’ Thalassina 235, 242-249, 243, 245 ” squamifera, Thalassina 248 anomalum, Synnema ... sa oe 64 anomalus, Cancer (Astacus) Sen eee anophelis, Culicoides... se ei PA antennatus, Phlebotomus ae 421, 423 Anthocoridae ae 418, 424, 425 antiquitatis, Tichorhinus is 317 antiquorum, Colocasia Sti: 255, 256 aor, Mystus se af .. == 194 apetala, Sonneratia P a 437 aphaca, Lathyrus Ne. a Se MST Aphanocapsa oe Ea fF S82 Aphodius a Ay: oe 21 aphyllum, Dendrobium | — ag te RA ——_, Limnodorum. . ae. 143 arabica, Acacia ... a ays 33, 454 Araliopsis Se Ra sph as 60 arborea, Careya 92, 436 ——_——., Gmelina ey ae cent) 436 arboreum, Rhododendron oe 526, 527 ardeola, Dromas 287 Argas ve : 414, 418, 420, 421, 423 argentatus heuglini, Larus Maer | mongolicus, Larus ... 292 argenteus, Anisochilus 525 argiades indica, Everes ... om Sot SESS Argyrosomus... Ah a Sct aD Argythamia mae 300 ariel, Fregata 569 —— iredalei, Fregata 569 aristata, Hygroryza 355 aristatum, Ischaemum .. 529 aristolochiae, Tros 349 arjuna, Terminalia eet 435 armatus, Mastocembelus 338 arnicoides, Ligularia... we Wes 61 —_———, Senecio ... al aa 61 armmottii, Doronicum _... a 44s 62 arquata arquata, Numenius ... a 51 orientalis, Numenius ... a 51 artemisifolia, Ambrosia Br 618, 619 articularis, Borreria ay. Se) SeTTSB Artocarpus we git one 435, 439 Arundinella Hes oe AN egg 7 203 arvensis, Anagallis ‘ ae SP raiseer 4s)) ———— haplocaly, Mentha s 123 v. piperascens, Mentha re 123 asiatica, Toddalia is pie aie asiaticus, Ephippiorhynchus .. ‘453, 458 ————., Xenorhynchus .. 453, 457, 455 aspera, Leucas wi ae 362, 362 asperulata, Primula bl as a 62 asperum, Helictotrichon 529 v. polyneuron, Helictotrichon 525 astacina, Laomedia 235, 236, 240, 237, 240 ater ater, Hipposideros ... “171-175 athis, Alcedo te ic SLO atlanta, Ocyale ... 219 INDEX OF SPECIES Page atrata, Nacaduba 189 atrax, Amblypodia ay 190 atricornis, Phytomyza ... 597, 598, 600 atropalpis, Pardosa ig feat oe atropurpurea, Indigofera woe 80 attu, Wallagonia 194, 205 aurantia, Sterna 295 aureus, Phaseolus 478 auriculata, Cassia 412 WNiMettla. | Sono ant aurota, Anaphaesis 349 australe, Acanthospermum oot) ELS avana, Cardanthera a ay) ae 65 , Pedicularis, ... es a, 65 avanum, Synnema : .. 64, 65 vy. biplicatum, Synnema wet 65 avosetta, Recurvirostra .. 287 axillaris, Amischophacelus 616 , Cyanotis 616 , Petunia 393 axis, Axis ay eh ae 378, 563 Azaleothrips Hen eh a) 486, 490 baccata, Taxus wae a a BLA baccifera, Ammannia ... ne Searing 3k, Bactridothrips 493 balot, Quercus oie aN 325 balsamea, Adenosma ... aa sie 64 balsamica, Cardanthera a 64 v. thymus, Cardanthera ... 65 , Ruellia Be se we 64 balsamicum, Synnema ... oy 64 ———_—_—— v. thymus, Synnema ing 65 barbata, Crotalaria ike 524 barbigera, Synnema __.... bg ne 64 Barbus. ... Me a Ay ing tot Barleria ie, in Lies 488 barnesi, Lycosa ... 216 batatas, Ipomoea 362, 362 Batrachus ay, se «J 8339 batrachus, Clarius. oat Soe 584, 588 beddomei, Alysicarpus ... Hanae i ’Anaphalis = 525 , Impatiens __... rE Ree tbs 25) —_———., Salacia se eSB bendula, Hoya ; i 93 bengalensis, Bandicota " 67-80, 68, 69, 70, 71 72, 73, 74 75, 76, 77, 78 benghalensis Commelina 617, 618 , Hiptage... Nan CE benghalensis, Rostratula — 286 Berberis ... RA SZT berenice plumbeomicans, ‘Nacaduba veoh thBO bergii velox, Sterna ; eh eIeOd bertheloti, Discorbina ... At 27 , Discorbis ‘ ‘27D: 272/273 bhagava, Daimio vid ie ae aT Loe bhutanica, Pyrus is a by 59 , Sorbus of ue whe 59 bhutanicum, Sisymbrium i at 57 bhutanicus, Senecio ae Me BS 61 bicolor, Allothrips she a 484, 491 bicornutus, Thelcticopis Santee 213 ——, Themeropis 213 bidens, Glossogyne 619 INDEX OF .SPECTES Page bidentata, Paradeutella ... 161, 162 biflora ,Micromeria ecamoan biloba, Liparis Mineo binata, Hardwickia BD 83, 85, 434, 438, 439, 82, 83 bipinnata, Desmostachya 118 biplicata, Adenosma _... nat ote 65 biplicatum, Synnema _... ay als 65 bipunctalis, Psarah 349 birmanica, Lycosa 216 —_——-—.,, Pardosa 216 bistriata, Lycosa 216 bistrigata, Arca ... 353 biternata, Bidens i 184 bitorquatus, Cursorius ... 290 bituberculata, Coenomyia a .. 346 Blastus... ne ee es a 87 Boiga wae bad 113 Bolivina ... 266 bombaiensis, Ventilago ... my i 92 bombayensis, Senecio: .:. “Ae ae 61 Bonnaya ... 611 bonnieri, Grandidierella | 157 Bosmina ... 582 boueanum, Nonion nolo) 272, 273 ——, Nonionina ... 262 Bougainvillea 348, 462 bourneae, Actinodaphne _ 525 bouvieri, ‘Anisops : 120 bouvierii, Elaphrothrips 496 brachiata, Centaurium ... 357 Brachydeutera 345 brachyotus, Sonchus 184 bracteata, Eisocreochiton §7-89 , Moghania ie 182 bracteatus, Dolichos _... say a 93 bractescens, Eria te thee 149, 150 bradleyi, Hoplothrips ae aieu OO brandisii, Randia 183 brasiliensis, Cerapus 159 —_——__-—, Cyrtophium 159 —-———~—., Ericthonius sot57, 159, 165 -—_—__—_—_-, Hevea Lg 4 398 —_—-——., Platophium ae 1 au SO ———-—, Podocerus ... sie 159, 165 ———_- , Pyctilus a ond OT Brassaiopsis 60 brassicae, Liriomyza : : 598 breviflora v. ciliolata, Pavetta ... 524 brevifolia, Sarcococca 527 brevisetosus, Le uaeeae 489 Brotula iy 114 brunnicephalus, Larus ines 292 buchanani, i ena 185 Buddleia ... ” he Ves O bufonius, Juncus — ah oe 608, 608 Bulbochaete . -— ae At tOOT Bulimina 266 bupleurifolius, Alysicarpus 181 burchelli, Equus .. 381 burmanicum, Eranthemum siascwitune wads <t@ 3 bursa, Bdellonyssus 414, 418, ——., Ornithonyssus . | 420-422, 426, 428 buxifolia, Cotoneaster ... caballus, Equus ... cadornae, Pipistrellus caesium, Acer cairica, Ipomoea cajan, Cajanus Calanus calcar, Rotalia calcaratus, Phaseolus Calliadne callosa, Carvia nih callosus, Strobilanthes .. calomorpha, Nodosaria calophyllifolium, Syzygium calthaefolius, Senecio calycina, Crotalaria , Kydia campanellata, Bankia campestris, Eulophia canadensis, Cervus —____——., Ovis cancellata, Cicindela candicans, Crotalaria candida, Tephrosia candidum, Dendrobium candolleana, Aplotaxis —_—_—_———,, Saussurea ... canescens, Viola Canna ; canorus, Cuculus” canus canus, Larus ; canutus canutus, Calidris capense, Eranthemum capensis, Vigna ... cappa, Inula caprae, Barleria ... Capricornis bs capsularis, Corchorus Cardanthera Cardiastethus Carex: «i... ne carinatus, Echis .. carmichaeli, Lycosa @arun) 5)... cat caryophyllus, Eugenia ive caspia caspia, Hydroprogne catappa, Terminalia catechu, Areca catula, Lycosa on caudatum, Desmodium ceiba, Bombax se celebensis, Dinothrips .... centaurioides, Centaurium 2. | ’ Chironia Ge < er eee : Coe Centurus Cephaleuros aS cephalus, Mugil ... Cephonodes cerasoides, Sie vetun Cerberus ... i Ceropegia cervicapra, Antilope ceylanica, Vernonia ceylonensis, Boiga 526, 528 xi Page 317 319 323 362 ~ 40, 478 ipia.2 ” 506, 6 503, 5 582 72, 273 182 235 06, 607 05, 608 0 60, 61 181 ” 482 xii INDEX’ OF SPECIES Page ceylonensis, Pipistrellus © 422 ceylonica, Nacaduba : eee 89 ceylonicus chrysothrix, Pipistrellus 171-175 chamaedryfolia, Verbena oly SS champaca, Michelia 436 chaperi, Lycosa .. : = 216 chapmannii, Nepenthes | ee ae 65 chebula, Terminalia j 435, 438 Chela__... : 205 chelonoides, Steriospermum : . 434, 438, 439 Chiloschista Ae ; 66 chinense, Polygonum 531 chinensis, Albizzia 437 , Impatiens 529 —_———., Salacia ae Reet 615) 3) Chlorophytum me 3 oe Bee 93 Chrysanthemum ; 348 chrysanthum, Dendrobium iat) 143, 142 chrysippus, Danais ea Ape 195 89 Chrysopogon a : cae DOM Ciconia 454, 457 ciconia, Ciconia . 455-457 ciconia, Ciconia 461 ciliata, Toona 179 cinerea, Muscitrea da 112 ———-—.,, Pachycephala ... 112, 113 -, Vernonia 183 cinereus, Ibis ae a 454 clarkei, Saussurea abe Be ee 61 clavatum, Dendrobium ... 141, 143 clavicornu, Impatiens 532 Cletodendron sue se son Ae Cobresia ... ae vet, i 18 cochinchinensis, Salacia a 358 coeca, Polydora .. 352 Coenomyia 346 Coleochaete 130, 132 Colophyllum 462 colutea, Indigofera 127 colutes, Galega ... 127 comans, Coenomyia 346 Commelina a Ms 618 communis, Ricinus aah a, Be 40 compestris, Lytocoris 424 compta, Grubia ... ; 155 concanensis, Cyanotis ... 616 concolor, Hirundo 414, 415, 417, 419 ,420 conferta, Crotalaria Be 525 confervae, Chytridium ... 509° confusa, Eria A ok 149,150 conica, Saussurea ne BE a 61 conica, Saussurea a a 61 uniflora, Saussurea bs. a 61 connatus, Senecio ay a es 61 consimilis, Stigmothrips 488 contortus, Heteropogon 531 convallarioides, Eria : rhe 149, 150 conyzoides, Ageratum ... ... 184, 362, 362 corchorifolia, Melochia an 178 cordata, Sida ; 178 Cordia _... ; 128 cordifolia, Rubia 183 ————, Tinospora 177 Cordyline 257 Page core, Euploea : eas .. 349 ‘coriacea, Agrostistachys. 304,305 , Caesaria oe UID coriaria, Caesalpinia 348,305 corniculata, Oxalis sh cornigerus, Echinops oi SS coromandelica, Lannea 180, 433, 435, 439 -coromandelicus, Cursorius 289 coronaria, Coelogyne hl ag @l5O , Eria 149,150 coronatus, Eucamptopus- amp 2) a Corophium et 156 corymbosa, Knoxia ha 183 _—— , Oldenlandia 183 Coscinodiscus.. by SSE cracens, Polyphemothrips 484, 488, 490, abe 49 crassiceps, Elaphrothrips 489 crassum, Oedogonium ... 508 crenata, Cordia ... 128 , Impatiens 532 crenulata, Exoecaria AY ES26 Creochiton ey: ... 87,90 crepidatum, Dendrobium ... 141, 143,142 © Crepis -... wie ah O28 criantha, Digitaria. 559 Cribrinopsis Se 352 crinitus, Abelmoschus ... 178 crispa, Polystomella 4 264 crispum, Elphidium ” 264, 212273 cristata, Barleria 362cs, 362 cristata, Cyanotis 616 cristatum, Nymphoides F 355 Crotalaria Fe Aes He 93 crotalarioides, Polygala | 4 178 croceus, Colias Ne ae be eh MOT cruenta, Sphacelotheca sh oa G74 crumeniferus, Leptoptilos APY 458,461 cruralis, Bunothrips is .. 488 cuculata, Ostrea . : 353 cucullata, Amischophacelus 616 ———_—., Cyanotis 616 Culicoides ie 418, 421, 423, 424, 426, oa culinaris, Lens ... bins Lh vest 69 cumingi, Ibla 353 cumini, Eugenia ... 440 , syzygium Le igh ? 436, 440 cuneifolia, Moniera 362 cupularis, Osbeckia 529 Curcuma . 3 93, 257 cursor cursor, Cursorius | eas 289 Cuscuta ... nee a si ee 93 cuspidata, Olea ... 325 cyanophlyctis, Rana 589 Cyclops ... a 582 Cyclotella 582 cylindrica, Imperata 118, 559 dabia, Bletia ie me aa 66 —-—, Eulophia ... oe, ve fas 66 Daedalacanthus ... ae igh APR AGS Dalbergia : wed 560 dalbergioides, Ougenia .. ae ve PAST ' Pterocarpus one 434, 439 DNDEX WORF: SPE@DES Xilk Page dalhousieanum, Dendrobium ... Scalp WAP dallatorensis, Elaphrothrips 484, 493 dalzellianus, Gastrochilus er 359 ——_——_—,, Sarcochilus eg? ‘DS dalzellii, Pimpinella Le oe Bee ues) sii) damaris, Orinoma i Ae Fae ne Li ests, Daphnia ae : sn Ae ah DOL davidii, Buddleja oh i Eh ag, debilis, Impatiens ne i eens, decaisneana, Ceropegia aay Stee Dae decapetala, Caesalpinia se eat OD deccanensis, Isachne ... te ae. ROIS deccanus, Pellonyssus 422 decidua, Capparis st; 85 Deionix Med 462 delavayi, Buddleja t ou360 demoleus, Papilio “118, 119, 349 Dendrobium 94, 139, 140, 147, 148 Dendrolycosa 214 densiflorum, Dendrobium ai 141, 143 denticulata, Tlex a3 at MORI S25 —————., Ventilago ... ayy peutnag 5) denudans, Dendrobium oe 140, 144 deodara, Cedrus ve 437 depressula, Nonion 4263, oype 273 ——_———., Nonionina.. is 263 Desmotrichum .. ine rete hSO. devangiriensis, Bulbophyllum bbe a 66 Diadumene a uf : wes 3D Diaphorothrips ... 488, 491 Diceratothrips ons 488, 492 dichotoma, Cordia eS ane pleas |, dichroa, Ipomoea Fak Hi. as TSG Dicrocephala_... a a, nan Ps) didymus, Coronopus _... se Besa W/V Dieffenbachia ; is RT Oy: diemensis, Coryzichthys ae Pea 10343 difformis, Cardanthera ... ae ids 65 —, Ruellia es Ae eM 65 diffusum, Cnidium ae ay 2 eil26 , Ligusticum ... Ret ee 26 ——--—., Siseli ... ie AN. Bp Peal WI) digitata, Photis. ... ne a) 166 , Polytoca ae : 558, 559 Dinothrips oe ~ 488, 492, 501 dioica, Momordica we A 183 Dioscorea Bhs Se ia a 92 Dipterocarpus sat Me RA 6S) Discorbis .. Ye aa Pg Del disjunctus, Ericthonius . ae his .s ~ 159 disperma, Grewia aes has ES Dissoura ... She ie ath, EGOS. disyphonia, Guarea A ne es 58 divaricata, T abernaemontana ay Aig AOD doltsopa, Michelia me .. 436 domesticus, Gallus 421 , Passer ‘414, 415, 417, 419 420 ———— domesticus, Passer Page: PAI dormeri, Pipistrellus —... oe 171-175 dorsata, Apis... 323, 503 dougalli korustes, Sterna 296 Dracaena ae 4 2h Ss teas 17) Drosophila ae 1, ahs He 10 Dryophis ... a we or Hg maid © We) Page dubius, Leptoptilos 458, 461, 458, 459 dubyii, Androsace 62 dugon, Dugong eols 327 dulcis, Scoparia ... 222-226 Duranta 462 dussumieri, Austrobatrachus ee nal, uaa , Batrachus ... .. 339-341, 343 ———_——— ; Halophryne . 341, 340, 342 duthieanus, Rubus 58 —_—__—_—— y. tomentosus, Rubus EP 58 Ecacanthothrips .. 486, 488, aae 501 Echis oe 5, 336 edgeworthii, Leea fe ey s3 ~~ L80 —_—_—__—_——., Saussurea ... ae Ba 61 edulis, Canna ve . 397 Eisocreochiton 87-90 Elaphrothrips ~ 481, 488, 493 elatum, Calophyllum .. : 435, 439 eldi eldi, Cervus ... és i, 26 1 Va6 elegans, Vernonia at fn sve -- 361 ellioti, Euprosthenops 214 , Podophthalma ... 214 elliptica, Dichopsis 437 — , Habenaria 525 ellipticum, Palaquium p 437 elongatum, Sedum se Sisal ce 59 Elphidium : 983 ae ini 264 Entada ... wi ae ae oe 94 Enteromorpha : 352 Ephemerantha ie "139, 140, 147 Ephippiorhynchus ae - 458 Epigeneium : a "139, 140, 147 episcopus, Ciconia 453, 457 — , Dissoura : 453, 456 equisetifolia, Casuarina os 436, 440 Eranthemum ne shee roe ee 63 erecta; Eclipta’. ... He ah Ris, 93 —-—-, Hygrophila a, ate 65 Eria 94, 139, 148 eriaeflorum, Dendrobium 140, 144 Ericthonius wee a Se Papen kay | eriocarpa, Ipomoea oes on Pier 53) erubescens, Viburnum ... ue Re ye) erythropus, Tringa as he Su; 53 esculentum, Lycopersicum _... oe O02 Euagrostistachys He ate s den « SO Euaraliopsis ae - 5S Eucalyptus 435, 439, 528 Eucamptopus set ene eucharis, Colotis zat a Sipeen Sao ———., Delias ... Bs ad ie ENS Eudorina ... re me ae ici S82 Eulophia ... ey ae a as 94 Euprosthenops sca 214 europaea, Olea ... 403 Eurya ee nae Wad 528 eversmanni, Columba ae on iba aok Evippa_... Lia ss ate en | 2L4 excavata, Eria... ae we 149, 150 excelsa, Michelia in a » - 436 exigua, Laphygma ee she 344, 345 exstipulata, Aglaia uy er vie 57 exstipulatis, Euphora ... a ie 57 fabrei, Heteropoda nas : 212 XIV Page fagifolium, Glochidion 526 fairholmianus, Rubus ... 525 falcata, Dendrophthoe ... are 8). falcatus, Nesothrips 483, 484, 488, 495, 500, 501, 499 falcinellus falcinellus, Limicola 284 ————-— sibirica, Limicola shhh DOG falconeri, Capra ... 384, 388 farnesiana, Acacia 182 fasciculata, Cyanotis : eS OLS ——— v. glabrescens, Cyanotis Bo GEG fasciculatus, Rubus se 58 —-— y, tomentosus, Rubus 58 fasciventris, Cardiastethes 424 febrifuga, Soymida ; 412, 437 feisthamelii, pea 192 ferox, Rubus BY 58 ferrea, Mesua oe 435 ferruginea, Coenomyia .. 346, 347 —-—-——, Crotalaria 180 fici, Idiothrips 489 ficoidea, Telanthera 362, 362 ficus, Idiothrips be . 484 filiformis, Rhamnus : 58 ——_—_——, Sageretia ar 58 filosa, Cymadusa : ee EDO fimbriata, Ephemerantha 144, 147 ~—, Habenaria eS , Stictothrips . 489 Fimbristylis 529 Fissendocarpa ae 125 fissendocarpa, Jussiaea 126 flabellifer, Borassus 434, 438, 439, 488 flaccida, Canna .. 391- 394, 390 , Primula ite aa ae 63 flava, Ban 149, 150 flavescens, Memecylon ue ay lige; OS flavigula, Martes vi 321-325 indochinensis, “Martes A eile P21 : peninsularis, Martes ade 321 flavisculatus, Culicoides 421, 424 fletcheri, Lycosa ... 216 flexile, Jasminum 362, 362 flexuosus, Senecio ae ae Beh 61 foetida, Passiflora 183 foina, Martes ae +t 322; 323 foliosa, Aplotaxis i ee ee 61 ——~—., Saussurea ; 61 formosa, Crotalaria cs Pees: formosensis karnyli, Nesothrips 484, 488 formosum, Dendrobium 140, 144 forrulacea, Polysiphonia 352 forskalaei, Commelina ... z 617, 618 forskohlii, Coleus 531 fossilis, Heteropneustes . 199, 583-588 foveicollis, Ree nee 123 Fragaria ... 528 fragrans, Polyalthia 437 fragrantissima, Gaultheria 531 frondosa, Mussaenda 361 frontalis, Plea 120 fructicosa, Woodfordia . 183 frutescens, Ichnocarpus — 185 fruticulosus, Abrus 181 INDEX “OF -SPECTES Page fulicarius, Phalaropus 285 fuliginosa, Sterna oo) £10 fulvus fulvus, Hipposideros a 174, 172 fungosus, Hoplothrips 483, 484, 488, "490, 495, 487 furfuracea, Eisocreochiton 87-89, 88 fuscana, Lycosa ane bi, ong EG fuscata, Arundinella ... es 529, 531 , sterna : rat he ae tO “nubilosa, Sterna 297 fuscipappa, Crepis 527 fuscus, Eptesicus 174 fuscus, Larus 292 fysonii, Vernonia ah 525 gaimairdi, Operculina 265, ‘240 273 galeata, Euxenura : eo) See gallica, Tamarix 361 gallinacea, Echidnophaga ote) SADT gallinago, Capella a 108, 109 — gallinago, Capella | 1280 gallinula, Gallinago 285 gamblei, Ascopholis 525 , Poa OT MES gangene, Batrachoides 339, 340, 341, 343, 340 , Batrachus 5843 —, ’ Halophryne 341, 343, 340 gangeticum, Desmodium e 4 181 gardneriana, Dalbergia ... b U8824 garthii, Xenophthalmus 592, 593, 595, 3s, garzetta, Egretta 454 Gastrochilus : ck 2) bee gaudichaudil, Agrostistachys Mh 301, 303 Gaultheria ne es sa ZS gaurus, Bos ae +83 ee, 378, 565 Gebiopsis Ao Hy wie ees genei, Larus 293 geniculata, Garnotia ae 525 | Geranium é ne ae eis 18 gibba, Pinnularia gibbosa, Zornia ... gibsonii, Dendrobium gigans, Kleothrips Gen 450, 452, a 181 ee 141, 144 s, 481, 483, 484, "488, 492, 496, 500, 501, 482 gigantea, Calotropis 93 siganteus, Pteropus she's giganteus, Pteropus .. 550, 551 Biles. Grandidierella ... su Por (ce) glandulifer, Rubus a 58 glandulosa, Indigofera ... 180 —-—, Lysimachia ... 62 glareola, Tringa 55 glauca, Canna 391, 393, 390 —-——, Cassine ... 358, 361 glaucum, Agalma 60 —-——-, Heptapleurum 60 glaucippe, Hebomoia 349 globosa, Entosolenia 260 ——_—-—-, Gomphrena us "362, 362 , Lagena . 260, 272273 ’ Pila 2 455, 461 globosum, Chaetosphaeridium 130, 132, 131 globularis, Discorbina ... at 271 = -, Discorbis foc e lie 22 273 INDEX, OF SPECIES XV Page glochidiatum, Echinoglossum ... ee 63 —_—-—, Paracaryum sae ii 63 glumaceus, Alysicarpus ss TOME eh | gobara, Dysoxylum ee i ak yr , Guarea bee te is a7 , Hartighsea ee a o2 57 gomata, Ismene (Bibasis) ose ener 4 gouriana, Clematis ms 1h gracile, Gomphonema 445, 449, 452, 447 gracillimum, Monomorium _... 350 grahamii, Senecio ae iti 61 graminifolia, Eria "149, 152, 151 graminifolium, Dendrobium _... 66 graminis, ee eS 484, 490, 495, 494 Grandidierella_... : cies iy cl grandiflora, Notonia 54 hn SOL , Portulaca ... 361, 362 grandis, Tectonia 361, 434, 438, 439 Ail, 440 grantil, Gazella ... 383, 389 granularis, Digitaria... $59 granulosa, Operculina ... 264, 22. 273 greeni, Elaphrothrips .... ia 496 griffithii, Adenosma _... any Bh 65 —, Brassaiopsis ... i aie 60 , Cardanthera ... Bs Su 65 , Euaraliopsis ... Hf aie 60 , synnema ate aan nite 65 grisola, Pachycephala ... ip OI) EF? , Tephrodornis ... ae 112, 113 Grossera Hy ae “4g 299 grunniens, Batrachus ane eo 339, 341- 343 —, Batrichthys ... a5) Poy eae -—, Cottus it 339, 343 guajava, Psidium an 134, 603 guttifer, Culicoides 421, 424, 426 —, Tringa ... ae Dp) guttulatum, Hatha piiydliaa 1h ate 66 ——_—_-—,, Cirrhopetalum ... Ae 66 gwatkinsi, Martes ‘ 527 Gyrosigma Be ah ie Aa ae kote} 2 Habenaria a i see 94 habilis, Sorghum Niles 118 Haemaphysalis 414, 418, 420, 421, 423 halepense, Sorghum 115, 118 Halophryne es sas nt waa Oa hamiltoniana, Stellaria ... . 26-28 —_—_—_—_—_———_ y. sikkimensis, Stellaria | 28 hamiltonii, Dysoxylum .. We ot, a) hampsoni, Heteropoda ee Ming, eo Haplobrotula __... et Li, Supa Tat Hi I Hardwickia atk 83-85 hasskarlii, Commelina ... By ee a OMe hebanthum, Viburnum ... Ns AE tanta 28 hebraeus, Polistes a et pace teer |p| hecabe, Eurema 319 hector, Tros ! 349 hedleyi, Nausitora 433 heliaca, Aquila 330 Heliconia Ay 257 helictus, Strobilanthes ae 503 Helminthosporium 474 hemitoechus, Dicerorhinus 317 Hemitragus bo 103, 104 Page hemprichii, Larus Nes a see 1 2OE Heracleum : uf 379 Heterocalyx 4 ee 300 heterocarpon, Desmodium eo PPT (to heterocarpum, Dendrobium 140, 144 heterophyllus, Artocarpus 94, 434, 439, 440 heteroplatos, Gelidium 352 heteropoda ae Sided hexagonolapis, Barbus (Lissochilus) cay.» ho —______——-—., Lissochilus .... SOLO hierta, Precis : 349 Hilsa A ere 582 himalaica, Saxifraga tee vs ae 59 himalaeyensis, Venonia ... 220 himalayensis, Hippasa ... ZlS —_—_—_—-——., Lycosa PAI himantopus ceylonensis, Himantopus 287 himantopus, Himantopus 286 Hippasa ... anh ae fe De hircus, Capra... ve wis 378, 388 hirsuta, Artocarpus 435, 440 , serpicula ee) hirsutissima, Oldeniandia_ 524 hirundo hirundo, Sterna 295 — tibetana, Sterna 296 hispidum, Acanthospermum 618 hissaricum, Polygonum oe nie 18 hohenackeri, Acacia 524 —_—_—___—-—., Pavetta 524 holmerae, Hippasa a Ah pp uaa 4) honorei, Thoressa (Halpe) a 192 hookeri, Agrostistachys * 300, 301, 305 ——-—, Sarcoclinium a ————., Sedum my te Ae 59 hookerianum, Heracleum me 524, 529 Hopea ... ma oe 435 Hoplandrothrips _ 486, "488, 490, 495 Hoplothrips 488, 490, 493, 501 hubli, Steatonyssus ane cata 472 hudsonius, Circus (Cyaneus) ... Re 10 hurrianae, Meriones _... i 422 hybrida indica, Chlidonias 293 ——-— hybrida, Chlidonias . 294 hybridus cruentus y. paniculatus, Amaranthus ve a seh WOL9 hylocrius, Hemitragus ... 365-389, 527 535-542, 366, 369, 370, 371 Hylopetes ; a oee hypoleucos, Tringa Bes ve fie ap) hyssopifolia, Ludwigia ... ne 126 hyssopioides, Lindernia 612 hystrix, Castanopsis 436,438 ibex, Capra 378, 384 ibis, ‘Ibis ... we 454 ichthyaetus, Larus 292 Idiothrips 488, 489 ilex, Quercus se eles ilisha, Hilsa ; ee oa 578-582 Ilysanthes Lae one ia 5 Ol Impatiens : Oe Merida |= 4 impejanus, Lophophorus .. 328-330, 329 Imperata : 3s see, S00 incana, Crotalaria 132; 133 XVi impejanus, Quercus incisa, Primula , Verbena ... indagatrix, Lycosa indica, Aeschynomene ... —-—-, Agrostistachys ... longifolia, Agros- —-—-, Alocasia —-—-, Apis Kg —-—-, cadizachit , Canna —-—-, ; Dillenia —-—-, Fragaria —-—-, Frerea —-—-, Hyphaene —-—-, Loyolaia —-—-, Madhuca — —-, Mangifera —-—-, Melicope —-—-, Motacilla —-—-, Paracalliope —-—-, Parhyalella —-—-, Perenethis —-—-, Potentilla —-—-, Ratufa —-—-, Reinwardtia ee 7 peescneputbalg —-—-, Vateria ‘ —-—-, Vicoa indicum, Chrysanthemum , Gnaphalium , Seseli , Solanum aa , Trichodesma ... indicus, Caprimulgus ——-— jotaka, Caprimulgus , Hoplandrothrips , Nesothrips , Neurothrips , Polynemus ee , Polyphemothrips , Tamarindus ee , Uredothrips inerme, Clerodendrum ... infusa, Agrotis Mp infuscatellus, Chilotraea ingrata, Navicula insigne, Bombax insignis, Salmalia insularis, Pinus integrifolia, Artocarpus .. ——-———-, Holoptelea .. -—-—, Mackenziea _ intermedia, Egretta -—-—, Littorina interpres interpres, Arenaria interrupta, Pinnularia inyacka, Parhyale iphisia, Tylophora iranii, Lycosa indica, Agrostistachys i; INDEX “OF ~ SP EGRESS ~ 299-301 300, 302 ae 300, 303, 304 5, 256 oo MONT 21508 .. 456, 462, 464 391, 393, 390 e 6(436 see 434, 439 433, 437, 440, 488 : TS 335 166 166 220 182 551 Lig 220 437 184 362, 362 . 184 126 186 185 seh), MOE 331,332 484, 490, 495, 494 483, 484, 493, 500 si 484, 489 sac QOn 488 . 456 488, 493 isa) OL9 596 ; SALA) 445, “450, 447 ... 434, 439, 440 .. 434, 438, 439 wscy 4, SOU 454 353 on ‘ih 56 445, 450, 452, 447 oH Rennie. os) 527 ZT iridiflora, Canna Isnardia ... oes isora, Helicteres . ixiocephala, Thelepaepale jacobsoni, Dinothrips jalapa, Mirabilis jambolana, Eugenia japonica, Conyza : — —-—, Cryptomeria ... ; Bunya. %. ’ Ternstroemia .. , Youngia japonicum v. Major, Hypericum javanica, Oenanthe i javanicum, Thalictrum ... javanicus, Leptoptilos javensis, Steatonyssus jayakari, Hemitragus jehana, Tajuria ... ig jemlahicus, Hemitragus jenseni, Elphidium jerdoni fairbanki, Garrulax , Sirembo. . Fy: jujuba v. fruticosa, Zizyphus juncea, Crotalaria { junciformis, Fimbristylis Juncus aa : Jussiaea Ae kabandha, Priesneriana kachinensis, Pyrus , sorbus kamrupi, Culicoides karachiensis, Brachyodontes kashmirianus, Senecio Katherinea kempi, Lycosa Keratella kergueleni, Lembos keroula, Lanius ... kewalramanii, Callianassa (Callichirus) khashiensis, Triaeris khasianum, Solanum Solanum khasianus, Senecio khudiensis, Lycosa khudree, Barbus (Lor) 3; khudree, Tor 510-521, kinabaluense, Creochiton kirchbergensis, Dicerorhinus klatti, Primula kleiniana, Potentilla Kleothrips eae knuthiana, Lysimachia kodaiensis, Crotalaria koenigii, Murraya kolus, Puntius konkanensis, Drupa krasskei, Navicula kumaonensis, Rubus kundaicus, Senecio kunthiana, Isachne schaeferi, Hemitragus , Upogebia ( (Upogebia) .. ——yv. chatterjeeanum, Page ..391, 393, 390 526 . 459, “461, 461 ; Dew sy: eee 365 190 103- 106, 365, 388 sce), HOD 264, 272, 273 ue ie SO ... 114-117, 116 125 484, 488, 491, 493 5 609, 610 609-611 ts 62 woo ps ae 510; 513 514, 516, 517, 519 es 87, 89, 90 353 445, 450, 452, 447 58 523 532 kunthianum, Phlebophyllum kunthianus, Strobilanthes kurzii, Commelina ... —-—-, Rubus —-—-, Sonnerila lactea, Glareola lactuca, Ulva Laelaps Laematophilus: laevis, Ehretia Lagena Lagenandra Lagerstroemia lagopoides, Aeluropus lagopus, Ochroma lakoocha, Artocarpus lampas, Thespesia ape! lanatum, Phlebophyllum lanatus, Rubus 4 a) lanceolaria, Blumea lanceolata, Lagerstroemia lankadiva, pHpuesicres Lantana oF Laomedia laotica, Heterocalyx Laphygma lapponica lapponica, Limosa larvata, Paguma a lasiocarpum, Sisymbrium ... lateriflora, Pimpinella laticornis, Impatiens latifolia, Ampelocissus , Anogeissus ——, Bassia oie. _—___—_—., Dalbergia , Dichrocephala —, Zizania ... Laurentia laurifolia, Syncarpea_ laurifolius, Cocculus lavenia, Adenostemma lawii, Anaphalis lawsoni, Impatiens .. , Senecio lawsonii, Andrographis ——-—-, Strobilanthes laxa, Stellaria ; laxiflorum, Desmodium laxum, Cynoglossum lemonias, Precis lentula, Heteropoda leo, Felis oe —- persica, Felis Lepisma ; leptocheir, Laetmatophilus. Leptoptilos ... : leptostachya, Gouania leschenaulti, Rousettus leschenaultiana, Cassia leschenaultii, Dipsacus , Pentapanax —_____—_——., Vaccinium lessingianus, Senecio TN DEM OR SPECLES Page 502, 606 379, 5 502-504 A Oley 743559 414, 421, 423 159, 161, 160 185 os 260 pan 93 ... 462 . 614 398 433, 434, 438, 439 LTO . 435 171, 174 348, 462, 488 es XVII Page leucanthemum, Chrysanthemum... 613, 613 leucocephala, Mycteria 453, 454 leucocephalus, Ibis 453, 454 leucopalpis, Pardosa 219 leucoptera, Chlidonias OS leucorodia, Platalea .. 454 leucoryphus, Haliaeetus pu8330 leucostigma, Lycosa MOD, leuphotes, Aviceda Shean ie) andamanica, Aviceda i138 ——_-—— leuphotes, Aviceda me 138 — syama, Aviceda ... liad ——__——., Baza : sae OS limbata, Spirillina ... 270, 212,213 limbatum, Loxostoma 269, 272, 273 limniace, Danais st . 349 Limnoria 440 limonella, Zanthoxylum w487 limosa limosa, Limosa ; ee melanuroides, Limosa ike limpidus, Stigmothrips . 488 Lindernia 3 611-613 lindleyana, Carex 7.391 linifolia, Fissendocarpa . 126 , Jussiaea ... . 126 linneanum, Ecbolium 362, 362 lisarda, Penthema ... .. 186 livia, Columba Es ss ne) | —— domestica, Columba w. 421 lividus, Andropogon 929,532 lobata, Urena Bers Is: lobatus, Phalaropus : 285 lobelioides, Andrographis | 523 longicaudus, Paxillothrips.. Bi 492, 495 longicornu, Dendrobium ... 140, 145, 146 ———_—— y. hirsuta, Dendrobium seo 4S longiflora, Anotis ane Benge AS, , Laurentia ue 29S longiflorus, Loranthus : 360, 361 longifolia, Agrostistachys ... 303-305 ———_——— genuina, Agrostistachys 301, 302 ———-— , Asteracantha 362, 362 —-—_-—-—., Physalis cen, Oe ———-—., Pinus... .. 437 ——-——, Polyalthia .. 488 —- —., Sarcoclinium .. 299 longifolium, Sarcoclinium 303-305 ——— , Xylosma reel Ns longimanus, Taphozous 171-175 longipes, Brachydeutera 345 lorenziana v. subtilis, Nitzschia “448, 450, 448 loriformis, Murdannia is £ OL7 loundesi, Hippasa ... PACD Loxostoma ... 269 Loyolaia : 488, 491 lucidum, Trachelospermum . 185 lucidus, Ropalocarpus P34 lucifugus lucifugus, Myotis sabe al: Luciola te : Sain 29 Ludwigia Se a AS lunata, Unciolella ... OES lunu-ankenda, Evodia LO lutea, Striga tree Doll = Viola... . 393 XViil INDEX. OF AS PPECTES Lycosa Bae lycosina, Hippasa ... Lygaeus lyra lyra, Megaderma Machatothrips mackenzieiil, Lycosa macraei Callista ————., Dendrobium ————., Ephemerantha macrantha, Machilus macrocarpa, Asteriastigma —, Hydnocarpus —, Taraktogenos macrocephalus, Argyrosomus , Pennahia —, Pseudosciaena macrolepis, Liza macrostachys, Daedalacanthus —_—_—__—_—_—., Eranthemum macrura, Sterna maculatus, Pinnotheres maculosum, Aerides madagascariensis, Cryptostegia madani, Lycosa ae maderaspatana, Mukia madrasana, Caprella madraspatana, Hippasa magnirostris magnirostris, Esacus ———_—— recurvirostris, Esacus mahagoni, Swietenia : mahensis, Acanthochitona... major, Pinnularia malabarica, Salmalia malabaricum, Bombax ——_—__—-——, Dysoxylum , Jasminum malabaricus, Sturnus —_—__—_—_—-, Vanellus Malacothrips Malaxis 3 malayensis, Chthamalus malsara, Mycalesis Malus Maranta marathaus, Oecobius marginalis, Orbitolites , sorites marginata, Bulimina , Lagena Margosa te marsupium, Pterocarpus dee martensii, Talorchestia — Martes Martesia masteri, Lycosa mauritiana v. fruticosa, Zizyphus maxima, Callianassa maximus, Elephas . mays, Zea media, Capella medica, Citrus medicaginea, Crotalaria meeboldii, Agrostistachys ... ye aoe ‘447, 450, 448 94, 178, 459 . 436 220 265, 272, 273 265, 272, 273 266, 272, 273 261, 272, 273 627 ~ 40, 117, 123 109, 280 oie eo + £80 303, 304 Page meeboldii vy. coriacea, Agrostistachys 300, 301, 305 vy. meeboldii, Agrostistachys 300, 301 304, 305 ————., Cynoglossum ... a: Per tos) megala, Capella... aN seo ¥LOBSHZEO megnae, Grandidierella_... ee mre 25 4 Meiothrips ... fs as ae ... 486 melanippus, Danais _ : be we B49 melanocephala, Threskiornis bias ... 454 melanolophus, Gorsachius aie sr tOT melanopogon, Taphozous seth ATL TS melanoxylon, Diospyros ... ie ... 436 meloagrestis, Cucumis As ve Mee fo) melongena, Solanum a Bisa ... 601 Melosira _... 4 ae ae 55 OSL menoni, Meiothrips. a Bs ... 488 merkusii, Pinus ae ee a nisin SOAS merula maximus, Turdus ... se nel mesophylla, Arundinella ... Bi aotoge mexicana, Rotala ... as ei: eat} micrantha, Saxifraga sah ie sal LOD Microcystis ... a a. en) nt IDOL Micropera ... : ane ... 66 microphthalma, Cymadusa dees (pp LoS OD microphylla, Symplocos _... oh 1. 324 mimus mimus, Pipistrellus marmite Wal ei 17/S) Mimusops ... a a ... 437, 462 minima, Capella... Bas aR: eel — v. indica, Physalis ... ise nce VSO minimifolia, Chiloschista ... Ba sea OO minimifolius, Sarcochilus ... bs 66 minor, Pergularia : 362, 362 minutiflora, Aglaia A Se OM. minutus, Calidris ... sae Ae eee. , Larus ae Es te 2 293 mitella, Mitella ie: be ave Beane | , Pollicipes ... aa Ne Re) mitis, Brassaiopsis ... RRS lie Psa 0 8) , Euaraliopsis ... wee aM erage; () modesta, Acacia... tt ne S29 modestus, Entrichocheles ... 235 mollissima, Cayratia 362, 363, 362 monbeigii, Sorbus ... me 59 monbeigil, Pyrus_... Re bbe aN | mongholica, Stipa ... ee a MP O22 mongolus, Charadrius eh fe i 90 monnieri, Bacopa ... i ty A) monococcum, Triticum ... is ... 479 monophylla, Eleiotis Le Ws DT —__—____—, Glycine wr ory Bh al Wea monosperma, Butea es su Ch bB2 Monostyla ... MN a ae 12 DOL montana, Diospyros _ ae . ad LOS —,Hemichoriste ... ar 358 —., Justicia ... 358, 359 montanum, Daedalacanthus ie sh t63 , Syzygium _.... sail se 24 montezumae, Pinus Bie eu se 398 monticola, Anplectrum ... ... 87, 89, 90 , Eisocreochiton ... 87-89, 89 moorei, Amsacta ... ae ane 40-44 Morinda ... ba ue bn ... 462 morinda, Picea ah ‘a. ath aya 7) INVDEX OR SPECIES Moringa Morus mosal mahanadicus, | Barbus (Tor) | moschatum, Dendrobium .. moschatus tetraphyllus v. pungens, Abelmoschus motorium, Desmodium mucosus, Ptyas oe mucroratus, Elaphrothrips muelleri, Lysimachia multiceps, Senecio ... multiflorum, Jasminum mungo, Phaseolus ... munja, Saccharum ... Murdannia .. ae muricata, Ipomaea Musa a muscicola, Eria Muscitrea musculi, Steatonyssus ‘ mussuallah, Barbus (Tor) ... mutica, Garnotia Mycalesis Mychenia Mycteria mysorense, Hypericum Mystrothrips Nacaduba nais, Euthalia nasturtium- aquaticum, Rorippa .. nasutus, Dryophis ... , , Eptesicus Natrix nebularia, Tringa neelgherrensis v. clarkei, Dendrophthoe .. 523, 529, 532 neelgherryana, Anaphalis sas neglecta, Uraria neilgherrense, Daphniphyllum neilgherrensis, Strobilanthes nellygherya, Argyreia nemoricola, Capella neo- barnesii, Impatiens Neochrysocharis Nepa * neriifolia, Euphorbia Nervilia nervosa, Brachylepis. , Justicia ... nervosum, Eranthemum ——, Viburnum : nervosus, Daedalacanthus Nesothrips ... Neurothrips niger niger, Chlidonias , -——., Phalacrocorax nigra Ciconia i, nigroglandulifer, Saxifraga nigro- punctata, Perinereis nigrotibialis, Lycosa nigrum, Solanum nilagirica, Artemisia ——_—____—-, Michelia nilagiricum, Rhododendron Page iva. 350 ... 462 an OO 141, 145 A738 1 114 482: 484, 493, 496 | 6 pe nOe ordss 40, 478 117, 118 257 “148, 152, 151 Bet le . 422 | Lies Oull 529 xix Page nilagiricus, Pogostemon {8323 nilghiriensis, Berberis wpe 2 Nilgirianthus ~3> 605 nilgirica, Impatiens see S23 nilgiriensis, Hippasa Se nilgirina, Heteropoda er ies nilgirriensis, Yungia wimnoeo nilotica affinis, Gelochelidon ... 295 nilotica, Gelochelidon ... 294 2 nimala, Erebia FS, . 188 nippon, Cervus . 563 nitellarum, Coleochaete 130 nitida, Bolivina 268, 272, 273 , Discorbis ... 212, 2712, 213 ———, Rotalina ae ee Die niveus, Rubus OD nobile, Dendrobium .. 141, 145 nobilis, Bolivina ROT Zi2, 2795 noctivagans, Lasionycteris... ss ... 174 nocturnum, Cestrum . 186 Nodosaria . 259 Nonion i ~ 2Oz nordmanni, Glareola 290 se LBS 559, 560 w. 454 sgool ... 486 2 al 9G ; 189 LTT 524 483, 488, 491, 493, 500 . 218 186, 602, 603 184 "526 531, 532 norvegicus, Rattus . 67, 70, Pa 74, 75) 573 Notonecta "i205 Notonia — 62 notoniana, Anaphalis 523 nucifera, Cocos 94 nudiflora, Murdannia ; . 617 —_—_———- y. compressa, Murdannia 617 , Letrameles an 435, 439 nummularia, Zizyphus 179, 274-278 _ nummiularius, Evolvulus se 362 nutans, Primula 63 —_——., Rubus . 58 v. nepalensis, Rubus i: 38 , Saxifraga ... Ee, nutaniflorus, Rubus : a 22 58 —______—— y, nepalensis, Rubus 58 oakleyi, Pardosa ne . 220 | Oberonia 2.94 | oblongum, Acer... .. 180 obovata, Carolineila GOS , Primula ... .. 63 obscura, Ipomoea ... .» 362 obtusa, Symplocos ... «« 326 | obtusatus, Senecio ... 2 162 | occidentalis, Cassia.. so 182 S PINUS... . 398 —-- : Stephanothrips . 489 ocellatum, Geranium ol ochropus, Tringa 54, 55 Ocyale 219 ocymoides, Borreria | ae 183, 531 odoratissima, Albizzia 433, 436, 438 —____—__—_ y. angustitolla, Coelogyne 525 odoratus, Lathyrus 2 ey £928) Oecobius : . 220 oedicnemus harterti, ‘Burhinus . 288 indicus, “Burhinus . 288 — saharae, Burhinus. 288 Oedogonium ae 507- 509, 508 officinalis, Scindapsus 250, 258, 251 oleosa, Schleichera 435, 438, 439 XX INDEX VOL MSP BEES Page Page Oocarpon ... 125 | parviflora, Lagerstroemia 434, 439 oojeinensis, Ougeinia . 437 -—, Sageretia fi WS ootacamundse, Piper . 524 | ———_-—, Vitis . 180 opaca, Carissa . 185 | parviflorus, Rhamnus US Operculina ... . 264 | parvifolia, Mitragyna . 457 Ophiomorus . 334 |) — —, Pyrus ne, Opius 601 —, Sorbus ... 459. oppositifolia, ‘Sageretia ... 58 | pashia, Pyrus . 182 orbicularis, Coleochaete . 130 | Passiflora (S28 orbiculatum, Viscum } 524 | patrinii, Viola vu SHSOG orbignyana, Lagena 262, 272, 273 Paxillothrips : 488, 492 orbonalis, Leucinodes 601-603 pectenicrus, Elasmopus 165 /_ —_—_——, Impatiens : 523 | pectinalis v. ventralis, Eunotia 445, 449, 446 orientalis, Hoplothrips 484, 490, 495 | pectinatum, Eriocaulon . 529 —_——_——, Siegesbeckia 4 . 184 | pe2ctinatus, Strobilanthes ... i 903 , Stictothrips .. 484 | pectiniformis, Vernonia 527 —» Strepterothrips ee 488, 495, 498 pectoralis Erithacus “14-25, 18, 19 = , Vespa fe Pe: Y 221 — bailloni, Erithacus 19 ornata, -Microhyla ra . 589 | ______. Pachycephala 8 , Rivea . 186 | Pediastrum ... 582 ‘griffithii, Rivea . 186 | pedicellatus, Lyrodus 431 Ornithonyssus pale Gedingulate Acronychia ... 179 Oscillatoria ... 582 | pedunculatus, Senecio 62 oscitans, Anastomus - 454, 455: “461, 454, 455 | Pellonyssus ... : 414, 418, ‘420- 422, 426 Osyris e ote . 523 | Peltophorum ; iy, °° B48. 462 ovalifolia, Microtropis , 523 | pennata, Acacia . 182 oxystoma, Culicoides 421, 424, 426 | pentaphylla, Glycosmis eet We Pachycephala 113 | —_—__—_, Tabebuia peeads (cy pacificum, Nonion . 263, 272, 273 | Percnothrips ... 49) pactolus ceylonicus, Nacaduba_ . ... 189 | Perenethis . 220 palea, Nitzschia nA 448, 450, 448 Peristylus 25 94 paleacea, Nitzschia 450, 451, 448 | perpusillum, Dendrobium 766 pallide-fusca, Setaria 559, 560 perroteti, Xylophis i '336 palmata, Brassaiopsis 60 | perrottetii, Cinnamomum ... ... 524 , Euaraliopsis 60) == Mieusteum: . 2532 palmatum, Panax aE .. 60 | perseoides, Mycalesis . 188 palniensis, Acrocephalus ... .. 525 | persica, Felis eee —_———., Garnotia ... 525 | persimilis, Diagora 89 palpebrosa, Zosterops “2 333 | =) Drosopmila 2 paludosus, Pogostemon .. 523 | peruviana, Thevetia J5A2 palustris, Crocodilus .. 574 | perversa, Nodosaria 260, 272, 273 panchganiensis, Habenaria ... 93 | pes-caprae, Ipomoea 362 paniculata, Eria 149, 152 | pes-tigridis, Ipomaea "186, 362, 362 — -—, Murraya .. 179 | Petaurista ns nso ——-——-, Sabia ... ... 180 | Petunia ... 348 ==, lerminalia 434,439 | phaeopus phaeopus, “Numenius Sed | paniculatus, Amaranthus . .. 619 | —— variegatus, Numenius ... a oe , Celastrus . 179 | phaeothrix, Eulalia 327,551 pantherina, Hippasa . 215 | phaseoloides, Pueraria nae P82 papillosus, Nilgirianthus 523 | phasma, Heteropoda msi) Va Paracaprella... . 163 | philippinus, Ploceus 414, 415, 417, 419, 420, parasiticus, Stercorarius 291 422 Pardosa . 219 | phipsoni, Lycosa eS pardus, Panthera 574 —, Thalassius ZO pareira, Cissampelos AT Phlaeothrips .-» 486 parishii, Daedalacanthus ... 63 | phlogiflora, Verbena sae S, , Eranthemum 63 | Phoenix : 0 OL paronychyoides, Alternanthera . 93 | pholis, Blennius sil ez) parsia, Mugil . see 204 | Phylloscopus ride te) parviceps, Sophiothrips “484, 488, 490 piceus, Blaptostethus el parviflora, Artemisia ... 184 | picta, Uraria se Wes a= -, Butea ... ... 182 | pictula, Lycosa 218 , Hopea 433, 434, 439 | pierardi, Dendrobium esi 145, 147 ne, Txora ..: S SO). | Pieris: :: a iO io2y ENDEXTOR SPECIES re Page pikarhense, Piper ... Be, Sh ae pilimana, Tritella ... ae iz, 3 162163 pinnata, Garuga ee 179 pinnatifida, Cardanthera ... 65 —__—__—__——, Glossogyne 619 ——_———, Nomaphila ... 65 pinnatifidum, Adenosma ... 65 —_——_———., Synnema a 65 pinnatum, Kingiodendron... 434, 438, 439 Pinus i be 101 Piper aM 101 pisaurina, Hippasa_ sist fio: be piscator, Natrix el 4 Pithecellobium LOM planifolia, Vanilla ... 411 planifrons, Acacia ... 81, 82, 85, 86, 82 plantaginifolium, Bupleurum 24 Plantago f oe 10] Platanthera 94 platycarpa, Atylosia 619 Pleunosigma 582 Poa... 18 Poinsettia Ka 350 polyacantha, Euaraliopsis 60 , Hedera 4723/°60 polyandra, Cynometra 436, 438 polyantha, Aglaia ... pitt as polycephala, Madaractis iy aOR polycephalus, Senecio 6255239529 polygama, Grewia ... ae wel 9 —__—_—_-, Olea 527 polygonoides, Alternanthera 93 polymorpha, Medicago -r.- 180 Polyphemothrips 489, 490 polyphyllum, Biophytum .. Se 25 polystachya, eens 435 polytes, Papilio a , eo 49 Polytoca 559, 560 pomarinus, Stercorarius Lo 2o pomona, Catopsila sic -.. 349 pompilioides, Nonion 263, 272, 273 a -—-, Nonionina ... e t2G3 Pongamia : 462 populnea, Bucklandia 437 , Exbucklandia 437 Poria , iy AO porosus, Crocodilus 573, 574, 573 Porpax a teed. postrata, Moghania 182 Potentilla sa 528 praelongipes, Evippa_ 214 ———_—_-——, Lycosa t Brea Ue: pratincola maldivarum, Glareola 9 290 pratincola, Glareola . 290 Prestwichia ... us ae -<94~-420 Priesneriana a 488, 491 primigenius, Mammuthus | era primulinum, Dendrobium 140, 145 primuloides, Androsace Grea O2 prionitis, Barleria 362, 362 -priscus, Bison is : wild procer dallatorensis, Elaphrothrips . 496 procerum, Dysoxylum - WSIS procumbens, Tridax 184 XX1 Page productus, Elaphrothrips ... 482-484,.493, 496 prolifica, Lycosa Ae the ‘se DLS prompta, Heteropoda eae prostrata, Crotalaria ... 180 , Eclipta 93, 184 Prunus ov LO] prurita, Mucuna et 4 Pseudagrostistachys . 299 pseudo-aperta, Carex 525 pseudolunaris, Eunotia 444, 449, an pseudomontana, Curcuma pseudoobscura, DEceopnre ee ve - Pseudosciaena Ete . 575 Psidium 101, 133 psoraloides, Cyamopsis ee 26) pterocaulon, Saussurea 60, 61 Ptyas 4 eeeaieliee pugmeum, Eurynorhynchus 284 pugnax, Philomachus is ve a 285 pulchellum, Dendrobium ... wae ASE, 147 ——-———., Eranthemum ... rr i263 pulneyensis, Pimpinella 525 ——____—., Vernonia 23 oak .» 5325 pulvinata, Coleochaete .... rane boOz 132 pumilum, Dendrobium 66 punctata, Bolivina ... 266, 272, 273 punctipes, Lycosa ... . 218 pungens, Alternanthera 94 pungitius, Pygosteus 583 Punica : ; ca sve) LOL punjabensis, Sergentomyia ww. 421, 423 purpurea, Camarotis Rina nem OO —, Cyathocline 184 —, Tephrosia 135 purpureus, Sarcochilus 66 purpuria, Puccinia ... 474 purus, Laetmatophilus 161 pusilla, Impatiens ... 532 ———-, Lindernia 612 pusiola, Lycosa 220 —_——., Pardosa 220 putus, Oecobius 221 Pycnonotus ... 308 Pygmaeothrips 486 Pygothrips ... 483 pykarensis, Ophiorrhiza o o24 | pyranthe, Catopsila 2 349 Pyrus 58, 59, 101 quadrangularis, Cissus a? 361, 362 quadrata, Lagena 261, aps 273 quadrifer, Lycosa Se ee Ls quadrimana, Maera vein OS Quercus ae 1, 440 quinqueloba, Prenanthes ue vo Gl quinquelobus, Senecio peer 6 | radicula, Nodosaria ict, 2S aI 2 radiosa, Navicula 445, 450, 452, 447 | rafinesquei, Corynorhinus p . 174 rama, Mycalesis 188 ramentacea, Eulophia 66 ramentaceum, Limodorum - 66 ramiflora, Microtropis 525 rangacharii, Eriochrysis 325 Raphanus vs 101 XXil raphidocarpa, Carex - rattus, Rattus os ‘wroughtoni, Rattus Rauvolfia i Ravenala A recurvalis, Hymenia recurvus, Loranthus religiosa, Ficus remora, Remora reniformis, Ranunculus repressa, Sterna reptans, Ipomoea resupinatum, Trifolium reticulatum, Doronicum reticulatus, Nilgirianthus ... , Rubus , SENECIO: ... retusa, Bridelia retusum, Desmodium rex, Tyrannosaurus... rhamni nepalensis, Gonepterys Rhododendron . rhomboidalis, Bolivina rhomboidea, Triumfetta Rhynchobdella rhynchops, Cerberus a ridibundus ridibundus, Larus rigens, Heracleum ... : ritchieanum, Eriocaulon rivularis, Anemone robusta, Grevillea ... -, Heteropoda -, Shorea robustum, Eriocaulon robustus, Nesothrips rochi, Bankia rodiaei, Ocotea roemeri, Nodosaria rohituka, Amoora ... rosacea, Discorbina ——-—, Discorbis ... rosmarinifolia, Leucas rostrata, Schefflera rostratum, Aerides , Micropera rothii, Rhynchosia .. rotundatum, Bulbophyllum —, Dendrobium .. Epigeneium si , Katherinea , Sarcopodium rotundatus, Cimex ... rotundifolia, Primula ——, Rotala rotundus, Cyperus ... rr roxburghiana, Sanseviera ... roxburghii, Centaurium : , Erythraea v. Saxatilis, Erythraea . , Pinus Bey —— ’ Primula ... , salacia .. —__———, Typhonium roylei, Cynoglossum elgse 1 ge lgere ree ere ”” 483, 484, 493, 500 cree ag 431 T NUD BX Page 525 67, Les a. 76 552, 554-556 : 101 191 bis 526, S27 268, 272, 273 Bs ane i) vee, 209 114, 574 sees wa ool 134, 134 sae ao . 361 213 | Ail, 436, 439 529 398, 440 260, 272 . 435 271 271, 272, 273 523, 529 5360: | 358, 619 357, 619 358 431, 437, 527 | 63 _ 358 . 130 63 O Fs SS Pir Ciges Page rubicundus v. hohenackeri, Onthesichens ~-§23 rubiginosa, Evippa ee adi rubra, Cordyline 257 rudolfi, Thais 353 | rufescens, Impatiens 523 , Strobilanthes 503 ——_——., Uraria 181 ruficollis, Calidris ... 282 ———--, Tringa 282 rufulus, Thelcticopis 213 , Themeropis 213 rugosa, ’ Primula : 63 rugosus v. thwaitesii, Rubus 524 russeliana, Raconda e ae 585, 588 russellii, Vipera ; 337 rusticola rusticola, Scolopax ab SS t rutidosperma, Cleome meg Ade 2829 | Saccarum e ... 308 sagittifolius, Ranunculus ... 529 sahyadrica, Cyanotis 616 salacioides, Johnia ... 358 — , Salacia 358 salicifolia, Lysimachia ae ae OD sambac, Jasminum : «wii 9) 36223962 sandvicensis sandvicensis, Sterna 298 sanguineus, Ecacanthothrips 482-484, 490, 495 santapaui, Justicia ... : 358 sapiens, Homo Boo: Sarchochilus A 66, 359 Sarcoclinium ~299- 301, 303 Sarcopodium 139. sardenta, Cymadusa 153, 155, 154 ——-—-, Grubia . 153 sarmentosa y. dubyii, Androsace .. 62 vy. primuloides, Androsace 62 sativa, Avena ; Ag Sich 117 , Medicago ... ae 65 sv 23 , Oryza ue sats wae OR EZS sativum, Pisum ; 123 saularis, Copsychus- 414, 415, “417, 419, 420 saulierei, Christisonia ; 525 savil, Pipistrellus 319, 320 —-— austenianus, Pipistrellus . 319 | —-— cadornae, Pipistrellus 319 | —+— caucasicus, Pipistrellus . 319 | saxatilis, Stellaria 26-29 ——-—--— y, Sikimensis, Stellularia 28 sayi, Bembix 545 scaber, Elephantopus a af 362, 362 scandens, Frutex . 88 scapiflora, Impatiens SS2 scapiflorum, Murdannia +993 scariosa, Vernonia . se LA hGnG2 scariosum, Centratherum ae sev 62 -—, Decaneuron Je 62 sceleratus, Ranunculus ony schilleriana, Diadumene Ro ES Wo 4 scholaris, Aistronia 458, 459 schottii, Typhonium sonlitit,. = -IQORESO schreibersii, Miniopterus ... 174 schubarti, Amphilochus 165 scintilla, Rapala . 190 scolopacea, Eudynamys..... . $73 scrobiculata, Strobilanthes . 606 INDEX OF SPECTES Page scutata, Coleochaete 130 seemannii, Schefflera 60 seenghala, Mystus 194- Oth, 196, 198, 200, 201, 204, 208, 209 semecarpifolia, Alseodaphne 94 semialata, Moghania _ 182 semipalmatus, Limnodromus mat 56 ——_-__—-——., Macrorhamphus ... 56 semiteres, Murdannia 617 Senecio a fd tun 62 senegalensis, Ephippiorhynchus .. 457, 458 Sepiaria, Ipomoea .. or 5 ... 362 Sergentomyia 5 418 sericea, Crotalaria .. 180 serpens, Viola 526 serpentina, Rauvolfia : 185 serratibranchis, LO heat 352 Sertularia 4 $352 sesban, Sesbania . 181 sessilifiora, Crotalaria . 180 sessilis, Alternanthera on 362362 , Pleocanthus BS ipa 1929 O29 , strobilanthes 503 Setaria_ Le 560 sexpunctata, Heteropoda a8 213 shallada, Erebia 188 shillongensis, Ischnothyreus 221 sikkimensis, Malus.. 58 , Pyrus.... 58 , otellaria 26-29 silenus, Macaca 541 simplex, Kleothrips 483 simplicifolia, Brassaiopsis ... 60 , Euaraliopsis... 60 sinensis, Pelopidas ... 192 sinhala, Nacaduba .. 189 Sirembo 2a a5 115 sisaparensis, Oldenlandia ... 524 sisparense, Pygeum ue se SDA sissoo, Dalbergia 182, 435, 559 skua, antarctica, Catharacta sles e290 oo "lonnbergi, ‘Catharacta f40291 —— maccormicki, Catharacta in 291 Smilax a .. 488 smithiana, Picea ... 437 smyrnensis, Halcyon ee 818, smythiesi, Heteropoda See 23 solanacea, Ardisia ... cS —-———-, Vallaris .. ABS Solanum ... 610 . Solitaria solitaria, Capella .. A299 soluta, Coleochaete e380 Sophiothrips ES 488, 490 sorghi, Sclerospora ne AGA —-—-, Sphacelia . 474 —--—-, Sphacelotheca 474 sorghicola, Contarinia 474 Sorghum 474 Sorites 265 sororia, Eleiotis 127 speciosus, Costus . 02 spectabilis, Bougainvillaea | . 361 ——— , Cheilosporum » 352 speltoides, ‘Aegilops . 479 XXil Page speoris, Hipposideros = As 171-175 sphaerophorum, Gomphonema “445, 449, 452 446 sphaerostachyus, Neuracanthus .. 92,93 Sphex av 545 spicata, Polycarpaea_ » S30 spinicarpa, Leucothoe . 165 spirata, Murdannia 617 Spirillina 270 spirocarpa, Acacia .. 82 Spirogyra ; 1a 582 splendens, Corvus taht “414, 415, 417, 419, 420- 422 spontaneum, Saccharum segs LAT TES squamosa, Virgulina 266, 272, 273 squarrosa, Aegilops , .. 479 Sorbus ee . 39 Stagnatilis, Tringa ... ee stauntoni, Dendrolycosa . 214 Steatonyssus . 422 | Stellaria Tee Stellaris, Urticularia — . 355 stellato- pilosa, Stellaria 27, 28 stellulata, Andrographis 523 stenura, Capella 108, 279, 280 Steriospermum is ; ) stictocarpum, Carum se on 355-357 — v. hebecarpa, Carum 355-357 — , Trachyspermum 356, 357 stictophylla, Tricholepis ... 184 stictopyga, Lycosa ... lee 1S | —_____——, Tarentula 218 Stictothrips .. 489 stigma, Barbus ie 205 Stigmothrips Gp i 486 stipulata, Albizzia ... ser 437 y. smithiana, Albizzia ... 182 stirpicola, Carbro .. ae . 546 stolidus pileatus, Anous 298 Strepterothrips ae 488, 489 striata, Lagena 261, 272, 273 —-——, Martesia 431, 433, 438 striatulus, Modiolus » ooo strictus, Mimulus ... 177. Strobilanthes 92. 94, 504- 506, 608 strumarium, Xanthium . 184 struthersii, Ibidorhyncha ... 287 stylosus, Senecio 62 suavis, Trichosma ... 150 subadnata, Navicula _ 445, 450, 452, 447 subflavus, Pipistrellus . 174 subminutus, Calidris . 283 subperversa, Nodosaria_ .. 260, 272, 273 subramanii, Tiarothrips 481, 484, 488, 492 495, 496, 500 subruficollis, Tryngites 488 . 285 subulata, Commelina ze 617 sudetica v. bidens, Eunotia 445, 449, 446 suffruticosa, Leucas a O82 sulcata, Festuca 18 sumatraensis, Capricornis .. 104, 384 sumatrana, Lycosa j mathewsi, Sterna a sumatrana, Sterna XXIV Page | sumatrensis, Dinothrips 482, 484, See 495, 485 superba, Gloriosa ... 2 superciliosus, Tephrodornis: a2 Surirell : : : “382 sutherlandi, Lycosa - 219 sylvarum, Ornithonyssus oy: ri2a synaptochir, Platophium ... aa lB is —_—___—_———., Podocerus se og Synedra ae x 582 Synnema _... 64, 65 tabularis, Chukrasia .. 437 tade, Mugil .. 588 talehsapensis, Nereis ; 352 tamu tamu, Heliophorus ... 190 tatarica, Saiga 31 tatensis, Lycosa 219 Tectona : 83 temminckii, Calidris 283 tenella, Impatiens fa : 523 tenellum, Bothriospermum 185 tenera, Sonerila = 182 tenuiflora, Galactia.. 127 tenuirostris, Calidris. 202 _______.—. worcesteri, Anous 298 tenuistriata, Uvigerina 269, 272, 273 Tephrosia ... Gli a 135 Teredo att, te ey: ais 398, 440 terek, Tringa ee i Re, ae) testaceus, Calidris ... i 284 tetraspermum, Pittosporum 526 teucrioides, Verbena 393 Thais... : eo 353 Thalassina ... : 242 Thalassius ... %.. ime ae ... 220 thalictroidus, Ceratopteris... et Ba 355 Thalictrum ... ‘ ae: a hehe SYA thebaica, Hyphaene 82 Themeropis .. 213 Thespesia 462 thomsoni, Argyreia... 186 Thrixspermum . 66 thymus, Adenosma Lipo. 5) Tiarothrips ... 488, 492 tigris, Panthera pe 234, 374, 551 tilaefolia, Grewia . 437 tinctoria, Berberis : i 1420p ALS —-, Indigofera ; 135 tintinnabulum, Balanus 352 353, 590, 591 tomentosa, Impatiens Seal OSG oe —_—-—--—, Pavetta > SS ——-—--—, Rhodomyrtus B26 — -—, Terminalia 436, 440 tomentosum, CaN en 435, 439 tor, Tor Bs Pet 510, 511 tora, Cassia .. 33, 182 torvum, Solanum ee . 186 totanus eurhinus, Tringa ... 53 — totanus, Tringa 53 Trachispermum 356 Trachyspermum._.. nes 350 tragocamelus, Boselaphus : 563 transparens, Dendrobium... __ 140, 147, 146 ENDEX OF SP E CIES Page transvaalensis, Hoplothrips 483, 484, 488 490, 495, 487 Triaeris fa 22k trianae, Sonerila_... na bite ie oe triandra, Themeda . -o.) 1 S20ega2 triangulare Vv, congestum, Desmodium 181 Tribonema ... te . 3509 trichotoma, Swertia — 524 tricolor, Viola 393 tridactylus, Ophiomorus . 334 tridens, Laematophilus 161 trifida, Sopubia 531 triflora, Adenosma 65 ————., Cardanthera 65 , Ruellia 65 triflorum, Desmodium 181 ——, Synnema 65 trijuga, Schleichera 435, 438, 439 triquetra, Trianthema 614, 615 triquetrum, Desmodium ST trispinosus, Batrachus 339-341 -—-,Halophryne ... 342 tristis, Acridotheres 414, 415, ‘417, 419- 422 Tritella : eG 2 tropicalis, Pinus... . 398 truncatula, Lymnaea (Galba) 0) 588 tuba, Ipomoea ake 614, 615 tuberculatum, Arisaema i) 524 tuberosa, Cyanotis .. ..- 616 turbinatus, Dipterocarpus . 435 —, Percnothrips . 491 turcicum, Helminthosporium 474 turgida, Cymbella ie . 447, 450, 452, 448 tylophorum, Arisaema . 524 typhoideum, Pennisetum ... 40 Typhonium .. 129 typus, Dispholidus .. 113 , Rhineodon.. 337 uliginosa, Adenosma 65 , Cardanthera 65 , Ruellia es 5 RHOS. uliginosum, Synnema : ah iS ulna subaequalis, Synedra_ “444, 449, 452, 446 umbellata, Androsace a} ie ee 8S umbellatum, Bulbophyllum 66 uncinatum, Cynoglossum ... : wag 63 , Paracaryum ... isi S08) OZ undulaefolia, Crossandra ... 362CS, 646, 362 undulata, Commelina A ets (GAT. macqueenil, Chlamydotis . 330 undulatum, Pittosporum ... i e525 unguipes, Diaphorothrips ots 491 unicolor, Cervus in 374 unicornis, Rhinoceros 558 uniflora, Primula 63 , Saussurea is 61 ~'y, conica, Saussurea 61 uniflorum, Bulbophyllum as 66 —___——., Sarcopodium ... 66 Ure dothrips a 488 urticaefolia, Leucas . 619 Uvigerina : 269 vadescens, Bolivina.. ; 268, 272, 273 vaginalis, ’Alysicarpus ooRE ; . 181 DND ER OR OS PEO ES. XXV Page Page vaginata, Arundinella spe 529 | vulgaris, Phaseolus aa AA nen 2 valida, Eunotia ee ... 444, 449, 452, 446 | walkeri, Gynura __... Bei oe bears atl 282 Vandellia ne iy : >; Olt -, Notonia ... a Be, sre 02 Varanus ues se: ae ... 34 | ———-,Senecio... es an EeKcOe varia soccata, Atherigona ont ae ... 474 -, Sphaeroma ae 352, 353 variabilis, Buddleja ii ae ... 359 | wallaceana, Cymbella ee 447, 450, 448 vasica, Adhatoda ... ae ... 362,362 | wallichi, Amoora ... oe 2 43) velutina, Chukrasia a Re, ... 437 | wallichii, Cirsium ... aa a ... 184 ,Dalechampia __... due ... 524 | ——--—-, Strobilanthes _... oy as pO venatoria, Heteropoda ___... 213 -, Wedelia ... ae ich Dera his! veneta, Amphora ... a 447, 450, 448 | wardii, Daedalacanthus_... an wavhgos Venonia a : ve . 220 | ———--, Eranthemum uN gi om venulosa, Schefflera oe a . 183 | warscwiczii, Canna “is 391, 393, 390 . veronicaefolia, Bonnaya ... ee ... 619 | wightiana, Anaphalis ae ihe ac Oe verticillaris, Oldenlandia ... .. 527,529 | —————— ». hispida, Arundinaria Ae Peo) verticillata, Adenosma ___... oH ... 65 | ——_——-—, Tlex weit i Aer in Le ——-—--—, Cardanthera ... a ... 65 | ————-—, Rapanea ie a ee eyo) verticillatum, Synnema __... oe ee OS) -—, Scutellaria a a Ree 27 vestalis, Colotis .... ae: es ... 190 wightianus, Nilgirianthus ... oe ae 5 vestita, Stellaria ... ne 26-29 | ——-—-, Strobilanthes ar radae vialis, Macroglossa Ws ee ... 349 | wightii, Dendrobium oe “fe sea 100 viarum, Solanum ... ih AP ts, OLO , Helichrysum ae ee cogeeo viator, Pellonyssus ... us i ... 422 | ————, Meliosma ae a) 94020 ——-—-, Steatonyssus ie a: fs IL] , Feucrium ae wee DEO Oe vilardeboana, Discorbina ... 271 | wittrokiana, Viola ... Ede ; 393 —.___—__—., Discorbis.... Dns 272: 273 | wodier, Odina Le 433, 435, 439 villosa, Sterculina ... Pa 178 | wroughtoni, Lycosa te ahs . 219 Viola : at! Pe . 528 —_—_————,, Scotophilus ... ‘ 174 violacea, Mackenziea Une He ... 523 | X generalis, Canna ee 390- 393, 395 , Petunia ... ate Me ... 393 | X orchioides, Canna iter 390, 392, 393 virescens, Thelcticopis mi nt ... 213 | X hybrida, Petunia Lee Ses ... 393 —__——., Themeropis ae at ... 213 | ———_—_——,, Verbena oe a 2 393 virgata, Rhamnus ... a she ... 179 | X wittrokiana, Viola len a ine 2398 Virgulina... iy au) ... 266 | Xenophthalmus _... iN an Bn O92 viridiflora, Micropera Bu ne ... 359 | Xenorhynchus ne De ... 454, 458 viridiflorum, Aerides te sed ... 399 | xylocarpa, Xylia_... ie .. 434, 439 -——.,, Saccolabium ne . 359 | zamboange, Ampelisca _.... ee ... 164 viridiflorus, Gastrochilus ... 359 | zeylanica, Capparis f re ales viridis v. turgidus, Pinnularia “447, 450, 447 | ——_———_ v. paludosa, Emilia ee a). viscidula, Conyza ... ane 184 | —_——_—_, Nepenthes Pes oa sue OD viscosa, Indigofera .. ae wid. eo , Plumbago : ee sss Oo viscosum y. elata, Adenostemma . . 184 zeylanicum, Rhododendron A 526 vitta, Hasora aD wet 191 | zeylanicus, Fisseponen a 528, 529, 531 vivipara, Spirillina ... ae 270) D2: 273 \ Zingiber |... : me : EDOM, vulgare, Hordeum ... a 117 | Zinnia ve ae bee ; 348 ———-, Sorghum ... ee ~ 40, 118, 474 | Zizyphus _... ae aes 93, 276, 277 —, Triticum... We ae ... 117 | zonellus, Chilo Ane re . 474 vulgaris, Linaria_... .e a, eeeotl wyenema ..... we re ne < 131 Journal of the fe Bombay Natural History Society pede Vol. 67, No. 1 Editors ZAFAR FUTEHALLY, J. C. DANIEL & P. V. BOLE APRIL 1970 Rs. 18 (Inland), sh. 30 (Foreign) NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the editors by observing the following instructions: 1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for publica- tion to other journals or periodicals, or have already been published _ elsewhere, should not be submitted. 2. The MS. should be typed (double spacing) on one side of a sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered. 3. All scientific names to be printed in italics should be under- lined. Both in zoological and in botanical references only the initial letter of the genus is capitalized. The specific and subspecific names always begin with a small letter even if they refer to a person or a place, e.g. Anthus hodgseni hodgsoni or Streptopelia chinensis suratensis or Dimeria blatteri. 4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identification has been authentically established by comparison of specimens actually collected. In all other cases, or where identification is based merely on sight, binominals should be used. 5. Photographs for reproduction must be clear and show good contrast. Prints must be of a size not smaller than 8.20x5.60 cm. (No. 2 Brownie) and on glossy glazed paper. 6. Text-figures, line drawings, and maps should be in Indian ink, preferably on Bristol board. 7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alphabetically arranged under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or periodicals underlined (italics) and titles of books not underlined (roman type), thus: Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55 (2): 243-268. Prater, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay. Titles of papers should not be underlined. 8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting the author’s name and year of publication, thus: (Banerji 1958). 9. Synopsis: Each scientific paper should be accompanied by a concise, clearly written synopsis, normally not exceeding 200 words. 10. Reprints; Authors are supplied 25 reprints of their articles free of charge. In the case of joint authorship, 50 copies will be given gratis to be distributed among the two or mere authors. Orders for additicnal reprints should be in multiples of 25 and should be received within two weeks after the author is informed of the accept- ance of: the manuscript. They will be charged for at cost plus postage and packing. EDITORS, Hornbill House, Journal of the Bombay Natural Shahid Bhagat History Society. Singh Road, Bombay 1-BR. VOLUME 67, No. 1—APRIL 1970 Date of Publication: 30-6-1970 CONTENTS TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES BELOW THE LEVEL OF GENUS: THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL AsPEcTS. By Dean Amadon roe si eu Ge ae 1 BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE HIMALAYAN RUBYTHROAT, Erithacus pectoralis (GOULD) IN THE TIEN SHAN. ra E. I. Gavrilov and A. F. Kovshar. a With two plates) : ‘ 14 Notes oN Stellaria saxatilis BucH.-Ham. ex D. Don, Stellaria vestita KURZ AND Stellaria sikkimensis Hook. f. By N. C. Majumdar ia 26 10TH GENERAL ASSEMBLY AND 11TH TECHNICAL MEETING OF THE INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CONSERVATION OF NATURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES. By Zafar Futehally 4 cite sf ei ae he oie aa ai 30 GROWTH POTENTIAL OF RED HAIRY CATERPILLAR, Amsacta mooreit BUTLER, IN RELATION TO CERTAIN FOoD PLANTs. By N. D. peneey, neve Ram Yadava and T. P. S. Teotia .. eh ame ao af 40 CAUSE AND EFFECTS OF A HEAVY RAINFALL IN DARJEELING AND IN THE SIKKIM HIMALAYAS. By Leszek Starkel. (With two text-figures) ie ee cs 45 A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL History Society-6. By Humayun Abdulali ris 52 Aa Me 51 NOMENCLATURAL NOTES ON SOME FLOWERING PLANTS—II. By N.P. Balakrishnan 57 THE BEHAVIOUR OF THE LESSER BANDICOOT RAT, Bandicota bengalensis (GRAY AND HARDWICKE). By Dwain W. Parrack and Jacob Thomas. (With eleven text-figures) sie ae ae aw s% ae ae ie, ae 67 NOTES ON SOME PECULIAR CASES OF PHYTOGEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTIONS. BY V. M. Meher-Homji. (With two plates) om ae ae sue ? ; $1 A SYNOPSIS OF THE GENUS Elsocreochiton QUISUMB. AND MERR. “eh M. P. Nayar. (With two plates) an De he ak it ees ee 87 OBITUARY: Fr. H. Santapau,s.J... ae as Bs «i e ~ ae 91 REVIEWS: 1. The Twilight of India’s Wild Life. (G.S.R.) Be ss 96 2. The Malayan Nature Journal. Rain Forest Issue. vol. 22 (D. E. R. ee 97 3. The Clue Books: Insects and other small Animals without Bony Skeletons. (S.F.) ae ee ae me a 98 4. The World of the Polar Bear. G. S. RY an ate 98 5. The Wealth of India: A Dictionary of Indian Raw Niateriale ae Industrial Products. vol. VIIL (D.E.R.) .. : 100 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES: Mammals: 1. Wild Dog’s Courage Rating. By E. R. C. Davidar (p. 102); 2. Habitat of the Himalayan Tahr, Hemitragus jemlahicus (H. Smith). By Graeme Caughley (p. 103); 3. Himalayan Tahr, Hemitragus jemlahicus (H. Smith, 1826) in Bhutan. By J. R. 5. Holmes (p. 106); 4. Blackbuck, Antilope cervicapra (Linnaeus) swimming. By S. A. Hussain (p. 106). Birds: 5. A Record of the Tiger Bittern, Gorsachius melanolophus (Raffles) from Karaikudi, Ramanathapuram District, Tamil Nadu. By S. T. Satyamurti (p. 107); 6. On the occurrence of Swinhoe’s Snipe, Capella megala (Swinhoe) near Bombay, and a note on its identification. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 108); 7. Occurrence of the Great Snipe, Capella media (Latham), in Burma and India. By Humayun Abdulali and Shanta Nair (p. 109); 8. Notes on Indian Birds-11. On the Distribution of Sterna fuscata Linnaeus in Indian limits—A correction. By Humayun Adbulali (p. 110); 9. The flight speed of the House Crow, Corvus splendens Vieillot. By K. N. Panicker (p. 111); 10. The correct name of the Mangrove Whistler: Pachycephala cinerea (Blyth) or Pachycephala grisola (Blyth)? By Ajit Kumar Mukherjee (p. 112) Reptiles: 11. Slight reaction from bites of the Rear-Fanged Snakes, Boiga ceylonensis (Gunther) and Dryophis nasutus (Lacépéde). By Romulus Whitaker (p. 113); 12. Cannibalism in the Indian’ Rat Snake, Ptyas mucosus (Linnaeus). By Romulus Whitaker (p. 114). Fishes: 13. A redescription of Sirembo jerdoni (Day): (Pisces: Brotulidae). (With a text-figure). By V. Visweswara Rao. (p. 114). Insecta: 14. Johnson Grass, Sorghum halepense—A new host of Sugarcane Green Borer, Raphimetopus ablutellus Zeller (Physitidae: Lepidoptera). By J. P. Chaudhary (p. 117); 15. Peculiar accident to the Butterfly, Delias eucharis Drury. By Zafar Futehally (p. 118); 16. The feeding behaviour of the Lemon Butterfly, Papilio demoleus L. By Vidyadhar G. Vaidya (p. 1184; 17. On a Hymenopterous Egg- Parasite of Aquatic Bugs injurious to Pisciculture. By J. M. Juika (p. 120); 18. Honey Bees and Wasps as pests of Grape. By D. K. Saxena (p. 121); 19. Anemotactic response in the Firefly, Luciola sp. (Coleoptera: Lampyridae). By A. B. Soans and Joyce S. Soans (p. 122); 20. The Red Pumpkin Beetle Raphidopalpa foveicollis (Lucas), as a pest of the Japanese Mint. By J. P. Singh and Rajendra Gupta (p. 123). Botany: 21. The Taxonomic Status of the Section Fissendocarpa (Haines) Raven of the Onagraceous Genus Ludwigia L. By S. S. R. Bennet (p. 125); 22. Interesting Plants from Maharashtra State. By R. D. Pataskar and (Miss) K. K. Ahuja (p. 126); 23. A new locality record of Cordia crenata Del. in Piram Island off South Saurashtra Coast. By T. Ananda Rao (p. i28); 24. Cleome rutidosperma DC. (Capparaceae)—A new record for Assam. By R. B. Ghosh and R. Prasad (p. 128); 25. Two new records of Araceae from the Upper Gangetic Plain. By B. Venkatareddi (p. 129); 26. On Chaetosphaeridium globosum (Nordst.) Klebahn from India. (With a text-figure). By R. J. Patel (p. 130); 27. A new record for Crotalaria incana Linn. from south India. By N. Ravi (p. 132); 28. An abnormal Psidium mutation. By S. Percy-Lancaster (p. 133); 29. Tubers in Eriocaulon ritchieanum Ruhl. (With eight text-figures). By A. R. Kulkarni and M. H. Desai (p. 134); 30. Field identification of Tephrosia Pers. By P. K. Mukherjee and Rita Gupta (p. 135). JOURNAL | | OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 1970 APRIL Vol. 67 No. | Taxonomic categories below the level of Genus: Theoretical and Practical Aspects BY ) DEAN AMADON The American Museum of Natural History Below the genus, only three systematic categories are in general use and provided for in the International Rules of Zoological Nomen- clature. These are the subgenus, the species, and the subspecies. The first of these, the subgenus, is not regarded as very important by most syste- matists. Furthermore, it is best discussed in connection with the genus. Hence I shall give it no further mention here. This leaves the species and the subspecies. I also wish to include a category known as the superspecies, although it does not yet have the usage it deserves (Amadon 1966b). The species is the only taxonomic category that can be defined in precise restrictive terms, rather than in general relative ones. The defini- tion reads about as follows: ‘‘ A species is a freely interbreeding popu- lation whose members do not interbreed with those of other populations”. In other words, it is an intrinsically reproductively isolated population. The few individuals of the Whooping Crane and the several hundred orang-utans are examples of species. They don’t interbreed with other cranes or apes, and if they did, would probably produce no offspring, or only sterile hybrids. The so-called higher categories, genus and above, are, on the other hand, subjective and must be defined in relative terms. It is a fact that there is a group of trees known as oaks, whose relationship is evident and which may conveniently be grouped in a genus Quercus. Hence we Z JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) may define the genus as a group of related species. But some species, e.g., the ghinko tree, seem to have no close living relatives. We have to leave this species in a genus of its own, a monotypic genus, and even in a monotypic family and perhaps order. There are many such monotypic genera; scores or even hundreds are recognized among birds alone, and there are only 9000+ species of birds. Furthermore, there is great diff- erence of opinion as to how closely a group of species must be related if they are to be included in the same genus. Linnaeus used more inclusive genera than is customary today. On the other hand, some “‘ genus split- ters’ approach the point of having a genus for every species, which des- troys the value of this category. This subjective quality applies to all higher categories. There is as much or more difference of opinion as regards the limits of families, orders, and classes. To return to the species, in most cases there is no difficulty about recognizing one, at least as long as we stay in one place and consider only the present time. To be sure, we do find some puzzlers. This is some- times due to the fact that two perfectly good species are difficult to tell apart by comparing them. Species thus similar are infrequent among birds, though they occur, but are commoner in insects. A classic case is Drosophila pseudoobscura and D. persimilis, two inter-sterile species, so similar they can be separated morphologically only by slight statistical differences in measurements. Such extremely similar sympatric species are known as “ sibling species.” This is not a very good name because it implies that, like human siblings, they are more closely related to each ather than they are to other species. This is not necessarily the case. Two sibling species may be less closely related genetically, or phylogenetically, than are ones superficially less alike. Conversely, genetic differences much below the species level may be as visible as day and night, for example, colour phases or other morphs. We encounter other difficulties in discriminating between species. They stem from the fact, first convincingly demonstrated by Darwin, that species are not fixed, immutable creations, but rather dynamic, evolving populations that inevitably change with time and which often split into two or more daughter species in somewhat the same way that an amoeba divides into two. Even when a species does not subdivide, it changes with the passage of millennia. If we could follow any species back far enough in time, eventually the gap between ancestor and descendant would be greater than that existing within the limits of any species today. Just how long ‘“‘ back far enough”? may be varies tremendously. Many species have evolved, we believe, in less than one million years, yet, judging from fossils, some types have changed little in tens or hundreds of millions of TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES 3 years. Just where to draw the species lines in fossil genealogies is an arbitrary decision. In most instances the geological record is so inter- rupted and fragmentary that the question is an academic one; in fact, the paleontologist often must work with genera more than with species. It is hardly necessary to add that many species became extinct, leaving no close relatives. Taxonomy seems to be somewhat like theoretical physics—there are a few constants and many relatives. We may mention one other constant. If we could reconstruct every living individual organism all the way back to the primordial ooze, we would have a complete history of life and its evolution on earth. But this will never be done. G. G. Simpson (1953: 109) estimates that there were 15,000,000 generations in the ancestry of the horse back to the Eocene “‘ dawn-horse,”’ and 500,000 or 1,000,000 individuals per generation might be a modest estimate. It is worthwhile bearing in mind, however, that phyletic taxonomy does represent the attempt to trace an evolutionary genealogy that has been enacted down to the last species, subspecies, and individual. Viewed in this chronological or geological way, the species as a category may seem to disappear—it merges imperceptibly with what went before. Perhaps, however, this is to look at matters the wrong way. A species, as we have seen, is a population of interbreeding living organisms. From this point of view there are at any moment of time a certain num- ber of species. But of Tyrannosaurus rex or the extinct Passenger Pigeon we should assert not that they are but that they were species. We may then conclude that of the species occurring 100 years ago or 100,000 years ago, such and such were ancestors of (or identical with) such and such species of the present moment. Further, we need not go. The taxonomist who works with present-day forms must often infer species status from morphology. The paleontologist must always do so, and usually from very fragmentary material. So fragmentary, in fact, that he frequently cannot be sure whether he has before him remains of a single species or of several allied ones. But since the paleontologist presents the only direct evidence that we have of the course of evolution during 99.99 per cent of its duration, he is heard with respect, however scanty his evidence. And if he is obliged often to speak in terms of genera rather than species, we may be sure that it was individual organisms grouped into species that enacted the history he relates to us. Species not only change in time, they may subdivide into one or more daughter species. This process, which usually involves space as well as time, is responsible for the existing proliferation of species, and is best studied in contemporary forms. As noted above, we have little difficulty with most species so long as we restrict ourselves to one locality 4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) here and now. If we begin to trace species spatially, we sometimes run into problems. The common Song Sparrow is a rather different looking bird by the time we reach the coast of Alaska. The population on the Aleutians is made up of birds perhaps three times the weight of the eastern Song Sparrows, and of a duskier hue of plumage. Are they the same species? In general, the answer is “‘yes” if a more or less continuous series of inter- mediate interbreeding populations exist, as they do in this case. Gene interchange can then occur, and a favourable mutation arising in one area can spread throughout the range of the species. In a few cases it has been shown in the laboratory that the geographical extremes in such complexes are genetically incompatible. This is one criterion of the species, but if gene interchange throughout a continuous intervening population is possible, it is customary, though in some respects arbitrary, to say that only one species is involved. So long as such genetic communi- cation exists it is even possible that the extremes might again become genetically compatible. If the range were cut in the middle, as so often happens because of geological or climatological changes, the two terminal populations would soon, no doubt, become completely self-contained species incapable of exchanging genes with any others. With such rare exceptions, however, if individuals of two populations fail to produce hybrids or produce only sterile ones, we may be sure that they belong to different species. The horse and the donkey are species; they will mate but a sterile mule is the result. In nature, we may be sure, there would be strong selection for horses that prefer horses and donkeys that prefer donkeys! Those that could not tell kith and kin would leave no fertile offspring and, further, would produce strong, healthy, long-lived mules to compete with their parents for food. But though sterility (almost) always proves specific status, the reverse is not true. Many perfectly good species are interfertile. The answer to this conundrum is that if two populations do not interbreed under normal conditions in nature, they are separate species. They have reached the level of distinctness that insures that each will go its own separate evolutionary way from that time forth, forever, or until ex- tinction. One oft-mentioned case is that of the Mallard and Pintail Duck. They are species because they occur together in hundreds of thousands over the entire northern hemisphere and hybrids are almost unknown in— nature. But if we place a mixed pair of these ducks in a zoo, they will mate, produce young, and the young are more or less fertile. In the wild’ these two species, and many others like them, are kept apart by certain isolating mechanisms peculiar to each, in this case certain calls and court- ship patterns. In the absence of a mate of the same species in captivity these isolating mechanisms sometimes break down. The isolating mech- anisms themselves in many cases, however, reflect selection resulting TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES 5 from partial (or complete) sterility of the sort suggested above for the horse and mule. The kinds of isolating mechanisms that evolve are attuned to the sensory equipment of the species concerned. A moth, for example, may recognize its mate by odor; a mosquito by a precise response to the hum produced by the wings, not merely of its own species, but of the opposite sex of its species. In other cases, isolating mechanisms may be at least in part more mechanical, one species of salmon spawning in the spring, another in the fall, and so forth. In plants isolating mechanisms must all be of this nature rather than behavioral. Either plants are cross-sterile or they flower at different seasons; or the pollination is so achieved that there is little or no chance for cross-pollination between related species. It is easy to see how isolating mechanisms can be improved by selection between interacting species, as suggested above for the donkey and the horse. But it is very difficult to see how isolated populations can arise within a freely interbreeding population, for their incipient dif- ferences will be swamped out. One concludes that species in sexually reproducing organisms must usually evolve in physical isolation. I men- tioned the orang-utan above as an unquestionable example of a species. In one sense it is a poor example, for there are two completely isolated populations; one on Borneo, the other on Sumatra. These populations have been kept apart for as long as these two islands have been apart from each other and from the mainland, where the orang once occurred also, as known from sub-fossil remains. Although the orangs of Borneo and Sumatra are very similar, we may be sure that if they could be bred in captivity as readily and rapidly as fruit flies, it would be possible todemonstrate various genetic differ- ences between the two populations. We may go further and say that if these two populations are isolated long enough, they will become speci- fically and eventually generically distinct. The rate at which such isolated populations differentiate reflects the selective milieu, and this in turn the constancy or inconstancy of the environment: both the physical and the biotic environment. So far as we can tell from fossil remains, some prolific insects have remained almost the same for millions of years. On the other hand, the proboscideans—the elephants and their allies—evolved rapidly, notwithstanding their long generations and low birth rates. A species may be broken up into isolated populations in two ways: (1) either the physical environment “* moves,”’ as in the case of the orang- utan, because of changes in sea-level, spread of deserts, etc., (2) or in- dividuals of the species itself move; they straggle, fly, swim, walk, or 6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) are blown to isolated habitats. Such events may be rare, but there is an eternity of time. Once isolated, the rate at which a population diverges depends on many factors. Perhaps most important, as noted above, is the extent to which the new environment is unlike the old, just so long as it is not so strange that the species cannot live there at all. Size of population, genetic constitution of the first colonists, especially when few in number, and other factors also play a part. As a result of this process of geographical speciation, many isolated populations that appear to have formerly belonged to the same species are now so distinct as to be, beyond much doubt, species. Such assem- blages of once conspecific allopatric species were called superspecies by Mayr and by Rensch, and the species that comprise them may be called allospecies. The concept is a very useful one in evolutionary and bio- geographical studies. I have suggested (Amadon 19665) the use of brackets to designate such superspecies in nomenclature. The frequent occurrence in the same area, that is, sympatrically, of related species shows that even if, as we believe, species evolve as geo- graphical isolates, they later do in hundreds of cases acquire overlapping ranges. So far as the mechanics of this are concerned, it is the reverse of the original isolating process. Either the environment changes, for example, Sumatra and Borneo again become joined, or the creatures themselves cross distributional barriers. Once two closely related former isolates do come together, two things are necessary if they are to survive and become sympatric species: 1. They must, while separated, have acquired isolating mechanisms which keep them from interbreeding, at least to an extent that will im- mediately swamp out their differences. 2. They must have acquired sufficiently different life requirements to enable them to live together. As Gause argued and demonstrated, two species with identical requirements cannot coexist. This is true in practice even though one might quibble about it philosophically. Actually two species will never be identical in requirements and in reproductive po- tential (as would, for example, two colour phases of a single species). Nevertheless, if two species are too similar in their requirements, one will exclude or eliminate the other. An isolated population cannot, of course, acquire isolating mecha- nisms or ecological requirements that are directly adapted to enable it to coexist later with species with which it is not then in contact. Hence speciation occurs in vacuo and is, to that extent, an “‘ accidental ’”’ pro- TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES 7 cess; but, as we Have seen, such accidents are inevitable in populations isolated for a sufficient time. When two forms do come together for the first time, they may still compete to an extent that threatens their survival or interbreed to an extent that weakens their genetic integrity. Strong selection will then be set up, tending to increase the gap in their requirements and to make their isolating mechanisms more effective. To emphasize the radically different conditions that exist before and after two isolated populations become sympatric, one might offer the following tabulation: I. Allopatric (Isolated) Populations: Chance Evolution of A. Potential Isolating Mechanisms B. Potential Ecological Distinctions II. Sympatric (Overlapping) Species: Selective Perfection of A. Operative Isolating Mechanisms (Reinforcement) B. Operative Ecological Distinctions (Morphological diver- 66 gence or “‘ character displacement ’’) One may add the following points: 1. Some populations will have been isolated so long that even when the resultant species first come together, they will be completely isolated reproductively and so distinct ecologically as not to compete seriously. 2. While we are here concerned with the type of adaptive differ- entiation that enables closely allied species to become sympatric, it must be remembered that distantly allied forms may also compete, e.g., rabbits and antelopes. 3. The opposite side of the coin “isolating mechanisms’”’ is “‘species recognition mechanisms.’’ Even in a species living among distantly related ones, there will be very precise adaptations to insure reproduction, which in animals involves recognition of other individuals of the same species by one sensory mechanism or another. These questions of how isolated populations acquire differences and how they interact following overlap of range are at the very root not only of a speciation but also of efforts to understand the dynamics of the ecological community. Such problems must be studied in the field, though with assistance from the cages of the population geneticist. The Subspecies question—About the turn of the century it began to be evident to students of the better known groups of animals that hundreds of taxa which were described as species have not really achieved that status. For many of them it was shown that where their ranges meet, free 8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) interbreeding and intergradation take place. Such form$ are not reproduc- tively isolated, and even with the essentially morphological definition of the species then in vogue, it was obvious to biologically oriented systematists that they could not be species. In other cases, taxa not in contact were nevertheless so similar that it was all but certain that they are not species, even though many of them had been described as such in the early enthu- siasm of naming and classifying. For example, the lions inhabiting India have, in isolation, become a little different from those of Africa. But are they a different species ? Surely most would agree in saying “‘no.”’ A solution to this dilemma that embodied both practical and theore- tical advantages was to formalize the category known as the subspecies. Taxa which have acquired recognizable characters, but which nevertheless can be demonstrated or are assumed to be below specific status are called subspecies, and names are applied to them under provisions introduced into the International Code of Nomenclature. For example, the Indian lion might first have been described as a species Felis persica, then later regarded as a subspecies of the African lion, Felis leo, and thereafter called Felis leo persica. In subsequent years this concept of polytypic species as comprised of subspecies gained wide acceptance, and is now almost universally used in the better known groups, such as birds and mammals. In others, such as insects, knowledge is just reaching the point where this concept can be usefully applied. This polytypic species concept represented an immense step forward. For example, one highly variable South Pacific bird, Pachycephala pectoralis, which occurs on many islands, is now treated as having eighty-odd subspecies. Only after we had associated all of them in a single species, could we study this assemblage properly, especially in relation to other true, genetically isolated, species of the same genus. The polytypic species concept also had a very salutary influence on the genus concept. There is far less excuse for undue genus-splitting after we have reduced our taxa, so far as possible, to bona fide units fitting a “‘biological”’ species concept. Furthermore, the polytypic species concept, as Mayr expounded in his 1942 book SYSTEMATICS AND THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES, presented us with a variety of demonstrations that speciation in sexually reproducing organisms ordinarily if not invariably takes place as a result of spatial (—geographical) isolation of subpopulations of a former species. It is often true in science that concepts of great value are later modified or even discarded. At the present time there is considerable criticism of the subspecies concept. With a practical aspect of this criticism one must express a certain amount of sympathy. The purely nomenclatorial aspect TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES 9 of classification have never achieved the acceptance and stability once hoped for. This is partly because nomenclature to some extent “got off on the wrong foot,” particularly as regards the so-called Law of Priority. We are certainly all willing and indeed eager to give due credit to pioneers in our science. But I think the day is past when we should change a well known name bestowed on a species or subspecies by John Doe in 1810, merely because someone shows that Fred Doe described the same species under a different name a few days earlier. I have suggested (1966a), as have others before me, that all names of valid species and even subspecies should be determined by committees of specialists and then listed as Nomina Conservanda, thenceforth to be exempt from the vagaries of purely nomenclatorial change. Of course, there would still be occasional changes, e.g., if somone proves that the Luna Moth is only a morph of the Cecropia Moth, we would lose one species. Further, there is no reason why subspecies names should continue to have nomenclatorial equality with species names. That they should not was first proposed by I. Moore (1954) and later by me (op. cit.). By such a step a vast amount of name changing could at once be eliminated. Why there is so much opposition to such measures is puzzling. I wonder whether those in opposition to the Fifty Year Rule which implements Nomina Conservanda have really considered the fact that other biologists may in desperation adopt really retrogressive alternatives, e.g., by using common or vernacular names for species, as some plant ecologists and amateur or semi-amateur ornithologists are already doing. There are, unfortunately, scientific as well as practical aspects to the problem of achieving stability in the names of genera, species, and subspecies. Genera, which I have discussed elsewhere (op. cit.) are not within the scope of this discussion. As regards species and subspecies, it is, in literally hundreds and thousands of cases, impossible to know whether a particular taxon is a species or a subspecies. The Indian lion may, after all, be a species. Even if we find that it interbreeds with the African lion in a zoo, this does not prove that the two taxa are conspecific. We need to know if there are isolating mechanisms in nature and that we shall never know in this or thousands of other cases involving more or less completely isolated taxa. Even dumping out a few African lions in the range of the Indian one would not do, it would be an artificial situation, in some ways analogous to that in a zoo. The only effective answer would be a change in climate and a halting of human abuse of the land in the Middle East that would enable the two populations to meet again naturally. Then we could see what happens. Fortunately there are easier cases to study. 10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) Hence itis necessary to be arbitrary. It would not do to treat all com- pletely isolated taxa as species. This was tried long ago and failed. Even with forms whose ranges do meet, there is every stage of interaction from smooth clines in one character (e.g., Bald Eagles gradually get a little larger as one goes north from the southern United States to Alaska) to ones that hybridize only rarely and are almost surely past the point of no return on the path to becoming separate species. Also, we now realize that almost all isolated or semi-isolated popula- tions are different. Usually if we examine them carefully enough, we can find at least slight average morphological distinctions; or if not, in those amenable to laboratory analysis one can demonstrate genetic and cyto- logical differences (see, e.g., Dobzhansky’s work on various western U.S. populations of Drosophila). Surely one cannot name every such slight population as a subspecies; attempts to do just that have led to a reaction and to suggestions that the entire subspecies concept in the formal sense of naming them be aban- doned. Some have suggested that variation should simply be described in geographical terms without employing subspecific names. However, in a species with great variation, especially on many islands, to describe the variation each time is out of the question; merely to list the subspecies and their ranges does call attention to its extent. Further, under an informal system we lose the international currency represented by Lati- nized scientific names. I am not enough of a prophet to know the ultimate fate of subspecies and their terminology. I suspect, however, that the advantages outweigh the disadvantages, but that only well differentiated populations will be admitted, that is, ones so distinct that they must be recognized in one way or another—either as races or as species. As Selander & Giller (1963 : 234) have stated, to list such forms as subspecies (or species) represents a considered taxonomic opinion as to their rank, and as such is useful. It may or may not in the long run prove useful to indicate in some other manner less well differentiated populations, as done by Vaurie (1959, 1965), for example, by the use of symbols. So long, however, as we continue to name geographical isolates of very uneven degrees of distinctness, it is of some value to indicate ones that seem to be approaching specific status. One way of doing this is by the use of parentheses. For example, Circus (cyaneus) hudsonius would mean that we think the form hudsonius (which happens to be the American Marsh Hawk) to be a race of cyaneus (a related Eurasian hawk), but wish to indicate that the two seem to be approaching the specific level of distinctness. TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES : 11 When a form is judged to be a species, though still capable of some hybridization, it may be called a “‘semispecies”’; the latter is one kind of allospecies or unit of a superspecies. Short (1969) has clarified the signi- ficance and taxonomic treatment of the various kinds and degrees of hybridization. Quantitative Methods—From the above it is evident that species are biological and (in animals) behavioral entities—self-contained, interbreed- ing populations that do not cross significantly with other populations (species). Furthermore, that there is little correlation between attainment of species status and degree of morphological distinctness. Some perfectly good species are virtually identical morphologically; other very distinct populations are not species. One may also call attention tc the tremendous morphological differences that are often found between different sex and age stages of the same species, e.g., the larva and the imago of a butterfly. It follows that there is no such thing as a “species character” in any general sense of the term. In this respect species are like the abstractions we know as “‘higher categories.’ After we have concluded that a popula- tion is a species, we can then tell how it differs from other species, but with no assurance that similar characters will define other species, though ofcourse related species will be to varying degrees comparable. These properties of the “‘biological species’? as Mayr called it are worth emphasizing, even though in practice the taxonomist often must work with morphological characters. He often knows nothing about the reproductive potential of the organisms he is studying except what can be inferred but concludes that if, after eliminating characters seemingly associated with sex, age, season, etc., a series of specimens appear to be like one another and unlike others, they probably comprise a species (or, in some cases, subspecies). The “‘art’’ of the taxonomist consists in his skill in using what he has learned about some species to help evaluate less well known or new species. To do this he uses, so far as possible, quantitative methods. As with so many other fields of science, decisions are a matter of probability. Probability involves statistics. One of the new aids of the statistician is the computer. Some taxonomists, enamored of this new tool, have con- cluded that they are ushering in a new era of “‘numerical taxonomy.” But the only species we can be sure of are living species that we can demonstrate to be self-contained genetic entities. From this point on everything is inference. The computer can help us make inferences, but no more than that. We have to learn by some other means that cater- pillars are young moths, that a lioness is a female lion, or that fish are ancestors of men. The taxonomist at all levels, but especially the species 12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) level, must evaluate the significance of similarities and differences. Key features do exist, and perhaps only one or two points in a series of behaviour patterns will be critical in determining whether or not two taxa interbreed. Others, even some aspects of reproductive behaviour, may be less important. The Species in relation to the total Biological Spectrum—Great and spectacular advances have been made in biolagy in the past ten or fifteen years. The genetic code has been cracked ; the nature and function of DNA and RNA discovered. Molecular biology is quite understandably the order of the day, and it does not much matter whether the molecules come from a horse or a horse chestnut, for one triumph of molecular biology is the demonstration that the genetic code is pretty much the same in all living things. This does not mean, as some would seem to conclude, that activity should slow down or halt in all other branches of biology. The complexity of the protein molecule is so great as to permit endless variation and evolution. Not only do species differ but even individuals, as made familiar by the problems involved in tissue and organ transplants, blood trans- fusions, and so forth. The structure, behaviour, and ecology of the hundreds of thousands of species now living represent the end products of millions of years of interaction and adaptation. The molecular biologist can tell us what makes this possible, but he could never predict from his laboratory that the biochemical processes he has discovered would, after a couple of billion years, produce a man, a redwood tree, or a seventeen-year cicada. ** At the species level, more than any other, the general systematist need not leave the final decision to either numerical (computer) taxo-. nomists or molecular biologists. Specialists in these fields may be able to corroborate but never to either refute or to precisely predict popula- tion interactions as observed in nature’. (L. L. Short). A comparison with the physical sciences is possibly worthwhile. Today perhaps the most active branch of research is nuclear physics and particularly investigation of the kinds and properties of ultimate particles. States from coast to coast vie for the privilege of having a new half billion dollar particle accelerator. But could a nuclear physicist reared in isolation and neither shown nor told about the “‘starry firmament’ predict the actual universe as known to the astronomer and cosmologist, even in roughest outline, from his knowledge of nuclear physics ? Assuredly not. It is doubtful, in fact, if he could predict that particles united in a certain. way will produce a gas known as oxygen, in another way as hydrogen; TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES 13 and that when combined in a certain manner, these two gases will form a liquid that is good to drink ! I think we may conclude that those concerned with the evolution, activities, and significance of species, including Homo sapiens, need have no inferiority complex. They may turn to the molecular biologist to learn what makes their subjects tick, and hope that he will turn to them to learn what wonders DNA has wrought after two and a half billion years of natural selection in a changing world. I am indebted to Dr. Lester L. Short for numerous, valuable sugges- tions. This paper is based on a lecture given at the Summer Institute in Systematics at the Smithsonian Institution, 1967. REFERENCES AMADON, DEAN (1966a.) : Another suggestion for stabilizing nomenclature. Syst. Zool. 15 : 54-58. (1966b.) : The superspecies concept. Syst. Zool. 15 : 245-249. (1968) : Further remarks on the superspecies concept. Syst. Zool. 17 : 345-346. Mayr, Ernst (1942) : Systematics and the origin of species. New York, Columbia Univ. Press. (1963) : Animal species and evolution. Cambridge, Mass., Belknap Press (Harvard Univ.). Moore, IAN M. (1954); Nomenclatorial treatment of specific and infraspecific categories. Syst. Zool. 3 : 90-91. SELANDER, ROBERT K., & DONALD R. GILLER (1963) Species limits in the woodpecker genus Centurus (Aves). Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 124 : 213-274. SHORT, LESTER L. (1969) : Taxonomic aspects of avian hybridization. Auk 86: 84-105. SIMPSON, GEORGE G. (1951) : Horses. New York, Oxford Univ. Press. VAURIE CHARLES (1959) : Birds of the Palearctic fauna. London, Witherby, 2 vols. 1959, 1965. Breeding Biology of the Himalayan Rubythroat, Lrithacus pectoralts (Gould) in the Tien Shan’ BY E. I. GAVRILOV AND A. F. KOvVSHAR Institute of Zoology, Alma-Ata, U.S.S.R. (Communicated by Dr. Sélim Ali) (With two plates) The Himalayan Rubythroat [Erithacus pectoralis (Gould)] is a characteristic species of the subalpine belt of the Tien Shan. Its biology has not been satisfactorily studied hitherto. The section on the Rubythroat ecology in BIRDS OF THE SOVIET UNION (Gladkov 1954) contains the laconic phrase ‘‘ Information is wanting ’’ and the first nests were found only in 1957 (Vinokurov 1961). Fragmentary data on the Himalayan Rubythroat biology can be found in some faunistic works (Yanushevich et al. 1960; Leonovich 1962; Kovshar 1964, 1966). For this reason we consider it useful to publish some information on the mode of life of this bird based on observations made in Tien Shan (Zailyisky, Talassky and Kungay Alatau ranges), and available published data. The Himalayan Rubythroat is widespread in the Tien Shan, being absent only in the western ranges of the Tien Shan—in Pskem and Ugam ranges (Korelov 1956a). It is scarce in Talassky Alatau where it occurs very sporadically, though in individual localities it is quite common : five nests being found and nests of two or three pairs could not be located in an area of 20 hectares in the upper course of the Kshi Aksu River. Rubythroat may occur in Chatkal range (Yanushevich et al. 1960). In Kirgizsky Alatau it is rare, seen approximately once in 10 days (Kuznetsov 1962a). It is uncommon in Sonkul, Moldotoo, Atbushi, Narym, Sary 1 These observations refer in particular to the subspecies bailloni (Severtzov) of Russian and Chinese Turkestan, and northern Afghanistan. The race bailloni differs from our nominate West-Himalayan pectoralis (Gould) clinally only in colour saturation—the male averaging paler and less slaty above, the female more olive, less brown. But the species is migratory and the winter quarters of bailloni imperfectly known; it may well enter Indian limits. The breeding biology of the Rubythroat as a species is also imperfectly known, and this paper makes a useful contribution to the subject.—SA. 2 See also Baker, E.C.S., 1933. NIDIFICATION OF BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE, 2 :81-2. Eds. BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE HIMALAYAN RUBYTHROAT 15 Dzhaz, Terskay and Kungay Alatoo ranges, however, in individual regions there are quite a few. In the Burgan-Su ravine (Narym range) for example seven males were seen during one day in end June, 1954 (Yanushevich et al. 1960), and in the ravines of the Chon-kysyl-Su (Terskay Alatoo) at least five or six birds (mainly males) during a day trip (Stepanyan 1959). In Zailyisky Alatau, the Himalayan Rubythroat is not more numerous than one to two pairs per kilometre. In individual regions it is common and in some cases it can even be considered numerous taking into account the general scarcity of birds in the mountains. In the ravine of the Bolshaya Almatinka River, for instance, four pairs of the Rubythroat were found living in an area of about 10 hectares in 1967; this apparently being the maximum density in these regions. The species is not numerous in the upper course of the Tekes River (Vinokurov 1961) and very rare in Ketmen range : during two months only one singing male was seen in this locality (Korelov 1956b). It has been found in a number of places in Dzungarsky Alatau : on the southern slopes of the central part of the Altyn-Emel range and in the upper part of the Usek basin where it is common; also in the upper part of the Kok-Su and Bolshoi Baskan basins and in the northern part of the Myn-Chukur range. The Bolshoi Baskan basin is the most northern nesting place of this species hitherto known (Koreyev & Zarudny 1906; Kuzmina, in press). Thus the Himalayan Rubythroat is found in the western half of Tien Shan everywhere; lack of information on its nesting in individual ranges can be explained by the fact that the regions have not been explored properly. In Tien Shan the Rubythroat lives mainly in thickets of Juniper-elfin- In Talassky Alatau range it lives at altitudes of 2500-2700 m. in the luxuriant thickets of creeping juniper with admixture of honeysuckle shrubs on comparatively gentle slopes covered with meadow herbage, most frequently in the upper courses of rivers. In Kirgizsky Alatau individual pairs nest even in mixed spruce forest in thick shrubs of bar- berry, dog rose, honeysuckle and juniper, at an altitude of 2100 m. and higher (Kuznetsov 1962b). In other ranges of Kirghizia it nests at altstudes of 3000-3500 m. in intermittent thick brushwood of creeping juniper and glades of subalpine meadows, leafy shrubs and individual spruce trees (Stepanyan 1959; Yanushevich ef al. 1960). In Zailyisky Alatau, on the northern slopes of the range, the Rubythroat nests at altitudes of 2500- 3000 m., sometimes even up to 3100 m. It lives here chiefly on the inter- mittent juniper stands and subalpine meadows or steppe-like grass- covered plots. Near the lower boundary of the nesting range (2500-2700 m.) it affects juniper and spruce open woodland where individual spruce groups alternate with luxuriant juniper thickets. In the central Tien Shan the species chiefly inhabits the thickets of creeping juniper and caragana, 16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) but in valleys having rock outcrops and covered with brushwood the birds can be found as low as the upper! boundary of the spruce forest; nests have been found here at altitudes of 2900-3300 m. (Vinokurov 1961). In Dzungarsky Alatau range the birds live in the thickets of creeping juniper at altitudes of 1800-2400 m. (Koreyev & Zarudny 1906). Thus in the Tien Shan the Himalayan Rubythroat lives chiefly in the thickets of high-mountain brushwoods, mainly of juniper, and is found only in small numbers in the upper part of the forest belt. It never nests beyond the upper boundary of the juniper stand. Its altitude range is 1800-3500 m., but in each discrete locality its vertical distribution is not wider than 500 m. The wide vertical range in the Tien Shan in general (1700 m.) is conditioned by climatic and floristic peculiarities of the individual mountain ranges and depends mainly on their geographic position and their exposure relative to the four cardinal points. To the south in the Pamiro-Alai the Rubythroat also lives above the upper boundary of the juniper-elfin wood, on luxuriant shrubless alpine meadows and is not found in the forest belt (Ivanov 1940; Leonovich 1962; Popov 1959). The Himalayan Rubythroat is a migratory bird. It appears in the nesting sites after the snow has already melted on a substantial part of the slopes. It ascends the mountains and is then very rarely met with in the submontane regions and the plains. Only one occurrence of this kind is known: a male found in the young strip of forest near the Chokpar village of the Dzambul region on May 10, 1960. The birds do not con- centrate during migration and are likely to fly by night. Information on spring migration of the Himalayan Rubythroat is lacking because of the bird’s unobtrusive behaviour during this period. In the Kirgizsky Alatau range the species appears in late April or early May (Kuznetsov 1962b). The first birds were observed in the Zail- yisky Alatau on May 17, 1964, and on May 6, 1965. No further infor- mation is available on the time of arrival of the Rubythroat on its breeding grounds. Immediately on arrival the males begin singing, choosing for this the tops of juniper shrubs, the apices of small and big fir-trees, more rarely stones or roofs of buildings; sometimes the male sings on the wing. The song is loud and clear and cannot be drowned even by the sound of mountain streams. When singing he drops his wings slightly, raises (sometimes almost vertically) and spreads his tail or keeps it folded. The bird turns his head in different directions resulting in the observer 1 There must be a misprint in the work cited; for ‘‘ the lower boundary of the spruce forest ” read “‘ the upper boundary...”’’. One can hardly believe that Hima- layan Rubythroat populate :the whole spruce forest belt. BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE HIMALAYAN RUBYTHROAT 17 hearing sounds of varying intensities. The biological significance of the song lies not only in informing the female that the male is ready to breed, but in “marking” individual territory as well. Usually the male chooses some favourite situation at which he appears from time to time and sings, proclaiming his ownership of the territory. One of the males whose female was already laying eggs was observed singing during two hours (from 10 to 12 a.m.) from 19 points, and moving irregularly over this territory (an area of about one hectare). Most often he was singing from one point at a distance of 50-60 m. from the nest. If any other male entered the occupied site, the owner drove away the rival immediately. One day when we were inspecting a nest containing nestlings, the male drove off at once a neighbouring male that had come to investigate the anxious cries of the owners though the birds themselves were greatly excited by our intrusion. Duration of singing from one point and its intensity vary, depending apparently on a number of factors. At the beginning of the nesting cycle (before hatching the young), in good weather, the males sing for as long as 10 minutes from one place, and at short intervals. When feeding the young, the males sing more seldom and the duration of the songs gets shorter (one to three minutes). During rain or snowfall the singing ceases but is resumed when the precipitation stops. Sometimes they sing when it is drizzling. The duration of the song is shorter in the middle of the day. The Rubythroat sings from early in the morning till dark ; on June 29, 1967, the last song was heard at 21.05 hours in the twilight. No singing was heard at night. The calendar duration of the singing period is also long : in the Zailyisky Alatau the latest singing was heard on July 12, 1965, and on July 13, 1967 (apparently it was not the last song), and in the Talassky Alatau on August 4, 1960. This means that the vocal activity of the males continues for 2.5-3 months. The Himalayan Rubythroat begins nesting soon after arrival on its breeding grounds. The participation of the sexes in nest-building is not clear; apparently the nest is built by the female alone since we never saw males fetching building material in their bills though we often saw them during this period. The nests are located on the ground in small hollows. Of the 28 nests known at present in the Tien Shan, none was placed on a juniper shrub. The Himalayan Rubythroat is undoubtedly a ground-nesting species, therefore we consider the information of I. A. Abdusalyamov (1964) of the bird nesting on shrub-branches to be erroneous’. 1 Not only the location but the shape of the nest as well as the description of eggs have nothing in common with the nest and eggs of the species in question. One can clearly see from the photo there given that the nest belongs not to Eritha cus pectoralis but rather to some warbler (Sylvia sp. ?). t 18 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) More frequently the nests are located on the steppe-like slopes near juniper-elfin wood or on small subalpine grass plots in thin juniper stands. They are placed under the cover of tussocks of Festuca sulcata, Carex, Cobresia or other plants, more rarely under the shelter of a stone. Sometimes the Rubythroat nests under thin juniper shrubs growing near thick juniper stands. The nests are placed both in the middle of a juniper shrub and under its outlying branches. We never found nests in large tracts of juniper stands. In the Talassky Alatau one nest was found inside a “‘ hut ’’ made of rough last years stalks of Polygonum hissaricum, and another was located on flat (practically horizontal) ground in high, thick, Agropyrum sp.; it was fixed to vertical stalks of the grass. Out of 22 nests found in the Talassky, Zailyisky and Kungay Alatau and along the upper course of the Tekes River, six nests were located under juniper shrubs; one under a honeysuckle shrub; three under stones; five under tussocks of Festuca sp.; four under tussocks of Carex, Cobresia, Poa and Geranium; three under the cover of other grasses. The nests located under the juniper shrubs cannot be seen, and the nests built under the cover of grass are screened by hanging leaves and are not visible. Only one nest (in the Talassky Alatau) could be seen well from above by a horseman riding by at a distance of some metres. The nests are of two types. The more typical is the covered ball-like nest with the entrance on one side, very similar to a Phylloscopus nest. The other type is a normal cup-like nest open at the top. There are many variants intermediate between these two types: some nests have thin covers, covers of others are only half-built; sometimes the back part of the wall facing the slope is somewhat higher than others. Usually the open nests are built in juniper shrubs and under stones, i.e. when an effective roof is available, and the covered nests are built on the terrace slopes under the shelter of grass. There are many exceptions and data are still meagre to establish any correlation between the type of nest and the factors determining it. It is possible that the height above sea- level, the exposure of the slope and the time of building (beginning or middle of the summer) play a definite part in this respect. The nest is built completely of last year’s plants : for the outside part of nest rather rough stalks and leaves are used, sometimes with admixture of moss; the inner part is composed of finer and thinner material. The transition from the outer layer to the inner one is gradual and it is not always possible to separate them. A. A. Ivashchenko, who at our request identified the building materials of seven nests, reported that the birds had used 25 species of plants, the majority of the plants were used as admixtures, Gramineae being the most numerous. The nest is rather massive and loosely built. It is 110-190 mm. in diameter (average of 9 nests 140 mm.), usually somewhat flattened on J. BomBAy NAT. Hist. Soc. 67 (1) Gavrilov: Himalayan Rubythroat PLATE I Nesting site of the Himalayan Rubythroat Above: Creeping Juniper, 2500 m. Talassky Alatau; Below: Upper boundary of Fir wood with Juniper bushes, 2700 m. Kungay Alatau. (Photos: A. Kovshar) J. BomBAy NAT. Hist. Soc. 67 (1) Gavrilov: Himalayan Rubythroat PLATE II 4 (1) Nest on steppe slope; (2) Nest with clutch under Juniper Bush; (3) Male, and (4) Female with food for nestlings. (Photos: E. Gavriloy) BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE HIMALAYAN RUBYTHROAT 19 both sides and with an oval cross-section; it is 66-140 mm. high (average of 7 nests 113 mm.); diameter of nest-cup 55-90 mm. (average of 11 nests 72 mm.); depth 37-59 mm. (average of 7 nests 48 mm.). The entrance is 40-70 mm. wide and 35-60 mm. high. The eggs are laid everyday. The full clutch consists of 4-6 eggs; of 12 full clutches nine comprised of four eggs, two of five, and one of six eggs. The egg shell is smooth, slightly glossy, of greenish-blue colour. The eggs are unicoloured or have small light rusty dots which form a slightly visible ring on the blunt end. Of seven clutches two contained unicoloured eggs and five of dotted eggs. 34 eggs measured 19.3-22.8 x 14.5-16.3 mm. (average 21.1 15.3 mm.). 16 slightly incubated eggs weighed 2.0-2.85 g. (average 2.4 g.); hard set eggs weighed 2.3 gm. on the average. The eggs are incubated apparently only by the female. There are records (Yanushevich et al. 1960) of the male also taking part in incubation and possessing a brood patch, but we only observed females incubating when we inspected the nests. The incubation period was not determined. The hatchlings are blind, covered with light-grey almost white down! about 2 mm. long growing in paired bunches on the back ulnar bend, nape (nearly on neck) and on the vertex; the corners of the mouth are white outside and yellow inside; mouth orange inside. Legs and bill flesh-coloured, claws white. On the day of hatching they weigh 2.3 gm. (three nestlings from one nest). The relationship between their growth and other development is similar to that in the majority of song birds : at first rapid increase in weight is observed, then the differentiation of plumage with simultaneous stopping of growth of the body. First the fine plumage of the abdominal part of the body appears, then the rusty ends of the head feathers develop, and after that the tips of the wing and tail quills appear. In nestlings weighing 15, 16.6 and 19.1 gm. the remiges began unfolding only on the second day when they weighed 16.2, 17.3 and 20.1 gm. respectively and had wings 24-30 mm. long. The next three days they did not increase in weight. Five nestlings in another nest weighing approximately the same (18.0, 18.7, 18.9, 19.4 and 21.0 gm.) had considerably larger wings (48-52 mm.) and were almost entirely covered with feathers; when disturbed they jumped out of the nest and scattered about hiding under stones and in thick grass. The nestlings are fed by both parents. In the mornings on the first few days the female broods them and then brings food equally with the male. The degree of participation of male and female varies in different pairs; thus in one nest (the Talassky Alatau) the male visited the nest 1 Information of A. A. Vinokurov (1961) that the nestlings of Erithacus pectoralis bailloni Sev. are naked is erroneous. ; 20 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) much more frequently than the female (65 times against 40 of 105 total fetchings). In another nest (the Zailyisky Alatau) the food was brought entirely by the female (the male never came to the nest during three hours of observation); ina third nest (Kungay Alatau) out of 37 food trips the male made 21. The frequency of feeding is as follows. In 18 hours of observation during two days, the parents brought food 105 times to the nest containing three half-feathered nestlings (the Talassky Alatau), during the same period they carried off faecal sacs 30 times. The maximum number of feeding per hour was twelve; the minimum two (average six). The “‘ working ”’ day of this pair was about 16 hours, from dawn till 21.00 hours. During this time the birds brought to the nest about 100 portions of food weighing aggregately about 30 gm. Each of three nestlings weighing, 16-20 gm. thus received about 10 gm. of food a day, i.e. somewhat more than half their weight. In the Kungay Alatau the parents of four feathered nestlings made 37 visits with food in four hours (from 12.00 till 16.00 hrs.) and in the same time they removed seven faecal sacs. In the Zailyisky Alatau E. V. Gvosdev observed a female fetching food for four one-week old nestlings every three to five minutes (three hours of observation), and in the Kirgizsky Alatau, according to the data of A. A. Kuznetsov (1962b), a pair brought food to the nest every two to five minutes. They usually brought a single food item at a time, seldom two, and only on one occasion four items were extracted from a nestling’s throat; a looping caterpillar, a spider and two little molluscs. The birds collect the food mostly on the ground, on stones or under shrubs. They look for food within a radius of 150 m. from the nest, but very often much nearer—within three to five metres. They are very vigilant near the nest, especially the female. The arriving bird first alights on top of a neighbouring shrub for a while, peeping anxiously around and then jumps down to the ground and hops to the nest. If there is no danger the male flies directly to the nest without stopping anywhere. When carrying off a faecal sac the bird flies swiftly and without a stop, with short rapid wing strokes it takes the capsule rather far away, not less than 50 m., from the nest. When carrying no faecal sac the bird flies out of the nest and alights on one of the neighbouring bushes or other pro- truding object, and after looking about flies away as usual. The Ruby- throat feeds its young mainly upon caterpillars, often pilose ones. In the Talassky Alatau out of 81 food objects studied visually and according to the method of A. S. Malchevsky and N. P. Kadochnikov! (1953) 48 1 Neck ligature and subsequent removal of food from the gullet. BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE HIMALAYAN RUBYTHROAT 21 represented Liparidae, Noctuidae, Geometridae and other caterpillars (including 30 pilose ones), the remaining items being locusts (15), beetles (6, including 4 Cerambycidae), lizards (Ablepharus alaicus, 6), Dermaptera, white butterfly, ants and Diptera (Muscidae and Asilidae : nymphs, pupae and imagines). Small and middle-sized Ablepharus lizards were fed entire, like insects, but of the bigger ones only the tails were used. In the Zailyisky Alatau 35 food objects represented caterpillars (15), butterfly, beetles (5, including a small Tenebrionid), a spider, and the lizard (Ablepharus alaicus). In the Kirgizsky Alatau range mostly cater- pillars were brought to the nest, once a pilose one (Kuznetsov 1962b). Thus in the different parts of its range in the Tien Shan, the Himalayan Rubythroat feeds its young mainly on large caterpillars, including pilose ones, and on a number of other invertebrates. Among vertebrates only Ablepharus lizards are used. After leaving the nest the young birds some- times eat honeysuckle berries (August, Talassky Alatau). The food of adult birds during the breeding period differs markedly from that intended for nestlings. In six stomachs examined in the Zailyisky Alatau between May and July were found remains of at least 45 inverte- brates including 26 imago beetles (in all stomachs), one beetle larva, three noctuid caterpillars (in one stomach), two bugs of Lygaeus sp. (in one stomach), six ants (in three stomachs), one representative of other Hyme- noptera, four Asilidae (in one stomach), one spider. The beetles were represented by Bruchidae, Jpidae, four Aphodius, six Elateridae, two Tenebrionidae, two Curculionidae and Chrysomelidae. The contents of 14 stomachs of adult Himalayan Rubythroats from the kirgizsky part of the Tien Shan (Peck & Fedyanina 1961) have been analysed. Most frequently they contained ants (64%%) and remains of Curculionidae (57%). Less frequently were found remains of other beetles (Tenebrionidae, Lucanidae, Carabidae, Elateridae, Scarabaeidae, Coccinellidae), Heterop- tera, Acrididae, caterpillars and molluscs. Seeds of Cruciferae and Poly- gonaceae were found only in one of the stomachs. Thus the nestlings are fed mainly on large soft objects, the adult birds themselves living on smaller and coarse objects like beetles, ants and their food is generally more diverse. How long the nestlings stay in the nest is not definite. On June 16 a nest contained nestlings about two-days old which left on June 30, 1.e. when more than 14 days old. Another nest on June 16, contained nestlings with pinfeathers, which left the nest on June 27. Thus the young evi- dently stay in a nest not less than 15 days. After leaving the nest the young remain for some days in the immediate vicinity, but they do not spend the night in the nest (two broods observed in the Talassky and Zailyisky Alatau). They practically do not change in weight but their 22 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) plumage develops intensively especially the rectrices and wing-quills. When they leave the nest they can only flop about, but in two-three days they begin flying quite well. Thus one of the young weighing 19.4 gm. on the day of leaving the nest was caught two days later with difficulty at a distance of 20 m. from the nest; it could already fly 20-30 m. Most probably the broods disperse very soon since we never saw a strongly flying young being fed by its parents. This supposition is con- firmed by the observation of a pair of birds in two nests which 14 days after the young had fledged, had laid a fresh clutch of three eggs in a new nest. There is no information concerning the life of this species after the breeding season is over because of the unobtrusive behaviour of the birds at that time. There is little information on their departure. In the Zailyisky Alatau, in the ravine of the Malaya Almatinka River, Himalayan Rubythroats were met with in a thick aspen forest at an altitude of 1500 m. at the end of August (Shulpin 1939). In the Talassky Alatau the birds were still seen in the nesting sites on September 8 and 9, 1935 (Shulpin 1965). V. V. Shevchenko (1948) recorded that at the end of August, just after the first snowfall, the Himalayan Rubythroat migrated down- hill and could be met with in swamp thickets and in juniper stands in ravines. Later, in September and October, especially in foul weather, they could be seen in the submontane orchards. This record, however, had not been confirmed by subsequent observations: during seven years’ work in this region one of the present authors has never met with this species below the breeding range. In the Pamir, where the Himalayan Rubythroats do not breed, they are occasionally met with in August (Potapov 1966). Apparently the birds migrate in August, the last of them leaving early in September. In winter the species is not found in Tien Shan. The supposition of V. V. Shevchenko (1948) of their hiber- nation in warm winters in the Talassky Alatau has not been confirmed by facts. The studies in the Tien Shan! have shown that the great majority of females begin egg-laying in the last third of May. The breeding period of the species is very long: fresh clutches can be found from the middle of May till the middle of July, i.e. during two whole months. This is partly due to the fact that the females do not start breeding simultaneously or synchronously but the chief reason is the repeat clutches, caused by destruction of nests and even second clutches. In 1967 a nest with slightly incubated clutch found on June 25 was destroyed the next day; in 12 days (on July 8) the same pair already had three fresh eggs (including one 1 The following term were taken into consideration: hatching—12 days, fledgling— 15 days. Cases where the fledglings were taken care of by their parents are accounted as the nest (7 cases), BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE HIMALAYAN RUBYTHROAT 23 cuckoo egg) in a new nest at a distance of about 70 m. from the old one. On June 16 another nest was found containing nestlings covered with pinfeathers. On June 20 the female and the male were trapped and banded. On June 27 the young left the nest and thereafter we often met the banded male singing intensively in the neighbourhood. On July 11 we found that the banded female had laid three eggs in a new nest built at a dis- tance of 45 to 50 m. from the first one. Thus, there is no doubt that the Himalayan Rubythroat breeds twice a year (i.e. it is double-brooded). In our case the female began the second laying 44 days after the beginning of the first oviposition (on May 26 and July 9). Of course not all pairs bring up the first brood successfully and start breeding again. The des- truction of nests results in repeat-nesting and accounts for the fact that some birds bring up only one brood. Number ooef ne) Wi — 1 Be ee Oa no |e Me acy dc Oi ne COR hy The breeding success of the Himalayan Rubythroat is shown by the following data. In the Zailyisky Alatau an average clutch consisted of 4.3 eggs (7 nests) of which 3.7 hatched (4 nests). For the Tien Shan as a whole these data are as follows: a clutch consists of 4.2 eggs (11 nests) of which 4.1 hatched (10 nests) and 3.8 young fledged. Addled eggs and eggs with dead embryos are found very seldom; addled eggs were 24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) observed only twice in clutches of four (one addled egg in each nest). Mortality among nestlings is not high; usually all the hatched nestlings leave the nest and only occasionally does one die (the youngest ?). The nests suffer destruction only rarely. Of nine nests under obser- vation only two were destroyed; one containing strongly incubated eggs was abandoned, while the eggs disappeared from the other. Apparently it was a cuckoo’s doing in both cases. The first nest was abandoned by the birds after the cuckoo (Cuculus canorus L.) had put its egg into their nest removing one of Rubythroat’s. The other nest was found by us when we observed a cuckoo thoroughly inspecting the slope near the nest; it flew over from place to place and rested stopping every metre or so to look around. The cuckoo was not searching for food, and the male Rubythroat flew about it crying agitatedly. When the cuckoo flew away we found a nest containing four eggs in this spot, but three of them dis- appeared the next day. The owners naturally deserted the nest and built a new one at a distance of about 70 m. from it. When we found the second nest it contained two Rubythroat’s and one cuckoo’s eggs. In the Zailyisky Alatau the cuckoo apparently lays its eggs in the nests of the Himalayan Rubythroat quite often; of 14 nests of this species we found the cuckoo’s eggs in three (21%). A nest containing a cuckoo nestling has not yet been found. The potential enemy of the Himalayan Rubythroat is the musteline family: the marten and the stoat; however, we did not observe any nests destroyed by these animals. One of the Rubythroat nests containing two half-fledged nestlings was highly infected by Ornithonyssus sylvarum mites.' The next day one of the nestlings was found dead while the other seemed likely to share the same fate. Thus the rate of destruction of the nests of this species is not high which makes it possible for a part of the population to raise two broods in a year. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors express their thanks to Dr. Salim Ali for correcting and editing the manuscript and assisting in its publication. We are grateful to Miss A. N. Terichova for translating the manuscript into English. 1 Identified by V. N. Senotrusova. BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE HIMALAYAN RUBYTHROAT 25 REFERENCES ABDUSALYAMOV, I. A. (1964): Ptitsy gornogo Zeravshana. GLaDKov, N. A. (1954): Semeistvo qropdarykh Vv knige “ Ptitsy Sovetskogo Soyuza ”’, t. 6. IvANov, A. I. (1940): Ptitsy Tadjikis- tana. KorREEV, B. P. & ZARUDNY, N. A. (1906): Ornithologicheskaya fauna Semi- rechenskogo Kraya. Mat. k_ pozn. fauny i flory Ross. Imperii, otd. zoolo- gich., vyp. YII. KoreLov, M. N. (1956 a): Fauna pozvonochnykh zhyvotnykh Bostandyka. V_ knige ‘‘Priroda i khozyajstvennye usloviya gornoi chasti Bostandyka.” a ha 1 ..7(1,956, b)<,. Materialy-. k avifaune khrebta Ketmenj (Tien-Shan). Tr. instituta zoologii AN KazSSR, t. YI. KovsHar, A. F. (1964): Ptitsy vysoko- gorja zapadnoj chasti Talasskogo Alatau. V knige ‘ Okhotnichi ptitsy Kazakhs- tana’. (1966): Ptitsy Talasskogo Alatau. KuzmIna, M. A. (in press): v_ pechati. Rod solovej-krasnoshejka. V knige “‘Ptitsy Kazakhstana’’, t. 3. Kuznetsov, A. A. (1962): K_ biologii ptits vysokogorja Kirgizskogo khrebta. * Ornithologiya’’, vyp. 5S. LEONOVICH, Vv. V. (1962) K_biologii maloizuchennykh ptits Tadyjikistana. Byull. MOIP, otd. biologich., t. XYII, fee. MALCHEVSKY, A. S. & KADOCHNIKOV, N. P. (1953):. Metodica prizhiznennogo izucheniya pitaniya gnezdovykh ptenzov nasekomoyadnykh ptits. “ Zool. zhur- nal’st. 32;vyp. 2. Pek, L. V. & FEDYANINA, I. F. (1961): Pishcha ptits Kirgizii. V knige ‘‘ Ptitsy Kirgizii ’’, t. 3. Popov, A. V. (1951): Ptitsy Gissaro- Karategina. PoTapov, R. L. (1966): Ptitsy Pamira. V Knige “ Biologiya ptits”’. SHEVCHENKO, V. VY. (1948): Ptitsy gosudarstvennogo zapovednika Aksu- Dzhabagly. Tr. zapov. Aksu-Dzhabagly, vyp. 1. SHULPIN, L. M. (1939): Ecologicheski ocherk ornithofauny Alma-Atinskogo zapovednika. Tr. Alma-Atinskogo zapov., vyp. 1. aw eee east ( 1965): aMiatenialy 0 faune ptits zapovednika Aksu-Dzhabagly (Talassky Alatau). Tr. zapovedn. Aksu- Dzhabagly, vyp. 2. STEPANJYAN, L. S. (1959): Ptitsy Terskey Alatau, (Tien-Shan). Uchenye sapiski Mosk. obl. pedagogich. instituta im N. A. Krupskoj, t. 71, vyp. 4. Vinokurov, A. A. (1961): K_ biologii nekotorykh vorobjinykh ptits Zentrainogo Tien Shanya. V sb. “ Materially po nazemnym pozvonochnym Kazakhsta- na’’. Tr. inst. zool. AN KazSSR, t. XV. YANUSHEVICH, A. I., Tyurin, P. S., YAKOVLEVA, L. D., KYDYRALIEV, A. & SEMENOVA, N. I. (1960): Ptitsy Kirgisii, {2% Notes on Stellaria saxatilis Buch.- Ham. ex D.Don, Stellaria vestita Kurz and Stellaria sikkimensis Hook.f. BY N. C. MAJUMDAR Central National Herbarium, Botanical Survey of India, Howrah __ Stellaria saxatilis Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don and S. vestita Kurz are considered as conspecific. S. vestita Kurz is adopted as the correct name for the resulting taxon. S. sikkimensis Hook. f. is re-established as a distinct species. D. Don (1825) established Stellaria saxatilis on the basis of Hamil- ton’s collection from Nepal Himalaya. Later, Kurz (1873) recognised S. vestita from China, and indicated its close affinity to the former species. Hooker f. (1874) described S. sikkimensis from the Sikkim Himalaya during the treatment of the family Caryophyllaceae for British India and stated its affinity to S. saxatilis in the following words—“ Nearly allied to S. saxatilis but less perigynous, more laxly hairy and cymes much shorter peduncled and terminal.” Very recently Mizushima (1963), while working on the Caryophyl- laceae of the Eastern Himalaya collected by the Indo-Japanese Botanical expedition of 1960, considered both S. saxatilis and S. vestita as conspe- cific and rightly adopted Kurz’s binomial S. vestita as the correct name for the resulting taxon, since S. saxatilis Buch.-Ham. ex Don must be rejected because of the presence of the earlier homonym S. saxatilis Scop. (1772). A little later, the present author, in his paper “ On the Indian Alsinoideae—some new names and new combinations ”’ published in 1965, reduced S. vestita Kurz to a variety under the new name S. hamiltoniana Majumdar, which he proposed to replace the nomencla- turally illegitimate name S. saxatilis Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don. A critical study of the types of S. saxatilis and S. vestita revealed that the two species are very similar except that the former has shortly petioled leaves with acutely mucronate apex while the latter is characterised by sessile leaves with acuminately mucronate apex (distinctly narrowed upwards). However, the specimens of S. saxatilis from Bhutan show both the above characters and form a connecting link between the two species. Therefore the author quite agrees with Mizushima who united the two species and adopted S. vestita Kurz as the correct name for this S. E. Asiatic plant. NOTES ON STELLARIA 27 Following Kuntze (1891), Majumdar (1965) reduced S. sikkimensis Hook.f. to a variety of S. hamiltoniana Maj. However, a careful study of the types of both S. vestita and S. sikkimensis reveals that it seems justi- fied to maintain S. sikkimensis as a distinct species instead of maintaining it as a variety of S. vestita. The distinguishing characters of the two are as follows: S. vestita . Plants densely tomentose to wooly with stellate hairs. Often glabrescent. . Leaves not ciliate. . Flowers in axillary and terminal, long-peduncled cymes. . Bracts scarious. . Sepals usually connate at base into obconic tube. Fruiting sepals 0.50 — 0.55 cm. long. . Capsule 0.4 — 0.5 cm. long; shorter or equalling the sepals. . seeds tuberculate, 1.0 mm. across. S. sikkimensis . Plants pubescent to villous with simple, long, rigid hairs. . Leaves ciliate with tubercle- based hairs. . Flowers solitary at each node of the flowering branches forming terminal, leafy, cymose panicle. . Bracts foliaceous. . Sepals quite free to the base, Fruiting sepals 0.40 —0.45 cm. long. . Capsule 0.5 — 0.6 cm. long; exceeding the sepals. . Seeds nearly smooth, minutely granulate, 0.6 -——- 0.7 mm. across. Stellaria vestita Kurz, in Journ. Bot. 11: 194, 1873; Mizushima in Journ. Jap. Bot. 38: 153, 1963. S. saxatilis Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don, Prodr. Fl. Nep. 215, 1825 (non Scop. 1772); Wall. Cat. 634; Edgew. & Hook.f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 1:232, 1874; Gamble, Fl. Presid. Madras 1:62, 1915; Fyson, Fl. South Ind. Hill-Stat. 41, 1932; Mizushima in Faun. Fl. Nep. Himal. 122, 1952. S. laxa Merr. in Philipp. Govt. Lab. Bur. Bull. 29: 12, 1905 (non S. laxa F. Behm. 1887). S. stellato-pilosa Hayata, Fl. Mont. Formos. 58, pl. 2, 1908; Mater. Fl. Formosa 37 (1911). S. hamiltoniana Majumdar in Journ. Ind. Bot. Soc. 53: 142, 1965, 28 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) S. hamiltoniana Maj. var. vestita (Kurz) Majumdar Joc. cit. 142, 1965. Type: D. J. Anderson, s.n. (Acc. no. 41131, CAL). Specimens examined : (Herb. Cal.) INDIA: Assam: Shillong, 1494 m., May 1911, J. H. Burkill & S. C. Banerjee 15; Shillong, 1768 m., April 1886, C. B. Clarke 43447 A (as S. saxatilis); Shillong, Jowai Road, March 1892, D. Prain, s.n. Acc. no. 41134; Khasi hills 1220-1520 m., May-June, 1876 Kurz no. 192; Shillong hill, 1828 m., May 1886, C. B. Clarke 43918 B (as S. saxatilis) ; Khasi hills, West gorge at Dum pep, 1828 m., June 1911, 7. H. Burkill & S. C. Banerjee 35186; Khasi hills, Simons, s.n., Acc. no. 41130; Khasi hills, April 1894, G. A. Gammie 340. BHUTAN: Ta Wollaokar, 1828—2134 m., without collector’s name, 1770; Nanga valley, G. Sen Gupta 744. NEPAL: Hamilton, Wall. Cat. 634 (as S. saxatilis) holotype (K). CHINA: Yunnan: Momyen, D. J. Anderson, s.n., Acc. no. 41131, type (CAL). Distribution: India, China, Java, Indochina, Philippines. N.B. Types of S. laxa Merr. and S. stellato-pilosa Hayata are not seen by the author, but the synonyms are cited on the authority of Mizushima (1963). Stellaria sikkimensis Hook.f. in Fl. Brit. Ind. 1:230, 1874. Stellularia saxatilis (Ham.) O. Kuntze var. sikkimensis (Hook.f.) O. Kuntze, Revis. Gen. Pl. 1:55, 1891; Majumdar in J. Ind. Bot. Soc. 44:142, 1965, pro syn. Stellaria hamiltoniana Majumdar var. sikkimensis (Hook. f.) Majum- dar, loc. cit. 1965. Type : Herb. Griffith s.n. (K) Specimens examined : (Herb. Cal.) INDIA : West Bengal : Darjeeling, Herb. Griffith, s.n. holotype (K); Kurseong, 1828 m., Oct. 1884, C. B. Clarke 36499 C; Sinchul, northern face, S. Kurz, s.n., Acc. no. 40979; North of Sinchul, 2194 m., Aug. 1862, T. Anderson 961 ; Darjeeling 2133 m., Sept. 1872, J. S. Gamble 3810 A; Darjeeling 2133 m., July 1875, C. B. Clarke 26755 D; Phulloot, 3350 m., Oct. 1875, C. B. Clarke 25724 A; BHUTAN : Do chu la, 3175 m., Sept. 1964, P. K. Hazra 446; NOTES ON STELLARIA 29 SIKKIM : Without precise locality, S. Kurz, s.n., Acc. no. 40981, 40982 and 40983; without precise locality, G. King 930; without precise locality, JT. Thomson, s.n. Acc. no. 40975 (two specimens on the same sheet are S. vestita); G. King, s.n., Acc. no. 40985; Top of Tonglu, Oct. 1857, T. Thomson, s.n., Acc. no. 40973 and 40976 ; without precise locality, Oct. 1871, G. King. 35; above Gangtok, 1980 m., July 1910, W. W. Smith 2960; E. Himalayas without precise locality, G. H. Cave 6745; without precise locality, G. King 2008; La Chung, 2590 m., Aug. 1892, G. A. Gammie, s.n., Acc. no. 40878, 40879 and 40880; Padmchen, 2438 m., Aug. 1910, W. W. Smith 4490. Distribution : Eastern Himalaya : West Bengal, Sikkim and Bhutan. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The author expresses his deep gratitude to the Director, Royal Botanic Garden, Kew, for kindly sending on loan the types of two species of Stellaria, without which this study would not have been possible. 10th General Assembly and 11th Technical Meeting of the Inter- national Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources BY ZAFAR FUTEHALLY The 10th General Assembly and 11th Technical Meeting of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources took place at New Delhi from 24th November to Ist December 1969. It was a memorable Assembly in many ways, particularly for India because it was the first time that the IUCN Conference has been convened in Asia. Between 1948 and 1966, General Assemblies were held in France, Bel- gium, Venezuela, Denmark, Scotland, Greece, Poland, Kenya and Switzerland. India’s first physical contact with the IUCN was in November 1965, when a strong delegation was on its way to Bangkok for a Regional Conference to study conservation problems of South-east Asia. Information about this is available in IUCN Booklet New Series No. 11. Taking advantage of this occasion Mr. E. P. Gee, India’s tireless ambassador of conservation, induced the Government of India to hold a Special Meeting of the Indian Board for Wild Life at New Delhi on 24th November 1965. The Proceedings of this meeting were published in Supplementary Paper No. 17 of the IUCN Publications New Series. After this one-day meeting at New Delhi, the delegates went to Bharatpur, and the always resource- ful Peter Scott drew up a short practical plan to enable the full potential of Bharatpur to be realised from the angle of tourism. Peter Scott’s paper and the accompanying illustrations were published in this Journal (63: 206-209). Unfortunately these suggestions have yet to be imple- mented. Every General Assembly centres around a principal theme. For instance, the theme of the Lucerne Assembly in June 1966 was “‘ Towards A New Relationship of Man and Nature in Temperate Lands’. The discussions in the Technical Sessions were mainly concerned with the damage caused by recreation and tourism in general to natural areas, the ecological effects of introduced plant species and the ecological effects of introduced animal species. The Proceedings of this Assembly are avail- able in IUCN Publications No. 7, 8 and 9, New Series. 10TH GENERAL ASSEMBLY I.U.C.N. 31 The theme of the 10th General Assembly at New Delhi, appropriate- ly, was ““The Environmental and Economic Values of the Conservation of Nature’. The four Key-Note Addresses were given by Dr. Frank Fraser Darling, Dr. C. D. Deshmukh, Prof. Roger Revelle and Prof. V. A. Kovda. Dr. Fraser Darling, whose Reith Lectures over the BBC in England in December 1969, made such an impression b »th in that country and abroad, has been a close student of Indian ecology. On an earlier occasion, when the Society was drawing up its Memorandum for sub- mission to the Cow Protection Committee of the Government of India, Dr. Darling had said, “‘ We should realise the wholly justifiable attitude of considering the cow sacred in a situation which India must have re- presented 2,000-3,000 years ago. She provided milk and dung, made paths and consumed much obtrusive green growth. She was an animal new to India and would need the greatest care in a period of adaptation. Now, populations of men and cows are in totally different relation to the deteriorated environment, and we know to our constant cost that atti- tudes, rituals and conventions persist far beyond the biological and social situations which brought them forth as erstwhile necessities of living. There is here not so much a cultural lag in time, but a cultural over-run’’. The Cow Committee of the Government of India unfortu- nately disintegrated after a few acrimonious meetings, and one does not know whether the views expressed by Dr. Darling will have any impact on its thinking in future years. In his Key-Note Address to the Assembly, Dr. Darling spoke about the ecological implications of nomadism, and pointed to the damage done to the environment by a settled population of human beings and cattle, and the need for constructive conservation measures. Prof. Kovda was concerned by new technological developments which now have global implications. ‘“‘ Geochemical activity of man has become universal throughout the planet, and technogenesis—a specific peculiarity of the modern face of the earth’. He went on to say that ** Modern industry not only enriches substantially the biosphere with a number of chemical elements, but transforms the natural geochemical ratios of elements which cannot but tell on the biosphere....” It was encouraging to learn from him, however, that in the USSR wild life conservation has been making steady progress. As an example he mentioned the Saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica). The species was at one stage on the verge of extinction, due to intensive hunting, and in 1920 a few hundreds only were left in remote regions of Kalmikia and Kazakhstan. Today, there are over a million animals and thousands of animals can be safely shot every year for food and sport on a sustained yield basis. a2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) Dr. C. D. Deshmukh gave a forthright account of the failure of the Government of India to protect its forests and vegetation, and to give due importance to conservation policies in general. He said that “‘ the failure to conserve may be partly due to ignorance. In this politician- ridden society of ours (all over the world) it is, however, largely due to the triumph of the short-term over the long-term. The politician pacifies his more ignorant voter at the cost of all the unborn’, Dr. Deshmukh felt that measures necessary for economic develop- ment could be reconciled with conservation in developing countries, provided we try to solve our problems in an intelligent and creative way without copying the attitudes of the West blindly. Starting, for instance, with the premise that within the tropics where there is abundant sun- shine, and where human labour is plentiful and cheap, large-scale planta- tion of trees is a logical way of meeting our fuel and other construction requirements, “‘the labour component of housing can be increased considerably (i) by using bricks instead of cement concrete for both floor and roof; (ii) by deferred payment of wages to the labour in respect of the difference between rates for skilled and unskilled labour, 1.e., by borrowing part of the value of the labour directly from the worker; (iii) by supporting a large-scale housing programme for urban areas by the systematic growing of fuel for brick-making (as well as for domestic use), on waste and unproductive land.” I quote from Stein: ‘‘ Assuming that trees grow 24 times faster in the tropics than in northern Europe and that fossil fuel costs say 25 per cent more and labour costs only 1/5 as much (the figure is more likely 1/10), then the advantages are of an order of 2.51.25 x4=15 times!” By linking housing construction— brick-making and the growing of fuel for brick-burning into a mutually supporting economic arrangement it becomes possible to envision a profitable basis for both urban housing and large-scale reforestation on a commercial basis. Moreover, the ready availability of alternative domestic fuel will release animal manure for our fertilizer-hungry land. Leaves could also be harvested as fodder. Thus, under tropical conditions, a tree would be a cheap and efficient device for converting solar energy into fuel”. The trouble in India, of course, has been that we have been living not on our income but on our capital as far as trees are concerned. The papers presented in the Technical Meetings of the Assembly were divided into the following headings : (1) ‘* Conservation of habitats, soil and water resources with special reference to Montane regions and Nature Conservation as a supplementary objective of productive and protective forestry”. In this group of papers, two struck the writer as particularly important. Dr. K. P. Mirinian of the USSR pointed out that once a forested region was denuded 10TH GENERAL ASSEMBLY I.U.C.N. 33 to a level below about 60 per cent, its capacity to prevent soil erosion was almost negligible. In other words, we in India must recognise that many of our areas which are included in the category of ‘forest’ are not really performing their protective functions because their density is not good enough. Another paper by R. S. Ambasht of Banaras Hindu University provided valuable guidelines on the way erosion damage can be measured, and suggested the importance of local vegetation for protective purposes. The second set of papers dealt with the effects of ‘‘ Pollution on Natural Ecosystems ” and the third on “‘ Management and Breeding of Wild Life Species, the Role of Zoos, and the Role of Birds in an Agricul- ture economy’’. In his paper on Birds in India’s Agriculture Economy, Dr. Salim Ali pointed out that although weaver birds, house sparrows, etc. consumed substantial amounts of rice crops and cereals, this aspect has been over-emphasised in the Indian scientific world, and it is forgotten that they feed their young entirely on insects and worms, thus destroying a great number of pests. Other beneficial roles are also ignored, e.g. their pollinating, to a large degree, the Red Silk Cotton (which mainly provides the wood for our safety matches). His remedy, in order to determine the true status of birds in national economy, is ‘‘ Comprehensive life-history studies of the individual species involved—their ecology, food . . . habits, migrations. Analysis of stomach contents by itself is not enough’’. The Second Session of the Technical Meetings was concerned with Conservation of Terrestrial Communities under the International Biological Programme. Two papers of great practical importance were the ‘ Ecological impact of domestic stock on the Gir Forest’ by K.T.B. Hodd, and ‘A Preliminary report on the ecology of domestic cattle in rural West Bengal’ by Dr. S. Odend’hal. Hodd, who stayed in the Gir Forest for nearly a year for his doctorate thesis, established a number of exclosures in the Gir to find out how soon and how well the vegetation revived if it was saved from damage for a specific period of time. He found that after only one year, the exclosure showed a high ratio of perennial grasses such as Dichanthium annulatum, some recovery of soil porosity and 80 to 100 per cent land cover as compared with only 30 per cent in the grazed areas. At the end of the growing season less than 300 kilos of dry matter per hectare remained. As far as the regeneration of trees were concerned, Hodd found that in the open areas only Acacia arabica was able to survive, and, understandably, unpalatable herbs such as Cassia tora were particularly abundant. Everything that Hodd says points to the need for greatly reducing the pressure of buffaloes and cattle from the Gir Sanctuary if it is to 34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) become a satisfactory home for wild life, and regain its normal pro- ductivity. Odend’hal studied an area of 5.75 sq. miles in rural West Bengal to determine the position of the cattle within the economy. In this small area there were a total of 16,126 human and 3,759 heads of cattle, which is a high ratio even for India. But the significant point seems to be that there is enough straw produced from the paddy field to feed this large cattle population. What is important of course is to be told what the optimum ratios between humans and cattle and land should be, and when the studies are completed, perhaps some definite information will be available. The Third Session was organised by the Survival Service Commission and dealt with problems of threatened species. In a way this was the most interesting part of the conference for the Indian audience for it dealt with such live subjects as the future of the Asiatic Lion, the Indian Tiger, the Great Indian Bustard, and other endangered species in India. Dr. Salim Ali’s paper on the Great Indian Bustard suggests. ‘‘ In the absence of a network of reliable local observers, most of this basic infor- mation (on the Bustard) would have to be self-collected by mobile teams of investigators. ... In spite of being totally protected by law, the Great Indian Bustard continues to decline. To stay the rot there is a proposal to create a Bustard sanctuary in the extensive grasslands of Gujarat where a few birds still survive. But the practicability of this project will need a thoroughgoing ecological investigation’. Fr. H. Santapau, in his paper on “Endangered Plant Species and their Habitats’ referred to the fact that forests near villages are constantly being cut down, and many forests are threatened. Father Santapau made a special plea for Indian orchids, which are exploited without any thought being given to their perpetuation. J. C. Daniel, submitted a review of the present status of endangered species of Indian Reptiles. “‘ Lack of precise information makes the assessment of the status of Indian reptiles difficult. However, on the basis of data available on commercial exploitation of reptiles it appears that the crocodiles, marine turtles, lizards of the genus Varanus and many species of snakes need protection. Endemic reptiles restricted to certain habitats are also in danger of extinction’. The 4th Session of the General Assembly was conducted by the International Commission on National Parks, and was concerned with the National Park situation in South-east Asia with special reference to the role, management and economic functions of National Parks in densely populated non-industrial areas. One valuable Resolution which 10TH GENERAL ASSEMBLY I.U.C.N. 35 emerged from the discussions dealt with the definition of National Parks. There have often been rather unconstructive debates at the meetings of the Indian Board for Wild Life on this question, and it is to be hoped that this Resolution of the IUCN will help in determining which areas should be given National Park status and what should be the principles underlying their management. The Resolution reads : ‘* Considering the importance given by the United Nations to the national park concept, as a sensible use of natural resources, and considering the increasing use which has been made during these last few years in some countries of the term “‘National Park” to designate areas with increasingly different status and objectives, the 10th General Assembly of IUCN meeting in New Delhi in November 1969 recommends that all governments agree to reserve the term “‘National Park’’ to areas answering the following characteris- tics and to ensure that their local authorities and private organisations wishing to set aside nature reserves do the same: A National Park isa relatively large area 1) where one or several ecosystems are not materially altered by human exploitation and occupation, where plant and animal species, geomorphological sites and habitats are of special scientific, educative and recreative interest or which contains a natural landscape of great beauty and 2) where the central authority of the country has taken steps to prevent or to eliminate as soon as possible exploitation or occupation in the whole area and to enforce effectively the respect for ecological, geomorphological or aesthetical features which have led to its establishment and 3) where visitors are allowed to enter under special conditions, for inspirational, educative, cultural and recrea- tive purposes. Governments are accordingly requested not to designate as ‘“‘national park”’ ; gly req p 1) a scientific reserve which can be entered only by special permission (strict nature reserve) 2) anatural reserve managed by a private institution or a lower authority (Provincial Park, etc.) without some type of recognition and control by the central authority 3) a “‘special reserve” as defined in the Algiers Convention of 1968 — (fauna or flora reserve, game reserve, bird sanctuary, geological o1 forest reserve, etc.) 4) an inhabited and exploited area where landscape planning and measures taken for the development of tourism have led to the setting up of “‘recreation areas’? where industrialization and urba- nization are controlled and where public outdoor recreation takes priority over the conservation of ecosystems (parc natural regional, nature park, Naturpark, etc.). Areas of this description which have 36 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) been established as ‘‘ National Parks ’’ should be redesignated in due course.” The next Session of the Assembly, dealing with the reports and dis- cussions of the Pre-Assembly Tours, was disappointing only for the reason that the time devoted to it was so short. The Pre-Assembly Study Tours related to the Periyar Wild Life Sanctuary, Sariska Wild Life Sanctuary, Guindy National Park, Dachigam Sanctuary, the proposed Bird Sanctuary-cum-Recreation area in the Salt Lake areas of Calcutta, and the position of the Swamp Deer in the Kanha National Park. It is to be hoped that all these reports will be quickly processed by the Centre and the States, and that implementation will not be delayed, because in these matters where the physical environment keeps changing so rapidly, delay is often tantamount to rejection. One Session of the Assembly was devoted to Conservation Education. A Pre-Conference Working Party of the Education Commission of the IUCN had met at Dehra Dun earlier, and the problems of Conservation Education at school and college levels were discussed in a broad manner. It is to be hoped that this will help in the production of suitable text- books for use in our own country, for there is a serious shortcoming of such material and without this conservation cannot become ‘popular,’ or be supported by the people at large. The Tenth General Assembly passed as usual many resolutions. All these are important, but we would like to draw attention to the following ones, which deal with our specific problems. All of them are self- explanatory, and are quoted without comment. Periyar Wild Life Sanctuary: The resolution “urges the res- ponsible authorities to integrate the various interests involved and place them under the control of one senior administrator and to manage the sanctuary on a planned basis’. Grazing in Wild Life Reserves and National Parks: The Assembly recognises that the penetration of domestic cattle into wild life reserves is a major factor in the deterioration of wild life habitats. It resolved that the Indian Government should take immediate steps to prohibit the grazing of all domestic livestock within the boundaries of all wild life reserves’. The Asiatic Lion: It has been recognised that agricultural intrusion and the general decline in the numbers of wild life is a major cause of the reduction in the number of the Asiatic Lion, now restricted only to the Gir. The General Assembly “requests the Government authorities con- cerned to prevent any further encroachment into the sanctuary, and 10TH GENERAL ASSEMBLY I.U.C.N. ay recommends that measures be taken to recover the land where cultiva- tions have already intruded........ @ The Tiger: ‘The assembly was generally alarmed by the position of the tiger in India, and generally in other countries. It decided quite rightly that “‘in view of the grave threat to the tiger populations in the countries where the animal occurs, due to direct and indirect methods of destruction ... the Governments of these countries (declare) a moratorium on killing of this animal until such time as censuses and ecological studies ... reveal the correct position as regards population trends ....”’ Only five States in India have completely banned the killing of tigers, and others should follow suit immediately. Calcutta Salt Lake Area: The assembly was greatly impressed with the report of the study group on the Calcutta Salt Lake area, and it strongly recommended to the Government of India “that early steps should be taken to implement the conclusions of this report to establish a bird sanctuary within a wider protected zone and to integrate it within a regional plan’’. Specialised Wild Life Department: In almost every meeting of the Indian Board for Wild Life there has been discussion about the need for a separate wild life department within the forest service to look after the interests of wild animals and their habitats. This is a problem peculiar not only to India but concerns almost every country of the world. The assembly therefore passed an appropriate general resolution which said, ‘“‘having noticed that in many countries no specialised department exists to conserve wild life...recommends to the various Governments ... (to) consider the possibility of organising separate departments of wild life....” The Final Session of the Assembly was organised by the Landscape Planning Commission of the IUCN. Looking back on the Conference in the light of the experience of those held in other countries it must be acknowledged that the organisation by and the hospitality of the Government of India left little to be desired. The presence of the Prime Minister, Dr. Karan Singh, the Minister of Tourism, and the Chairman of the Indian Board for Wild Life, and other senior Ministers and Members of the Planning Commission at several Sessions, both formal and informal, left the delegates with the quite justi- fiable impression that conservation will in future form an important item in the deliberations of the Government of India. It will, however, be left to institutions like the Bombay Natural History Society, the Wild Life Preservation Society of India, the World Wild Life Fund — Indian National Appeal and others, to see to it that the resolutions which were 38 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) passed and which engaged the attention of the leading conservationists of the world are implemented as quickly as possible. It has become customary for the General Assembly to issue a Declaration or a Manifesto on conservation, relevant for the time and for the occasion. At New Delhi the following Declaration was passed on 29-11-1969. Realising that the splendour of this earth derives from its sunlight, its beautiful green cover, its inter-dependent fauna and flora, and from the diversity of its landscapes and Realising that since the beginning of its existence, the people of the earth, even when poor in material possessions, have found life richly worth living because of these natural assets; and Realising that man, himself a product of the evolutionary system, is dependent on the stability and self-renewing properties of his environment; Realising too, that the world’s population is growing at an alarming rate; that economic development depends entirely on the utilization of natural resources, that this utilization is carried out often with little attention to the needs of renewal, that because of this, much of the earth, once well watered and productive, 1s now impoverished and degraded ‘that once abundant plant, animal and scenic resources, have been ravaged that therefore the attainment of a high quality of living for all mankind now depends upon the conservation and restoration of these dwindling re- sources, and finally that the natural resources of the world are a heritage on which the survival of future generations must depend. We the members of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources assembled at New Delhi in November 1969 Now declare again our fundamental purpose as an international union of concerned States, Organization and individuals To urge on all governments and people the adoption, as a basic principle of development, the conservation and protection of long-term values rather than exploitation for short-term gains To foster sound environmental policies and to promote protection of ecosystems, human environments and habitats of wild creatures from abuse and damage To encourage and assist in the making of co-ordinated legislation and international conventions to govern the utilization and treatment of soil, water, air, flora and fauna, to minimize pollution, and to protect the landscape in general and ecosystems of special interest in particular and, finally to urge upon all nations, action and support of those values which make life possible and worthwhile. An event which greatly pleased the Assembly, and the Bombay Natural History Society in particular, was the award of the John C. Phillips Medal to Dr, Salim Ali, The citation reads : 10TH GENERAL ASSEMBLY I.U.C.N. 39 ‘Senior Statesman of conservation and distinguished scientist, whose influence on conservation in his own continent has been great and whose work and accomplishments are known and respected throughout the world; Most distinguished ornithologist and field naturalist in his own country, whose published works have long been the basic and authorita- tive references on the birds of his country and have established him in the foreground of world ornithologists ; Internationally recognized and respected leader in conservation, whose efforts over the years have been a major factor in creating the climate of acceptance in conservation matters and preservation of wild life which exists in his own country today”’. Growth Potential of Red Hairy Caterpillar, Amsacta moore: Butler, in relation to certain Food Plants BY N. D. PANDEY, DAYA RAM YADAVA AND T. P. S. TEOTIA Government Agricultural College, Kanpur The larve of A. moorei were reared on eight natural food plants and the growth response of the insect recorded. On the basis of survival percentage of larve, percentage of adult emergence, pupal weight, size and fecundity of moths, bajra was the most preferred food for A. moorei, closely followed by urd. Castor was found to have a distinct retarding effect on the normal rate of growth of A. moorei, resulting in a prolonged larval period and also a relatively longer pupal period than in the case of the other food plants. The larve failed to survive when reared on paddy, sannhemp and arhar. INTRODUCTION The red hairy caterpillar, Amsacta moorei Butler, is polyphagous. Fletcher (1914) recorded it on jowar, bajra, groundnut, castor, cotton and pulses. It is also reported to attack cow pea, soyabean, maize, sann- hemp and sorghum by Pruthi (1938) and Bindra & Kittur (1958). In view of the wide range of host plants of this pest, it is important to know how far the growth and development of the insect are influenced by the vari- ous food plants. This paper is a report on the relative food value of some of the important food plants of A. moorei which is an important and widely distributed pest of crops in Uttar Pradesh. MATERIAL AND METHODS A gravid female moth of A. moorei was collected from the field on 27th July, 1964. It was kept in a glass jar and fed on 5 per cent sugar solution soaked in cotton wool. The next day the moth laid eggs freely on the glass jar. Four days after egg-laying the eggs hatched satisfactorily. Immediately after hatching the tiny larve were carefully collected with the help of a camel hair brush and 20 larvee were transferred to each of the eight sets of 10.0 cm. petridishes containing clean and tender leaves of the following food plants : Maize (Zea mays), jowar (Sorghum vulgare), bajra (Pennisetum typhoideum), castor (Ricinus communis), urd (Phaseolus mungo), arhar (Cajanus cajan), paddy (Oryza sativa) and sannhemp (Crotalaria juncea). GROWTH POTENTIAL OF AMSACTA MOOREI 41 The food was changed once in the morning every day. As the larve grew older, they were transferred to bigger petridishes (15.0 cm. diameter). The number of larvee becoming pup, the time taken to complete the larval development and the larval weight at two intervals, viz., 6 and 12 days after hatching, were recorded. After pupation, the pupz were transferred to separate glass jars and their mouths covered with muslin cloth. Data on pupal period, pupal weight after 4 days of pupation, percentage of adult emergence, size and sex-ratio of the adults resulting from the larve reared on different food plants were also recorded. The emerging moths were separated into another set of glass jars and fed on 5 per cent sugar solution. The data on the longevity and fecundity of the moths and the incubation period of the eggs were recorded for each set. Twenty newly hatched larve of the same date of hatching were kept in 10.0 cm. petridishes in identical sets, as before, and the leaves of the same food plants were fed to them and the data recorded in the same manner as described earlier. In this way the growth and development of the insect on the different food plants were studied through two con- secutive generations. All tests were performed at room temperature prevailing at Kanpur during July to September (Max. 86-102° F, Min. 83-88° F and Relative humidity 50-92 per cent). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The effect of different food plants on the percentage survival of the larve and the range of larval period is shown in Table 1. The growth index figures obtained by dividing the percentage(n) of the larvee becoming pupz by the average time (Av) taken to complete the development are also given in the table. TABLE 1 THE SURVIVAL PERCENTAGE, RANGE OF LARVAL PERIOD AND GROWTH INDEX OF A. moorei IN RELATION TO THE TYPE OF FOOD SUPPLIED Number | Number | Percentage) Range of | Average | Growth 1 of larve | of larve | of larve larval larval index Food plant | kept for | pupated | pupated | period in | period n Av obser- (n) days in days vation (Av) Maize 40 8 20.0 15-16 1525 1.29 Jowar 40 10 25.0 15 15 1.66 Bajra 40 20 50.0 16 16 312 Castor 40 9 22.5 23-30 26.5 0.84 Urd 40 16 40.0 17-19 18 2.22 42 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) The Chi-square test for association of the type of food given and the number of larvee pupated showed that the value of chi-square(x), which is 12.408, is significant at 5 per cent level. The results, therefore, suggest that the type of food has differential response to the survival percentage of A. moorei larve. Bajra is the most preferred and maize the least. On the basis of the growth index values also the development of larvee was best on bajra, followed by urd, jowar, maize and castor in the descending order. It would be seen, however, that while the percentage of larve pupated was lowest on maize, castor resulted in the lowest growth index value apparently because the larval period was considerably prolonged on this food plant. The results also showed that the larve completely failed to survive when reared on paddy, sannhemp and arhar. Table 2 shows the effect of different food plants in inducing variation in the larval weights. It will be seen from the table that the larval weights on the sixth day after hatching although slightly less in the case of urd and maize are practically identical in the case of jowar, bajra and castor. But differences are observable among them on the twelfth day after hatching. The results, therefore, suggest that the type of food has differen- tial response to the gain in weight of larvee from six days onwards. During this period the gain in weight in the case of bajra is highest and significantly different from all others except castor; while it is lowest with maize and urd which do not differ significantly from each other. However, no definite correlation can be established between the gain in weight of larve on different food plants and their growth index values. TABLE 2 VARIATION IN LARVAL WEIGHT IN RELATION TO TYPE OF FOOD Mean larval weight in gm. Gain in weight Food plant between the two 6 days after 12 days after | intervals in gm. hatching hatching Maize .. a i so 0.0128 0.1360 0.1232 Jowar .. oe sy ane 0.0165 0.1685 0.1520 Bajra .. ae Ke ue 0.0160 0.1915 0.1755 Castor .. 8G os ei 0.0160 0.1785 0.1625 Urd.. rf Me zt 0.0140 0.1505 0.1365 f = highly significant. CoDvat 5% =0.015 Table 3 shows the duration of the pupal period and the variations in the pupal weights when the larve were fed on different food plants. It would be seen from the table that the duration of the pupal life, though only slightly variable, was shortest with bajra and longest with castor, while jowar, maize and urd are found intermediate. The pupal period GROWTH POTENTIAL OF AMSACTA MOOREI 43 was thus affected in much the same way as the larval period by the respec- tive food plants. Further, the highest pupal weight is obtained with larve fed on bajra and next in order came urd, castor, jowar and maize. The pupal weight is thus apparently correlated with the growth index value of the plant except in the case of castor. TABLE 3 DURATION OF PUPAL PERIOD AND PUPAL WEIGHTS OF A. moorei IN RELATION TO THE TYPE OF LARVAL FOOD SUPPLIED Average pupal Range of pupal | Average pupal weight after 4 Food plant period (in days) | period (in days) days of pupation in gm. Maize .. e Pd a 5-7 6.25 0.089 Jowar .. : i ni 6.00 0.097 Bajra ol sy ai 5-6 Ser 0.172 Castor .. Be: re sus 6-8 7.00 0.010 O77 Ce ; ‘i ce 6-7 6.70 0.160 The effect of different foods in inducing variation in percentage emergence, size and sex-ratio of the adult moths is given in Table 4. This table shows that the percentage of adult emergence is highest when the larve are reared on bajra and lowest on jowar, while the remaining can be arranged in the following descending order : Urd > castor > maize. The percentage of adult emergence is thus affected by the respective food plants in much the same way as the survival percentage of larve. It is also seen from the results that the largest size is obtained if reared on bajra and urd, followed by those fed on castor, jowar and maize. These results show that the size of the moths as well as the pupal weight are affected by the different food plants in the same way and that the heaviest pupz are the producers of large-sized moths. The females outnumber the males in the case of jowar, bajra and maize, but are equal in number if reared on castor and urd. TABLE 4 PERCENTAGE EMERGENCE, SIZE AND SEX-RATIO OF ADULT MOTHS OF A. moorei IN RE- LATION TO THE TYPE OF LARVAL FOOD SUPPLIED Mean size of male Mean size of female im cm. in cm. Percentage Sex-ratio Food plant of adult male: emergence| Body Wing Body Wing female length expanse length expanse Maize .. 62.5 1.4 225 1.43 2.66 1:1.50 Jowar .. 60.0 1.0 2°25 eS PAS | 1: 2.00 Rajra ..... 80.0 1.5 2.3 1.6 228) 1: 1.66 Castor .. 66.6 12 2.5 3 207 1:1.00 Urd me 75.0 F.5 205 15 2:8) 1: 1.00 RN iS SS SSI SS SS SG IS i i i erp eS 44 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) Table 5 shows the longevity and fecundity of the moths bred from larve reared on different food plants, as also the incubation period of the eggs laid by them. It will be seen that the female moths, when fed on 5 per cent sugar solution, lived slightly longer than the males in all cases. They lived longest when bred from larve reared on bajra and shortest on castor. Marked differences are seen in regard to the number of eggs laid by the females, the largest numbers of eggs being laid by the moths raised on bajra, followed by urd, maize, castor, and jowar in the descending order. The incubation period of eggs varied only slightly, being longest in the case of moths raised on urd and shortest on castor. TABLE 5 LONGEVITY, FECUNDITY AND INCUBATION PERIOD RECORDS OF A, moorei IN RELATION TO THE TYPE OF LARVAL FOOD SUPPLIED Average longevity in days Average Average Food plant number of | incubation eggs laid period in J 9 per female days Maize 3 0 5.0 349 3.0 Jowar rape eas ron 4.0 5.0 250 3.0 Bara, eae eee 4.0 6.0 312 3.0 Castor SLT Nee 4.0 4.5 324 2.8 Urd 3.0 5.0 448 305 Finally with regard to time for completing the life cycle, i.e., the period from egg-laying to the emergence of moths, it will be seen that it was 24.75 days with maize and bajra, 24.0 days with jowar, 28.25 days with urd, and 36.3 days with castor. REFERENCES BinpRA, O. S., & Kitrur, S.U., Indian Insects and other animals of (1958): On the biology and control of the importance. Supdt. Govt. Press Madras, red hairy caterpillar, Amsacta moorei pp. 369. Butler (Arctuide-Lepidoptera) in Ma- Prutul, H. S., (1938): Report of the dhya Pradesh. Vikram (Sci.) 5:62-72. Imperial Entomologist. Sci. Rep. Agri. FLETCHER, T. B., (1914): Some South Res. Inst. New Delhi. pp. 113-128. Cause and effects of a heavy rainfall in Darjeeling and in the Sikkim Himalayas BY LESZEK STARKEL Institute of Geography of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow (Poland) (With two text-figures) During his stay in Darjeeling in November and December 1968 the author collected data relating to the catastrophic rainfall, which occurred in this region between the 2nd and 5th October 1968, and amounted to 1091 mm. (fig. 1) at Kurseong. The present report is chiefly concerned with the causes of this rainfall. Its effects will be dealt with more fully in a separate paper. In the monsoon climate of India the rainy season covers 4 to 6 months, and usually lasts from May to September. The heaviest precipitation is noted on the southern slopes of mountains (the monthly rainfall in the Assam hills amounts to 2800 mm.). On the border of the Sikkim Himalayas and in the neighbouring parts of Nepal and Bhutan, not screened by hills, the annual rainfall is also abundant—of the order of 2500-5000 mm. In Darjeeling the summer half of the year receives 2852 mm. and in the winter half only 241 mm. From June to September it rains almost every day (each month with 20-27 rainy days) and 5 to 20 days with a rainfall exceeding 50 mm. During the 2-3 winter months, there is rarely rain. According to data for the years 1949 - 1968, the rainfall ranged from 2100 to 3900 mm. in this period (fig. 1). Precipitation of catastrophic type occurs rarely, the heaviest rainfall ina day was noted in Darjeeling in 1899 (493 mm.) and 1950 (454 mm.). Every 20 - 30 years in the course of a continuous 3 - 5 day’s precipitation the amount of rainfall goes up to 1000 mm. Precipitation is differentiated spatially. In the monsoon climate a rain shadow is distinctly marked, for example, in the Assam-uplands, Cherapunji receives 10869 mm.; whereas Shillong lying immediately behind the interfluve, only 2253 mm. On the border of the Himalayas 4 46 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) there occurs an inversion of precipitation. While the stations at the foot of mountains record 2000 - 3500: mm., Kurseong at an altitude of 1400 m.- 4052 mm., and Darjeeling lying on the ridge at an altitude of 2150 m., only. 3092 mm. In deep valleys the contrasts are still greater. During the showers which occurred in 1950 between the 9th and 14th June, the amount of rainfall varied from 275 to 1150 mm. © Changes in the discharge of rivers are the result of differences in the annual course of precipitation and of the occurrence of heavy rainfall. G. N. Dutt reports that the discharges of the River Gish, south of Kalim- pong, with a drainage area of 62 square miles wooded in 42 per cent, varied in 1952 from 3 m.3/sec. to 22270 m.3/sec. the maximum specific run-off amounting therefore to 133. m.3/sec./km.?2 The information obtained by the author concerns part of the terrain stricken with flood. The main ridge of the Himalayas in this part is the Sikkim Himalayas culminating in the mighty Kanchenjunga massif (8586 m.). In front lie the Darjeeling Hills with ridges ranging from 2000 to 3000 m. above sea-level, cut by valleys 1000 to 2000 m. deep. The largest River Tista with a catchment basin of about 7500 sq. km. drains the whole of Sikkim and is a tributary of Brahmaputra (in the last century it flowed to the Ganges). The lower step of the Himalayas is chiefly built of strongly folded gneisses and mica schists of the Darjeeling series of medium resistance. Along the edges of the mountains and in deep valleys the underlying, weak, shales of the Daling series as well as sandstones, quartzites, and shales of the Gondwana series are exposed on the surface, whereas on the border of the lowland poorly cemented sandstones and shales of the Siwalik series occur. The structure of the substratum and the consider- able unevened slopes of rivers deepening their channels cause the ridges of the Lower Himalayas to be generally narrow and rounded, the slopes steep, inclined at 20 - 50°, straight or convex (undercut at the foot), less frequently convex-concaye. They are dissected by numerous steep- walled ravines and shallow gullies with bottoms covered with debris scree, and diversified by old and new landslide channels. Despite their steepness there developed on the slopes a waste cover of sandy loam on gneiss 0.5-5 m. thick, absorbing large quantities of water, not readily subject to wash-out but susceptible to mass movements. This area was covered in the past by the jungle. Up to the height of 500 m. it was.a tropical forest, from 500 to 2000 m. — a subtropical forest com- posed of many species of trees, and from 2000 to 3600 m. above sea-level — various vertical zones of temperate forest, higher with Rhododendron. In the past century the forests were largely destroyed and their species \ \ 4 3440 CH ON — oRINGTONG NAGRI FARM (4 wor hi ) 1. Peaks; 7. automatic recorders. 2. rivers; e ~~ ALIMPONG _ 1209m/ asta DARJEELING ~ A2be5m Sonada ere Le \ \ \ Qy | = ‘ ore ; YN Pe SILIGURI “ Darjeeling District 3. main roads; 4. boundaries; 5. pass; 6. rainfall; ho NAGRi FARM 1158m q.s.l. 20 mm KALIMPONG (ca 1200m a.¢.) 620 r) 2" 1@ 20 2% & 8 1 6 20 me! @ wm 6 20 %» & 8 t] 2.¥.68 3 3. %.68 : 4 X.68 1 2%.68 Fig. 2—Rainfall between 2 and 5 October according to automatic recorders, Nagri Farm (From Dr. F. Rahman), Kalimpong (from Meteorological Office) CAUSE AND EFFECTS OF HEAVY RAINFALL 47 composition underwent changes. It is only above the altitude of 2200 m. that dense forest complexes have been preserved. Below 1800 m. about 30 - 50 per cent of the area is occupied by tea gardens established in the nineteenth century. Similarly as in the three preceding years the summer monsoon in 1968 was poor in precipitation (fig. 1), amounting only to 2000 mm., and the daily rainfall exceeded 50 mm. only 6 times. Towards the end of Septem- ber a storm front developed over the Bay of Bengal and after becoming transformed into a deep depression it reclined on the Himalayas. On the 2nd October 1968, after a local afternoon rainfall, an uninterrupted rain began to fall at about 8 p.m. It covered eastern Nepal, Darjeeling Hills, Sikkim, and western Bhutan. Its intensity increased during 3rd Octo- ber, rising to 15 - 20 mm. per hour on the night from the 3rd to the 4th. Then it weakened but became stronger again in the afternoon of the 4th October. Between 8 and 12 p.m. it reached its peak, amounting to 40 - 60 mm./hr. on the average. At daybreak the rain stopped altogether. The automatic rainfall stations (fig. 2) give a clear picture of the course of the intensity of the rainfall, while the other stations show the spatial diffe- rentiation of its amount (Table ). The largest amount of rainfall was noted TABLE RAINFALL BETWEEN 2—5 OCTOBER 1968 IN DARJEELING REGION Station For year 68) 2.x.68 3.x.68 4.x.68 | 2-5.x.68 Jalpaiguri .. ws ae 120.0 113.0 as 233.0 Nagri Farm 91.4 260.1 382.8 734.3 Nagri Farm/automatic rec. her O76 241.6 368.9 698.1 Kurseong St. Mey S College .. ; -. 4878.5 152.0 301.0 638.0 1091.0 Rangtong T. E. .. .. 3197.8 151.1 209.5 241.0 601.6 Poobong T. E. 3975.1 110.0 255.0 400.0 765.0 Darjeeling Planters Club... 2651.2 93 35 210.3 303.3 607.1 Darjeeling Meteorol. Obs. | 85.0 215.0 275.0 575.0 Bannockburn T. E. . 2689.6 83.3 207.0 356.1 646.4 Chongtong T. E. .. ae above | 650.0 Kalimpong Meteorol. Obs. 73.4 257.8 465.1 796.3 Kalimpong automatic rec. . 71.1 261.3 456.1 788.5 on slopes of mountains exposed to the south at an altitude of 1000 - 1500 m. Kurseong recorded 1091 mm., and Kalimpong 796 mm. A smaller amount of rainfall was noted by stations in deep valleys on the southern slope (Nagri Farm 734 mm., Poobong 765 mm.), the lowest being recorded on ridges (Darjeeling 575 mm., and 607 mm.) and in valleys in the rain shadow (Bannockburn 646 mm.). The 60 hours’ rainfall was the last of the summer monsoon, when the soil was already saturated with moisture [in contrast to the rainfall of June 1950 — cf. (fig. 1)]. However, the 48 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) immediate cause of the sudden run-off of waters was the last accent of heavy rain, when within 4 hours there fell 200 mm., and locally probably still more. This.occurred on 4th October and according to eye-wit- ness accounts at about 11 p.m. slopes began to slide down, while the swollen rivers carried away bridges. First of all the equilibrium of the circulation of water on slopes was disturbed. The water infiltrating into the sandy soil could not penetrate deeper into the unweathered rock and began.to flow junder pressure grooving channels in the soil and gushing in the form of springs, giving rise to mud and rubble sliding tongues denuding whole patches of slopes of the weathering crust: Where the water infiltrated deeper along joints, large rock slides 1 km. long and 20-30 m. deep were formed, being also encountered in forests. The waters flowing in the bottoms of overgrown ravines began to deepen them with the boulders they were carrying and to undercut valley sides. The waters gathered in the stream beds, which often were deepened up to 8 m. in solid rock, or else were filled up in sections with alluvia (the author observed thickness amounting to 12 m.). These beds had fre- quently become three to five times wider. The force of the water was evidenced by its carrying heaps of boulders 2 - 5 m. in diameter, some of them even exceeding 10 m. The violent rise of waters included also the large rivers. The level of the Tista was up to 24 m. higher than the average (at Tista Bazar the author noted a high water mark 18 m. above its level at the end of November). The observed velocity of the flood water amounting to 20 km./hr., the mean transversal cross-section of the river channel being 5,000 m?., permitted the calculation that at Tista Bazar there flowed about 27,500 m.?/sec., which equals a specific run-off of 3.6 m.3/sec./km.”. According to hydrological data published in the Calcutta press (Statesman), the River Kosi, draining eastern Nepal, carried in the morning of the 5th October 1968, 91, 300 m.?/sec., which corresponds to a specific run-off of 14.7 m.*/sec./km.”. The waters of rivers flowing out on to the plains flooded vast areas, bringing about the formation of new river channels and submerging fields and settlements, or covering them with gravel and sand. c The result of these heavy rains were geomorphological changes of slopes and valley bottoms, as well as economic loss. In the region of Darjeeling about 20 per cent of deforested slopes became transformed through the degradation of the upper soil layer and often of the whole waste cover, e.g. in the Poobong tea gardens out of the 200.5 ha. of tea fields 26 per cent were destroyed and out of the 520 ha. of the total area of the settlement—18.2 per cent. The damage in the forests was 10 times lesser. Thus, one can estimate (the aforestation CAUSE AND EFFECTS OF HEAVY RAINFALL 49 of the catchment basin amounting to 30 - 50 per cent) that on the average a l-metre thick layer of substratum was removed from 10 per cent of the area, which equals a lowering of the whole terrain by 10 cm. in the course of the considered heavy rain (degradation of the order of 100,000 m.° per 1 km.”). Only an insignificant part of the material held on at the base of slopes, while most of it was carried away by the swollen rivers. The high undercuttings and deepening in the solid rock indicate that the transport power of the rivers exceeded the usual supply from the slopes. This is a characteristic trait of rivers of humid regions with uneven slopes and of young mountains lifted by. tectonic movements. The compa- rison with other catastrophes, especially with those of the years 1899. and 1950, permits the assumption that the deepening of valleys and retreating of mountain slopes takes place above all during periods of catastrophic rainfall, occurring once in 20-30 years and being some- times connected in this region with earthquakes. The periods dividing them are phases of carrying down the material to channels during normal monsoon precipitation, and of intense chemical weathering preparing the waste material which will be removed from the slopes during the subsequent catastrophic rainfall. Worthy of note is that landslides formed in 1950 did not generally undergo rejuvenation by 1968. The period of 18 years was too short for the development of a new soil layer. The catastrophic rainfall caused great damage to the economy. Apart from the fact that about 1,500 people had been killed (excluding Nepal and Bhutan), hundreds of houses were destroyed, settlements buried (e.g. Pul Bazar), scores of bridges carried away, including the main bridge on the Tista on the road leading to Tibet, and in about 200 sections the high road and railway line from Siliguri to Darjeeling was cut. Agriculture suffered losses difficult to retrieve. In the mountains 20-30 per cent of cultivated land (chiefly tea gardens) was destroyed, and in the lowland, apart from the buried fields, irrigation appliances were ruined. The catastrophic rains recurring roughly every 20 years require a regulation of the water circulation, chiefly by means of a skilful draining of the waste cover on mountain slopes, which would preclude the de- velopment of newly formed landslides and prevent future catastrophes, as well as the construction of storage reservoirs at the outlet of all the Himalayan valleys. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author wishes to express his sincere thanks for the help in collecting material for this study to the following offices and persons: the Meteorological Dept. of the Government of India, the Director General 50 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) of Observatories, Dr. F. Rhaman from the Tea Research Association in Darjeeling, the Rector of St. Mary’s College in Kurseong, the Managers of the Tea Estates belonging to the Darjeeling Tea Company, the Direc- tor of Soil Conservation and the Divisional Forest Officer, Darjeeling Forest Division. These investigations could be carried out thanks to a grant of the Government of India, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, obtained within the framework of an agreement with the Polish Academy of Sciences. Dr. N. R. Kar of the Government College of the West Bengal University was kind enough to give me the first introduction to the area in November 1968 at a symposium organised by the Int. Geo- graphical Congress at Darjeeling. A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of the Bombay Natural History Society-6 Scolopacinae (part) BY HUMAYUN ABDULALI [Continued from Vol. 66(3) : 559] This part deals with 218 specimens of 19 species and subspecies up to No. 403 in IND. HANDBOOK (2: 297), up to Register No. 23299. Miss Shanta Nair, Research Assistant, attended to measurements and other routine work, and I am grateful for her assistance. 385 Numenius phaeopus phaeopus (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Whimbrel 6: 203 18: 107.9779 9 lo? 1 Bushire, Persian Gulf; 1 Baluchistan; 1 Kandla, Kutch; 1 Thana Creek, 1 Thana District, 1 Bhyander, 1 Versova, 1 Bombay, 2 Panvel, Kolaba; 1 Pulicat, Chingleput, Madras; 3 Long Island, Middle Andamans, 2 Car Nicobar, 1 Camorta, 1 Great Nicobar. Five of the seven from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are females, while eight of the ten males are from the west coast down to about Bombay. With the literature available I have been unable to decide if any of them is variegatus (Scopoli). 386 Numenius phaeopus’ variegatus (Scopoli) (Luzon) Eastern Whimbrel 6: 204 nil. 387 Numenius arquata arquata (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Curlew 6: 200 nil. 388 Numenius arquata orientalis C.L.Brehm (East Indies) 6: 202 11: 397.4% 592 30? 1 Amara, Iraq; 2 Bharatpur, Rajasthan ; 3 Kutch; 3 Kolaba District, Maharashtra; 1 Peking, China; 1 col. C.M. Inglis (=Bihar?). All the specimens have almost unmarked axillaries and from the literature available appear to be of this race. [113] o2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) Wing Bill Tail Jo 280, 295, 295 (280-297) 141, 142, 142 104-107 (137-139) 9 g 290-307 av. 300 135-190 av. 161 107-110 (300-314) (135-194) The measurements include those of two females obtained near Bombay in October (and not in the Society’s collection) which have very short bills (135, 143). 389 Limosa limosa limosa (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Blacktailed Godwit 11:39719 39 9 5o? 3 Baghdad; 1 Rohtak, Persian Baluchistan; 1 Risalpur, N.W.F.P.; 1 Khara- sheds Gujarat; 2 Nasik, 1 Panvel; 1 col. C.M. Inglis (=Bihar?); 1 Manipur, ssam. The females of this species are larger than the males, and this race (wing 205-240; bill 88-126; tarsus 75-82) is accepted (FAUNA and IND. HANDBOOK) as larger than melanuroides (wing 176-207, bill 77-95, tarsus 66-73). The five birds from Iraq and the north-west (1% 40?) are larger than the four from the rest of India (lo 39 ?). Wing 22131222, 224,230, 234 cf. 198, 211, 212, 215 Bill 102, 114, 116, 122, 127 cf. 103, 103, 104, 106 Tarsus 84, 85, 88, 90, 91 cf. 72, 75(2), 78 In the dry stage the former also have their bills more yellow, less dusky. The female from Nasik (No. 20147) measuring 198, 104, and 75 may well be of the next form. A larger series of correctly sexed specimens from peninsular India is necessary!. 390 Limosa limosa melanuroides Gould (Port Essington, Australia) Eastern Blacktailed Godwit 6: 207 2 0? Tientsin, China. Wing 194, 209 (LaTouche in BIRDS OF EASTERN CHINA measures 3 females; 192, 211, and 228); bill (one only) 106 (LaTouche: 72.5, 78.5, 112); tarsus 62, 75. 391 Limosa lapponica lapponica (Linnaeus) (Lapland) Bartailed Godwit 6: 252 4:1 97299 1o? 1 Kandla, Kutch; 1 Bhyander, 1 Thana, Bombay, 1* Rewas, Kolaba. The female obtained on 8 December* is much greyer above than the others (August-September). 1 After this was completed a 1 and a Q{shot out of a flock at Rewas, Kolaba District, on 19 October 1969, were measured: wings 217 and 245, and bills 112 and 124 respectively. [114] BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—6 53 392 Tringa erythropus (Pallas) (Holland) Spotted or Dusky Redshank 6: 223 10:2977 59 2 30? 3 in summer plumage) 1 Aliabad, 12 m. SE. of Shiraz, Iran; 1 Khushdil Lake, Quetta; 1 Dodi, Malwa Plateau, Bhopal; 1 Bogna, Shahjehanpur, U.P.; 3 Darbhanga, Bihar; 2 no data, col. F.J.R. Field; 1 Tientsin, China. Wing Bill Tarsus Tail o'c' 166, 168 57, 58 57,57 66, 70 (158-168) (53-59) (53-59) (60-68) 9 9 164-169 av. 166.4 55, 56, 59 53-60 av. 56.6 63-68 av. 65.6 (166-177) (57-64) — el 393 Tringa totanus totanus (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Common Red- shank 6: 221 394 Tringa totanus eurhinus (Oberholser) (Tso Moriri Lake’ 15,000’, Ladakh) Eastern Redshank 6: 222 37: 10079 259 9 20? 2 Hawi Plain, 1 Samarrah, Iraq; 1 Turbat, 1 Shiraz, 1 Kuh-e-Khwaja, Hamun Lake, Iran; 1 Rohtak R., near Sib, Persian Baluchistan; 1 Hajarganji, Balu- chistan; 3 Bahawalpur, Punjab; 2 Kandla, Kutch; 1 Bassein, 2 Bhyander, 1 Hog Island, Bombay, 5 Belapur, Thana, 3 Panvel, 2 Rewas, Kolaba, 1 Rajapur, Ratnagiri; 1 Karwar; 1 Point Calimere; 1 Chilka Lake; 3 Calcutta Market; 2 Andamans; 1 Car Nicobar. There have been continued and considerable differences of opinion regarding the races of the Redshank occuring in India. Oberholser described eurhinus as larger than nominate totanus. Meinertzhagen said that they were not separable, but described terrignotae from Koko Nor, both races being said to winter in India. Stuart Baker (6: 220) accepted this, but later authors synonymised terrignotae with eurhinus ! BIRDS OF SOVIET UNION (3: 230) does not accept either eurhinus or terrignotae, synonymising both with nominate totanus. In SYNOPSIS, both totanus and eurhinus were said to occur all over India, but in IND. HANDBOOK (2: 257) the occurrence of the nominate race in India is doubted. The specimens available measure :— Wing Bill Tarsus Tail 991 1153-166 av. 158 43-45 av. 44.2 47-52 av. 49.5 61-66 av. 64 (ex Vaurie 152- (from skull (49-51) (63-72) 165 av. 157.5) 45-51) : 259 9152-171 av. 160.4 42-50 av. 45 47-53 av. 49.9 59-71 av. 64.5 (2¢ 9 162,165) (from skull 51-54) — 7 All the specimens are in winter plumage and it is evident that the grey sheen on freshly obtained specimens fades into the pale brown of the older skins in a few years. The measurements of the bill from feathers, 39-42, for Tringa t. totanus aS in BR. HANDBOOK (4: 330) are sufficient to separate them [115] 34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) from the present specimens, but as the measurements are not repeated by subsequent authors I presume they are not correct. A male obtained at Point Calimere on 18th October 1969 has its wing 150, bill 37 (tip broken), tail 63, and tarsus 44. The upper parts are darker and many of the feathers tipped with pale rufous indicating that this is a juvenile. Without material from Europe, it is not possible to offer any remarks except to reiterate that (1) the birds from Mesopotamia do not differ from the others in size or colour, (2) the half-dozen specimens identified by Whistler and/or Ticehurst are all marked eurhinus, and (3) the others do not appear to be different. 395 Tringa stagnatilis (Bechstein) (Germany) Marsh Sandpiper or Little Greenshank 6: 216 8: 51739 9 1 Kandla, Kutch; 2 Panvel, 1 Dharamtar Creek, Kolaba; 1 Balugaon, Chilka Lake; 3 Calcutta Market. Wing Bill Je 145 (132-139) 40, 40, 41, 43 (37-40) @ 9 137, 140, 142 (133-143) 39, 40 (40-50) The measurements in IND. HANDBOOK (2: 261) are from BRITISH HANDBOOK and show some differences from those available. 396 Tringa nebularia (Gunnerus) (District of Trondhjem, Norway) Greenshank 6: 225 23: 12794 109 9 lo? 1 Samara, 1 Azuzali, R. Tigris, Iraq; 1 Hamun. Lake, Seistan, 1 Bampur R., near Pahran, Persian Baluchistan; 1 Jaipur; 2 Vaghjipur, Mehsana; 1 Ahmeda- bad; 1 Ghoti, Nasik; 2 Thana; 3 Bhyander, Bombay; 1 Chilka Lake; 1 Baghowni, 1 Banhar, Darbhanga, Bihar; 1 Kheri, Oudh; 3 Calcutta Market; 1 Bhugwada, Nepal; 1 Meping R., Paknampo, Siam. Wing Bill Tarsus Tail oc’ 177-205 av. 190 53-59 av. 55.6 58-67 av. 60 80-89 av. 82.3 (184-194) (50-56) (55-61) (68-80) 992. 183-201 av. 190.5 54-60 av. 56.7 59-63 av. 61.5 75-86 av. 79 (184-200) (53-59) — — 397 ‘Tringa ochropus Linnaeus (Sweden) Green Sandpiper 6: 215 39: 134919 219 9 So? 1 Sulaimaniyah, Iraq; 1 Duzdap, E. Persia; 1 Sib, 1 Geh, Persian Baluchistan; 2 Wana, Baluchistan; 2 Chitral; 1 Kalsi, 1 Muglib, Ladakh; 1 Banyar, Kashmir; 1 Kashmor, Upper Sind Frontier; 1 Punjab; 4 Delhi, 1 Keonthal; 1 Patan, Jaipur; 3 Bombay; 1 Karwar; 1 Kumbum Valley, Kurnool Dist.; 1 Gondia, Balaghat; 1 Baghowni, Tirhut ; 2 Cawnpore, 2 Meerut, 1 Kheri Dist.; 1 Karun- prayog, Garhwal; 1 Calcutta Market; 1 Imphal, Manipur; 1 Prome, 1 Thayet- myo, Burma; 3 Peking, China. Wing Bill Tarsus Tail ao 136-152 av. 142.7 31-37 av. 34 31-39 av. 34-3 52-61 av. 57 (136-148) (33-35) (32-34) (52-61) 99. 138-148 av. 143 33-36 av. 34.7 33-37 av. 34 55-62 av. 58 (142-153) (33-36) [116] BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—6 35 398 Tringa glareola Linnaeus (Sweden) Spotted Sandpiper 6: 219 36: 139793 209 9 30? 2 Baghdad, Iraq; 1 Kajjarak near Shiraz, Iran; 2 Sib, Persian Baluchistan; 2 Harbuz, c. 55 m. east of Panjgur, Kalat, Baluchistan; 1 Chitral, N.W.F.P.; 1 Ladak, Kashmir; 1 Delhi; 1 Kutch; 1 Bardoli, Baroda, Gujarat; 1 Ghoti, Nasik, 4 Thana, 3 Kolaba; 2 Palnis; 2 Travancore; 1 Chilka, Orissa; 3 Calcutta Market; 1 Meerut, 1 Nahrosa, Pilibhit, U.P.; 1 Margherita, Assam; 1 Anda- mans; 3 Burma, 1 Peking, China. SG) eg Wing 122-134 av. 124.6 (iH 120-128) 122-132 av. 129 (tH 125-130) Bill 28-32 (tH 25-29 ex BR. HANDBOOK) 27-31 (IH ex BR. HANDBOOK 25-31) Sp. No. 19756 from Thana District, Bombay, is in abberrant plumage being washed with greyish all over. Two T. ochropus were listed under this species. 399 Tringa guttifer (Nordmann) (Okhotsk) Spotted Greenshank io bil. 6; 226 400 Tringa terek (Latham) (Shores of the Caspian Sea about the mouth of the Terek River) Terek or Avocet Sandpiper 6: 212 9:29 9739 9 40? 1 Kashgar, Chinese Turkestan; 1 Karachi; 1 Bhyander, Bombay ; 2 Rewas, Kolaba Dist.; 1 Cannanore, Malabar; 1 Point Calimere; 1 Calcutta Bazar; 1 Betapur, Middle Andamans. The specimen from Cannanore is no doubt one of the two obtained at this place on 12 December 1931, and noted in the Eastern Ghats Survey (JBNHS 39: 255). It was later received on 6 December 1938 from Major Phythian-Adams, then resident in the Nilgiris, and the entries on the labels and in the Register were changed to read ‘‘ Cannanore, Nilgiris, S.I., 6th Dec. 1938”. Wing Bill Tarsus Tail 125-135 av. 130 43-52 av. 47 26-28 av. 27 47-52 av. 50 (126-141) (1 7'43-49, 2 9 44-52) (25-28) (47-56) 401 Tringa hypoleucos Linnaeus (Sweden) Common Sandpiper 6: 217 28:1097 97 119 9 7o? 1 Feluja, R. Euphrates, Iraq; 2 Chaharbar (Chah Bahar ?), Persian Gulf, 1 Fao, 1 Karun River, Persia; 2 Ashni R., 1 Chitral; 2 Chini, Simla Hills; 1 Chandigarh, Punjab; 1 Karachi; 1 Bodeli, Gujarat ; 1 Bhyander, 1 Kurla, 1 Andheri, 1 Ghod- bunder, 2 Bombay, 1 Rewas, Kolaba; 1 Karwar; 1 Edanad, Kerala; 1 Ceylon; 1 Rajora, 1 Bastar; 1 Baghowni, Bihar; 1 Rangpo, Sikkim; 1 Katchal, Nicobars. ores oe) Wing 104-113 av. 109 (106-114) 103-114 av. 108.4 (111-119) Bill 23-27 av. 24.1 (23-25) 23-27 av. 25.2 (24-26) Tail 51-60 av. 54.8 (50-59) 53-61 av. 55.7 (50-59) [117] 56 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) 402 Arenaria interpres interpres (Linnaeus) (Gotland, Sweden) Turnstone 6: 154 19:69:97 89 2 So? 2 Tanb Island, Persian Gulf; 1 Karachi; 1 Mandvi, 1 Kandla, Kutch; 1 Bandra, 1 Gorai, Bombay; 1 Rewas, Kolaba; 2 Cape Comorin (1 missing); 2 Chilka Lake, Orissa; 1 Manipur, Assam; 1 Choldhari, 2 S. Sentinel Island, Andamans; 1 Papun, Burma; 2 Tientsin, China. Wing oo 144-163 av. 151.6 (7H ex BR.HANDBOOK 147-157) @ Q 142-159 av. 150 (HH. ex BR. HANDBOOK 146-162) 403 Limnodromus semipalmatus (Blyth) (Calcutta Bazar) Snipe- billed Godwit 6: 210 2 o? (1, head only) Chilka Lake, Orissa. Wing 181 (177-181); bill 81, 84 (77-87) The statement in IND. HANDBOOK (2: 276) that it can be separated in the field from a godwit by its conspicuously slenderer, longer bill is no doubt in error, for the bill is appreciably shorter than that of the Blacktailed (102-127) and no longer than in the Bartailed (o'71, ? ? 91, 99, 1 unsexed 82). I may also draw attention to the fact that I have changed the type locality from “‘ Madras ”’ to “‘ Calcutta Bazar’’. Jerdon first obtained a specimen in the Madras Market and sent it to Blyth at the Indian Museum at Calcutta, and it is in the first place misleading to indicate the type locality as Madras. Some time later (1848), Blyth described the species Macrorhamphus semipalmatus with Jerdon’s name as author. At the same time he stated that the description was based on a fresh specimen from the Calcutta Bazar. The authorship is correctly attributed to Blyth, and the bird which formed the basis of the description, i.e. the bird from the Calcutta Bazar, would be the type. ( to be continued ) [118} Nomenclatural Notes on some Flowering Plants—II BY N. P. BALAKRISHNAN Botanical Survey of India, Eastern Circle, Shillong } During general studies on Indian flora, particularly of Bhutan and Jowai areas in Assam, and also during his work at the Hartley Bota- nical Laboratories, University of Liverpool (U.K.) in 1966-67, the author noticed that names of many plants needed change if the rules in the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (1966) were strictly applied. These notes mainly involve the rules of priority, invalid publication, later homonyms and also the recent altered taxonomic concepts of some genera. BRASSICACEAE Sisymbrium bhutanicum Balak. nom. nov. S. lasiocarpum Hook f. & Thoms. in J. Linn. Soc. 5 : 163, 1861 (non F. Muell. 1858) et in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 1 : 148, 1872. FLACOURTIACEAE Taraktogenos macrocarpa (Bedd.) Balak. comb. nov. Asteriastigma macrocarpa Bedd. Fl. Sylv. 2: t. 266, 1872 et Ic. t. 242, 1874; Gamble, Fl. Pres. Madras 52, 1915. Hydnocarpus macrocarpa (Bedd.) Warb. in Engler & Prantl, Pflanzenfam. 3. (6a) : 21, 1893; Gilg in Engler, Pflan- zenfam. 21 : 409, 1925. MELIACEAE Aglaia exstipulata (Griff.) Balak. comb. nov. Euphora exstipulatis Griff. Notul. 4 : 547, 1851. A. polyantha Bedd. Ic. Pl. Ind. Or. 1: 44, 1874. A. minutiflora Bedd. 1. c. t. 193, 1874; Hiern in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 1 : 557, 1875. Dysoxylum alliarum (Buch.-Ham.) Balak. comb. nov. Guarea alliaria Buch.-Ham. in Edinb. Mem. Wern. Soc. 6 : 305, 1832. Hartighsea alliaria (Buch.-Ham.) Voigt, Hort. Sub. calc. 136, 1845. D. hamiltonii Hiern in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 1 : 548, 1875. Dysoxylum gobara (Buch.-Ham.) Merr. in J. Arn. Arb. 23: 173, 1942, Guarea gobara Buch.-Ham. in Edinb. Mem. Wern. Soc. 6 : 306, 1832. Hartighsea gobara (Buch.-Ham.) Voigt, Hort. Sub. Calc. 136, 1845. 1 Part I in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 63: 327-331, 1967. 58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) Guarea disyphonia Griff. Notul. 4 : 503, 1851, D. procerum Hiern in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 1 : 547, 1875, RHAMNACEAE. Sageretia parviflora (Roem. & Schult.) G. Don, Gen. Syst. 2 : 29, 1832. Rhamnus parviflorus Roem. & Schult. Syst. 5 : 295, 1820. Rhamnus filiformis Roth, Nov. Sp. Pl. 153, 1821. Sageretia oppositifolia Brogn. in Ann. Nat. Sc. sér. 1, 10 : 360, 1827; Lawson in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 1 : 641, 1875. Sageretia filiformis (Roth) G. Don, Gen. Syst. 2: 29, 1832; Raizada in Indian For. 94 : 450, 1968. Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk. var. fruticosa (Haines) Seb. & Balak. in Indian For. 89 : 525, 1963. Z. jujuba Lamk. var. fruticosa Haines, For. Fl. Chota Nagpur 270, 1910 et Bot. Bih. Oriss. 195, 1921. Z. mauritiana Lamk. var. fruticosa (Haines) Raizada & Saxena in Indian For. 92 : 326, 1966, nom. illeg. ROSACEAE Malus sikkimensis (Wenzig) Balak. comb. nov. Sorbus sikkimensis Wenzig in Linnaea 38 : 58, 1874. Pyrus sikkimensis Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind.,.2.:,373, 1878. As treated by Hutchinson (Gen. Fl. Pl. 1 : 210, 1964) Malus differs from Pyrus in styles being connate at base and fruits globose, without or with very few grit cells. Rubus duthieanus Balak. nom. nov. R. fasciculatus Duthie in Ann. R. Bot. Gard. Calc. 9 : 39, 1901 (non P. J. Mueller, 1858). Rubus duthieanus Balak. var. tomentosus (Cardot) Balak. comb. nov. R. fasciculatus Duthie var. tomentosus Cardot in Le Comte, Notul. Syst. 3 : 314, 1917. Rubus glandulifer Balak. nom. nov. R. /anatus Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2 : 331, 1878 (non Focke, 1867). Rubus kumaonensis Balak. nom. nov. R. reticulatus Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 2 : 331, 1878 (non Kerner, 1870). Rubus kurzii Balak. nom. nov. R. ferox Wall. ex Kurz. For. FI. Brit. Burma 1 : 437, 1877; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2 : 329, 1878 (non Boenn. 1824). Rubus nutantiflorus Hara in J. Jap. Bot. 40 : 327, 1965. R. nutans Wall. ex G. Don, Gen. Syst. 2 : 528, 1832 (non Vest 1824); Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 2 : 334, 1878. | Rubus nutantiflorus Hara var. nepalensis (Hook. f.) Balak. comb. nov. R. nutans G. Don var. nepalensis Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2 : 334, 1878. NOMENCLATURAL NOTES ON SOME FLOWERING PLANTS 59 Sorbus bhutanica (W. W. Smith) Balak. comb. nov. Pyrus bhutanica W. W. Smith in Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind. 4 : 265, 1911. Sorbus differs from Pyrus in corymbose or paniculate flowers and pinnate or ‘pinnately lobed leaves, as treated by Hutchinson (Gen. FI. Pl. 1: 210, 1964). Sorbus kachinensis (W. W. Smith) Balak. comb. nov. Pyrus kachi nensis W. W. Smith in Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind. 6 : 100, 1914. Sorbus monbeigii (Cardot) Balak. comb. nov. Pyrus monbeigil Cardot in Le Comte, Notul. Syst. 3 : 352, 1918. Sorbus parvifolia (Blatter) Balak. comb. nov. Pyrus parvifolia Blatter in J. Indian Bot. Soc. 9 : 207, 1930. SAXIFRAGACEAE Saxifraga himalaica Balak. nom. nov. S. micrantha Edgew. in Trans. Linn. Soc. 20 : 50, 1846 (non Fisch. ex DC. 1830); Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2 : 394, 1878. Saxifraga nigroglandulifer Balak. nom. nov. S. nutans Hook. f. & Thoms. in J. Linn. Soc. 2 : 69, 1857 (non D. Don 1822; nec Adams 1834); Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2 : 393, 1878. CRASSULACEAE Sedum hookeri Balak. nom. nov. S. elongatum Hook. f. & Thoms. in J. Linn. Soc. 2 : 98, 1858 (non Ledebour 1834); Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2 : 419, 1878. MELASTOMACEAE Sonerila amabilis Kurz in J. As. Soc. Beng. 40 (2) : 53, 1871. S. kurzii Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 2 : 539, 1879. Sonerila trianae Balak. nom. nov. S. amabilis Triana (in Trans. Linn. Soc. 28: 76, 1871, nom. nud.) ex Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 2 : 533, 1879 (non Kurz 1871). S. amabilis Kurz (1871) is the earlier name for S. kurzii described ‘by C. B. Clarke in 1879 and hence treated here as the correct name. Clarke’s binomial S. amabilis published in 1879 is not legitimate being a later homonym of S. amabilis Kurz (1871) and hence a new name S. trianae is proposed here. 5 60 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) ARALIACEAE Euaraliopsis Hutch. Gen. FI. Pl.2: 80, 1967. Araliopsis Kurz, Andaman Rep. App. 39, 1870, nom. nud. Brassaiopsis Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2 : 735, 1879, p.p. (non Decne & Planch. 1854). Hutchinson (1967) separated this genus from Brassaiopsis sensu ‘Clarke (1879) on the basis that the leaves of Euaraliopsis are digitately lobed or partite and not compound as in Brassaiopsis Decne & Planch. The following species also belong to this genus :— , Euaraliopsis alpina (Clarke) Balak. comb. nov. Brassaiopsis alpina Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2 : 736, 1879. Euaraliopsis griffithii (Clarke) Balak. comb. nov. Brassaiopsis griffithii Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2 : 736, 1879. Euaraliopsis mitis (Clarke) Balak. comb. nov. Brassaiopsis mitis Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2 : 736, 1879. Euaraliopsis polyacantha (Wall.) Balak. comb. nov. Hedera polyacantha Wall. Pl. As. Rar. 2: t. 190, 1831. Panax palmatum Roxb. (Hort. Beng. 21, 1814, nom. nud.) et Fl. Ind. ed. 2, 2 : 74, 1832. Araliopsis andamanica Kurz in Andaman Rep. App. 39, 1870. Brassai- opsis palmata (Roxb.) Kurz in J. As. Soc. Beng. 39 (2): 77, 1870; Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2: 735, 1879. Euaraliopsis palmata(Roxb.) Hutch. Gen. FI. Pl. 2 : 80, 1967. This is the correct name for the lectotype species of this genus and not E. palmata (Roxb.) Hutch. Euaraliopsis simplicifolia (Clarke) Balak. comb. nov. Brassaiopsis simplicifolia Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2 : 735, 1879. Schefflera seemannii Balak. nom. nov. Agalma glaucum Seem. in J. Bot. 4 : 25, 1866 (non S. glaucum Harms, 1894). Heptapleurum glaucum (Seem.) Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2 : 728, 1879 (non Kurz 1877). ASTERACEAE Saussurea pterocaulon Decne in Jacquem. Voy. Bot. 95, t. 103, 1844. Aplotaxis candolleana DC. Prodr. 6 : 541, 1837. Jurinea adenocarpa Ledeb. FI. Ross. 2 : 765, 1846. S. candolleana (DC.) Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 3 : 372, 1881 (non Clarke 1876). J. D. Hooker made the combination S. candolleana based on Aplotaxis candolleana DC., the earliest name for this species. However, NOMENCLATURAL NOTES ON SOME FLOWERING PLANTS 61 in 1876, C. B. Clarke had already described a species under the name S. candolleana and hence Hooker’s name is a later homonym and not legitimate. The next in priority is Saussurea pterocaulon Decne, which is the correct name for this species. Saussurea candolleana Clarke, Comp. Ind. 230, 1876 (non Hook. f. 1881). S. clarkei Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 3 : 372, 1881. J. D. Hooker (1881) described the species S. clarkei which happens to be synonymous to the earliest published name, S. candolleana Clarke, the latter being treated here as the correct name. Saussurea conica Clarke, Comp. Ind. 224, 1876. S. uniflora Wall. ex Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 3 : 366, 1881 (non Clarke 1876). S. uniflora var. conica (Clarke) Hook. f. 1. c. Saussurea conica Clarke var. conica, S. uniflora Hook. f. var. conica (Clarke) Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 3 : 366, 1881. Saussurea conica Clarke var. uniflora Balak. nom. nov. S. uniflora Wall. ex Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 3: 366, 1881, excl. var. conica (non Clarke 1876). S. uniflora Hook. f. (1881) is a later homonym and hence not legitimate. S. uniflora Clarke (1876) is an entirely different species. How- ever, S. conica Clarke is an earlier synonym of S. uniflora Hook. f. and treated by J. D. Hooker as a variety of his species and here treated as the correct name of S. uniflora Hook. f. Saussurea edgeworthii Kitamura in Acta Phytotax. Geobot. 24:4, 1969. Aplotaxis foliosa Edgew. in Trans. Linn. Soc. 20 : 77, 1846. S. foliosa (Edgew.) Hook f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 3 : 373, 1881 (non Ledeb. 1829). Senecio bombayensis Balak. nom. nov. Doronicum reticulatum Wight, Calc. J. nat. Hist. 7 : 156, 1847. S. reticulatus (Wight) Clarke, Comp. Ind. 199, 1876 (non DC. 1837). S. grahamii Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 3 : 347, 1881 (non Benth. 1857). Senecio bhutanicus Balak. nom. nov. Prenanthes quinqueloba DC. Prodr. 6 : 404, 1838. S. quinquelobus (DC.) Hook. f. & Thoms. in Clarke, Comp. Ind. 209, 1876 (non DC. 1837) ; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 3 : 353, 1881. Senecio connatus Balak. nom. nov. Ligularia arnicoides DC. Prodr. 6 : 314, 1837. S. arnicoides (DC.) Clarke, Comp. Ind. 207, 1876 (non Hook. & Arn. 1841); Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 3 : 351, 1881. Senecio flexuosus Balak. nom. nov. S. calthaefolius Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 3 : 350, 1881 (non Maximov 1871). 62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) Senecio kashmirianus Balak. nom. nov. S. pedunculatus Edgew. in Trans. Linn. Soc. 21 : 74, 1846 (non Sch.-Bip. 1844); Hook f. FI. Brit. Ind. 3 : 342, 1881. Senecio khasianus Balak. nom. nov. S. obtusatus DC. Prodr. 6: 367, 1838 (non Pursh. 1814); Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 3 : 340, 1881. Senecio multiceps Balak. nom. nov. Doronicum arnottii DC. in Wight, Contr. Bot. 23, 1834; DC. Prodr. 6 : 322, 1838 (non S. arnottii Hook. f. 1844). Madaractis polycephala DC. Prodr. 6: 440, 1838. S. polycephalus (DC.) Clarke, Comp. Ind. 197, 1876 (non Ledeb. 1830); Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 3 : 344, 1881. Senecio stylosus Balak. nom. nov. Gynura walkeri Wight, Ic. PI. Ind. Or. t. 1122, 1846. S. walkeri (Wight) Thwaites, Enum. Pl. Zeyl. 167, 1860 (non Arnott 1836). Notonia walkeri (Wight) Clarke, Comp. Ind. 176, 1876; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 3 : 337, 1881. Jacobsen (Handb. Sukkulent Pflanzen. 2: 1026, 1954) reduced Notonia to Senecio on the basis that the succulent nature is common to both genera and that the ovate style tips of Notonia as compared to the truncate nature in Senecio can hardly be relied upon for generic distinction. Vernonia ceylanica Balak. nom. noy. V. scariosa Arn. in Nov. Act. Nat. Cur. 18 : 346, 1836 (non Poiret 1808); Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 3: 236, 1881. Decaneuron scariosum DC. Prodr. 7 : 264, 1838. Centratherum scariosum Clarke, Comp. Ind. 4, 1876. PRIMULACEAE Androsace dubyii (Dergnac) Balak. comb. nov. A. primuloides Duby in DC. Prodr. 8 : 51, 1844 (non Moench. 1802; nec D. Don. 1825); Pax & Knuth in Engler, Pflanzenr. 22 : 183, 1905. A. sarmentosa var. primuloides (Duby) Hook. f. in Curtis, Bot. Mag. t. 6210, 1876 et in FI. Brit. Ind. 3 : 498, 1882. A. sarmentosa var. dubyii Dergnac in Kneucker, Allg. bot. Zeitsch. 10 : 110, 1904. Lysimachia knuthiana Balak. nom. nov. L. glandulosa Knuth in Engler, Pflanzenr. 22 : 264, 1905 (non Edgew. 1846). Lysimachia muelleri Balak. nom. nov. L. salicifolia F. v. Muell. ex Benth. Fl. Austral. 4 : 269, 1868 (non Miller 1772\: Pax & Knuth in Engler, Pflanzenr. 22 : 305, 1905. Primula asperulata Balak. nom. nov. P. incisa Franch. in Bull. Soc. Bot. France 33 : 69, 1886 (non Lamk, 1778); Pax & Knuth, I.c. 66. NOMENCLATURAL NOTES ON SOME FLOWERING PLANTS 63 Primula flaccida Balak. nom. nov. P. nutans Delavay ex Franch. Bull. Soc. Bot. France 33: 69, 1886 (non Georgi 1797); Pax & Knuth, I.c. 94. Primula klattii Balak. nom. nov. P. uniflora Klatt in Linnaea 37: 500, 1872 (non Gmelin 1805); Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 3: 492, 1882. Primula roxburghii Balak. nom. nov. P. rotundifolia Roxb. FI. Ind. ed. 2, 2: 18, 1824 (non Pallas 1776); Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 3: 483, 1882. Primula rugosa Balak. nom. nov. Carolinella obovata Hemsl. in Hook. Icon. PI. t. 2775, 1903. P. obovata (Hemsl.) Pax in Engler, Pflanzenr. 24: 47, 1905 (non Duby 1844; nec Huter 1873). BORAGINACEAE Paracaryum uncinatum (Benth.) Balak. comb. nov. Cynoglossum ‘uncinatum Benth. in Royle, Illus. 305, 1836. C. laxum G. Don, Gen. Syst. 4:356, 1838. C. roylei Wall. ex DC. Prodr. 10: 155, 1846. Echinoglossum glochidiatum DC. Prodr. 10: 136, 1846. Paracaryum glochidiatum (DC.) Benth. in Benth. & Hook. f. Gen. Pl. 2: 850, 1876; Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 161, 1883. ACANTHACEAE Eranthemum L. Sp. Pl. 9, 1753. Daedalacanthus T. Anders. in Thw. Enum. Pl. Zeyl. 229, 1864; Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 417, 1884. Daedalacanthus T. Anders. is strictly synonymous to Eranthemum L. as the type species of the former, D. montanum T. Anders. is synony- mous to the type species of the latter, E. capense L. Eranthemum burmanicum Balak. nom. nov. Daedalacanthus parishii Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 421, 1884 (non E. parishii Clarke 1884). Eranthemum macrostachys (T. Anders.) Balak. comb. nov. Daedalacanthus macrostachys T. Anders. in J. Linn. Soc. 9: 488, 1867; Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 420, 1884. Eranthemum pulchellum Andr. Bot. Repos. 2: t. 88, 1800 (non Roxb. 1832). Justicia nervosa Vahl, Enum. 1: 164, 1804. E. nervosum (Vahl) R. Br. Prodr. 1: 477, 1810; Santapau in Univ. Bombay, Bot. Mem. 2:35, 1952. Daedalacanthus nervosus (Vahl) T. Anders. in J. Linn. Soc. 9: 487, 1867; Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 418, 1884. Eranthemum wardii (W. W. Smith) Balak. comb. nov. Daedalacanthus wardii W. W. Smith in notes R. Bot. Gard. Edinh, 10: 174, 1918, . i 64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) Synnema Benth. in DC. Prodr. 10: 538, 1846. Cardanthera Buch.- Ham. (ex Voigt, Hort. Sub. Calc. 482, 1845, nom. nud.) ex Nees in DC. Prodr. 11: 67, 1847; Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 403, 1884. Ade- nosma Wall. Pl. As. Rar. 3: 75, 1832 (non R. Br. 1810). The generic name Cardanthera taken by Voigt from a manuscript name of Buchanan-Hamilton was not validly published by Voigt in 1845 as such his note does not fulfil any of the conditions set by article 41 of the Code. The genus was validated only in 1847 by Nees von Esenbeck. However, by this time Cardanthera Buch.-Ham. ex Nees became antedated by Synnema Benth. (1846) and the latter name should be adopted as the correct name. Recently Raizada (in Indian For. 94: 431, 1968) published notes on this change in generic name. It seems necessary to point out that some of the species names listed by him are in neuter gender, while others are in feminine gender. Synnemais a Greek compound word (syn: with, together ; -nema: thread) in the neuter gender and Bentham (1846) attributed the same gender to his genus, as obvious from the ending of the specific epithet of the type species, S. avanum. According to article 23, the specific epithet when adjectival in form and not used as substantive should agree gramatically with the generic name. Hence all adjectival specific epithets belonging to Synnema should be in neuter gender, ending in-uwm. It may also be pointed out that Greek adjectives used as specific epithets show a disconcerting array of nominative endings and hence it is usual practice to give them the Latin endings,—a (f.), — us (m.) and um—(n.). The following are the correct names of Indian species of Synnema: Synnema anomalum (Blatter) Raizada in Indian For. 94: 451, 1968. Cardanthera anomala Blatter in J. As. Soc. Beng. 26: 350, 1930. Cardanthera anomala Blatter described from Bombay differs from all species of Synnema in having only one fertile stamen with one stami- node and just 10—12 seeds supported on curved retinacula, whereas Synnema is characterised by 4 fertile stamens and many seeds on straight retinacula. The type specimens, Hallberg 9766 and 9767 were collected from Vihar Lake, Salsette Island and Tardeo in Bombay. Santapau (Univ. Bombay, Bot. Mem. 2: 14, 1951) states that none of these speci- mens are present in Blatter Herbarium. As authentic material of this species is not available, it is not possible to decide now, whether it belongs to Synnema or another genus. Synnema balsamicum (L. f.) O. Ktze in Rev. Gen. Pl. 2: 500, 1891. Ruellia balsamica L. f. Suppl. 289, 1781. Adenosma balsamea Spreng. Syst. 2: 829, 1825. Cardanthera balsamica (L. f.) Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 4: 404, 1884. S. barbigera O. Ktze, |.c. 500; Raizada, I.c. 451. NOMENCLATURAL NOTES ON SOME FLOWERING PLANTS 65 Synnema balsamicum (L. f.) O. Ktze var. thymus (Nees) Balak. comb. nov. Adenosma thymus Nees in Wall. Pl. As. Rar. 3: 79, 1832. Cardanthera balsamica (L. f.) Benth. var. thymus (Nees) Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 404, 1884. Synnema biplicatum (Nees) Imlay in Kew Bull. 1939: 111, 1939. Adenosma biplicata Nees in Wall. Pl. As. Rar. 3: 79, 1832, Pedicularis avana Wall. ex Benth. Scroph. Ind. 52, 1835. Synnema avanum Benth. in DC. Prodr. 10: 538, 1846; Raizada, I.c. 451. Cardanthera avana Benth. ex Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 4: 405, 1884. Synnema avanum Benth. var. biplicatum (Nees) O. Ktze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 2: 500, 1891. Synnema griffithii (T. Anders.) O. Ktze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 2: 500, 1891. Adenosma griffithii T. Anders in J. Linn. Soc. 11: 454, 1870. Cardanthera griffithii Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 404, 1884. Synnema pinnatifidum (Dalz.) O. Ktze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 2: 500, 1891. Nomaphila pinnatifida Dalz. in Kew J. Bot. 3: 38, 1851. Adenosma pin- natifidum (Dalz.) T. Anders. in J. Linn. Soc. 9: 455, 1867. Cardanthera pinnatifida (Dalz.) Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 4: 405, 1884. Synnema triflorum (Roxb.) O. Ktze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 2: 500, 1891. Ruellia triflora Roxb. (Hort. Beng. 46, 1814, n.n.) Fl. Ind. 3:52, 1832. Adenosma triflora Nees in Wall. Pl. As. Rar. 3: 79, 1832. Cardanthera triflora (Roxb.) Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 4: 405, 1884. The combination, Cardanthera difformis (L. f.) Druce in Rep. Bot. Exch. Cl. Brit. Isles 1916, Suppl. 2: 612, 1917 based on Ruellia difformis L. f., made for this species is not correct as it is not a Synnema at all. The description and the synonym, ‘ Nir—Schulli’ Rheede (Hort. Malab. 2:89, t. 46, 1679) given by Linnaeus f. indicate this to be Hygrophila erecta (Burm. f.) Hochr. and not Synnema triflorum. Synnema uliginosum (L. f.) O. Ktze, Rev. Gen. PI. 2: 500, 1891. Ruellia uliginosa L. f. Suppl. 290, 1781. Adenosma uliginosa (L. f.) R. Br. in Verm. Schrift. 3:298 1867. Cardanthera uliginosa Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 403, 1884. Synnema verticillatum (Nees) O. Ktze, Rev. Gen. PI. 2: 500, 1891. Adenosma verticillata Nees in Wall. Pl. As. Rar. 3 : 79, 1832. Cardanthera verticillata (Nees) Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 4: 404, 1884. NEPENTHACEAE Nepenthes chapmannii Balak. nom. nov. N. zeylanica Chapm. in Ceylon J. Sci. Sect. A, Bot. 12: 221, 1947 (non Rafinesque 1836). 66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) ORCHIDACEAE Bulbophyllum devangiriensis Balak. nom. nov. B. uniflorum Griff. Notul. 3. 293, 1851 (non Hassk. 1844); Hook f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 5: 755, 1890. Sarcopodium uniflorum (Griff.) Lindl. Fol. Orch. 16, 1853. Bulbophyllum guttulatum (Hook. f.) Balak. comb. nov. Cirrhopetalum guttulatum Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind.5: 776, 1890. Bulbophyllum umbellatum Lindl. in Edw. Bot. Reg. 30: t. 44, 1844 (non Lindley 1830). Chiloschista Lindl. Fischer (in Gamble, Fl. Pres. Madras 1440, 1928) gives the spelling of this genus as Chilochista, but the original spelling given by Lindley is Chiloschista. Additional knowledge on the morphology of the genus Sarcochilus (sensu Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 6: 33, 1890) indicates this genus to be hete- rogenous composed of at least four distinct genera, Chiloschista, Micro- pera, Thrixspermum and Sarcochilus (sensu stricto). Most recent authors including Pfitzer (in Engler & Prantl, Pflanzenfam. 2(6): 216, 1889), J. J. Smith (in Fl. Buitenz. 6: 533, 1905 et in Fedde, Repert. 32: 350, 1933) and Santapau & Kapadia (Orch. Bombay 209, 1966) have accepted and followed this division. Chiloschista minimifolia (Hook. f.) Balak. comb. nov. Sarcochilus minimifolius Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 6: 37, 1890. Dendrobium perpusillum Balak. nom. nov. D. pumilum Roxb. FI. Ind. 3: 479, 1832 (non Swartz 1805); Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 5: 713, 1890. Dendrobium wightii Balak. nom. nov. D. graminifolium Wight, Ic. Pl. Ind. Or. t. 1649, 1851 (non Willd. 1805); Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 5: 718, 1890. Eulophia dabia (D. Don) Balak. comb. nov. Bletia dabia D. Don, Prodr. Fl. Nep. 30, 1825. Limodorum ramentaceum Roxb. FI. Ind. 3: 467, 1832. E. campestris Lindl. Gen. Sp. Orch. 185, 1833; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 6: 4, 1890. E. ramentacea (Roxb.) Lindl. Gen. Sp. Orch. 185, 1833. Micropera rostratum (Roxb.) Balak. comb. nov. Aerides rostratum Roxb. Fl. Ind. 3: 474, 1832. Camarotis purpurea Lind]. Gen. Sp. Orch. 219, 1833. Sarcochilus purpureus (Lindl.) Benth. ex Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 6: 36, 1890. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I express my thanks to Dr. A. S. Rao, Regional Botanist, Botanical Survey of India, Eastern Circle, Shillong for critically going through the manuscript and suggesting valuable modifications, The Behaviour of the Lesser Bandicoot Rat, Bandicota bengalensis (Gray & Hardwicke) BY DwaAIN W. PARRACK AND JACOB THOMAS (With eleven text-figures) A study of the behaviour of 4 adult Lesser Bandicoot Rats, Bandicota bengalensis, was conducted by observing their activity for 50 minutes per hour, 24 hours per day for 28 days. The animals were studied in a pen in which they could burrow freely. The amount of food removed from the food containers was measured and the amount of food hoarded was calculated. Measurements were also made of the amount of time spent above ground, the number of trips to the food platform, the timing of activity, and the number and types of social interactions. INTRODUCTION The lesser bandicoot rat, Bandicota bengalensis, is distributed throughout most of India, East Pakistan, and parts of Burma (Biswas & Tiwari; in press) and occupies both rural and urban environments. In rural areas it is an agricultural pest, burrowing into bunds separating farm plots and attacking standing crops. In cities this animal destroys large amounts of stored food and seems to be replacing Rattus rattus as the main urban rat. Records from the Plague Control Laboratory in Calcutta show that between 1936 and 1965, B. bengalensis increased from about 27 per cent to about 90 per cent of the rats captured in Calcutta and Howrah (Seal & Banerji; in press). This displacement of R. rattus represents a potential health hazard, as B. bengalensis has been reported to be more susceptible to the plague bacillus than R. rattus (Nimbkar & Deoras ; in press). The success of this species in replacing R. rattus is coupled with its high reproductive capacity. Southwick (in press) has compared the reproductive patterns of several murid rodents and using Spillett’s study of the bandicoots of warehouses in Calcutta and Howrah, showed an annual production of 69.6 young per year per female in B. bengalensis, as compared with 35.7 for R. norvegicus and 31.3 for R. rattus. Spillett (1968) in his warehouse studies found that the average population density for all 12 months of the year was .77 rats/square metre of ware- house floor space. However, the captures greatly decreased during the rainy months of July and August and when these two months are excluded, the average density jumps to 8.5 rats/square metre of floor space (personal communication). 68 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) There are few estimates of the amount of food lost to this bandicoot ; Deoras (1966) and Spillett (1968) reported on the daily consumption of caged animals. Patnaik (in press) has reviewed the estimates of daily consumptions for Indian rats in general and reports estimates of 20, 25, 30 and 60 g./day, but it is not possible to know if any of these figures are for B. bengalensis, or if they represent hoarding as well as actual consumption. Pingale et al. have gathered somewhat more detailed information for several species of murid rodents. Little is known of the behaviour of this species. Deoras (1967) has gathered information about their burrows, and Parrack (1966) reported on the activity cycle of animals in activity cages, but almost nothing is known of other aspects of the behaviour of this animal. As Kavanau (1967) and others have pointed out, the relatively sterile environment to which captive animals are often submitted tends to distort their behaviour. Zoo animals, for instance, often develop highly stereotyped behaviour which is completely foreign to their behaviour in the wild. To avoid the distortion of the behaviour of the bandicoots used in these studies, we have used a pen which, because of its dirt floor, allows for burrowing (apparently a strong psychological **need ’’ in these animals) and which allows considerable freedom for running about. Six groups of bandicoots, usually 4 adults (2 males and 2 females) have been studied. The number of periods of observation (50 minutes) varied from 6 to 24 in a 24 hour period. The present study, using 24 periods/day, is intended as a base-line for other studies. MATERIALS AND METHODS Two adult males (No. 33, weighing 245.8 gm.; No. 34, 211.4 gm.) and two adult females (No. 35, 190.0 gm.; No. 36, 165.5 gm.) were used in this study. All 4 animals had been trapped in a grain warehouse in Calcutta and housed in individual cages for 3 days before the study began. The animals were individually marked by clipping the hair in different parts of the body. All were apparently healthy and neither of the females showed signs of pregnancy. The animals were introduced into the study pen simultaneously in order to avoid the effects of prior occupancy. Detailed recording of the behaviour was begun at 17.00 hours, a few hours after introduction. The pen was constructed of bricks, mortar, and plaster and measured 4 by 6 m. (fig. 1). The walls were sunk 2 feet beneath the surface of the surrounding ground and 3 feet of additional dirt was put into the pen, thus reducing the chances of the animals digging out. The floor of the pen was laid off in 24, 1-metre squares with rows of half-buried bricks. and the squares were identified by combinations of letters and numbers, | CONTROL | Fig. 1. wwe” OAYS Bi.330%, Bisad, B..s59, GZ..s69 NOLE NO. 238 4 5 6 7 8B 9 10K 12 13 14:15 16 (7 18 19 20 21 22 23:24 25 26 27 28 29 50 5) 32 35 54 55 56 37 38 39 40 4) oOOnFKteawnn - r=) 1254 5 6 7 6 9 10 12 15 14 16 16 17 IB 19 20.21 2223 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33.34.35 36 37 38 39 4041 Fig. 2 BEHAVIOUR OF LESSER BANDICOOT RAT 69 The pen was roofed with wire mesh to prevent the entry of birds and predators. At night the pen was lighted with 4, 60-watt, clear light bulbs. A covered feeding platform was placed in square B-2 which had been bricked-in to prevent holes being dug directly beneath the platform. A large mirror was hung on the wall behind. the feeding platform so that the observers could see the animals which were hidden by the platform. A water dish was placed in square B-3 and in square B-4 there were caged food dishes (inaccessible to the rats) which were used as controls for changes in the weight of food due to relative humidity. Each burrow was marked with a stake bearing a number. Supplies of rice, wheat, and dal (Lens culinaris) were put into the food dishes and weighed at 17.00 hours and at 06.00 hours each day. The observational ‘‘ day ” began at 18.00 hours and ended 24 hours later. In the present study observations were made 50 minutes/hour, 24 hours/day for 28 days. The study was conducted during the winter (13 January to 10 February, 1968) during which time there was almost no rain and the average daily maximum and minimum temperatures were 78.8 F and 58.0°F respectively. Observations were made from a shed at one end of the pen, one observer recording the activity of one male and one female, a second observer recording the behaviour of the other 2 animals. The observers “traded” rats several times per day and the working hours of the observers were shifted to prevent individual bias in recording. Collective food consumption was recorded twice per day and the following data were recorded for each rat: number of squares entered, number of trips to food and water, number of entries into and exits from each burrow, time above ground, time spent in digging and grooming, and the number and type of social interactions. The data were transferred to punched cards and tabulated on an IBM 407 tabulator. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Social Rank In this study, as well as in others yet to be completely analysed, the animals began a series of fights within 5 minutes after being introduced into the pen. The fighting often was associated with the digging of holes. One animal would begin digging only to have another attempt to displace him, or her, from the hole. Within 15 or 20 minutes the dominant animal was identifiable by the observers because of his aggressiveness and the number of times the others moved away from him. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) The larger male, No. 33, very quickly established himself as the dominant and the smaller male, No. 34, was clearly the subordinate. Aspects of the dominance and subordinance of the males will be considered later. It is difficult to assign a rank to the females, as they had much less social interaction than male. The fact that 35 9 outweighed 36 2 by almost 25 g. suggests that she had a physical advantage over the latter. Further, she occupied the most favourable hole (under the food platform) and visited the food more often than did 36 2. Also, she was much more inclined to fight, initiating some 15 fights (as compared to 17 initiated by 33% and 1 by 36 ). Her weight, the location of her burrow, the number of her visits to food, and her aggressiveness might be indications that she out-ranked the other female. Barnett (1958) distinguished three ranks of males in laboratory colonies of wild Rattus norvegicus : (1) ‘“‘alpha’’ males, which were larger than the others, were aggressive, displayed no hesitation in moving in the cage, and always gained weight; (2) “‘beta’’ males, which ranked below the “‘alpha’’ but above the “‘omegas,”’ had been defeated by the “‘alphas’’ in combat but did not develop “shock’’ and always gained weight; (3) ‘‘omega’’” males, which were continuously persecuted, moved about more slowly, had poor condition of the fur, lost weight, and often died of “‘shock.”’ In the present study the two males showed mixtures of character- istics of all three ranks. The dominant male (33) was like Barnett’s “‘alphas” in that he was larger, more aggressive, and moved freely about the pen. However, he lost weight (20.3 gm.). The subordinate male (34) resembled Barnett’s “‘omegas’’ in being continuously harassed by the dominant, moving more slowly (Table 2) and in losing weight (15.4 gm.). However, the fact that he survived the 28 days of persecution would seem to classify him as a “‘beta’’. Food Consumption The animals used in this study almost always emptied the food dishes after each of the two daily fillings. The food supply, therefore, was not unlimited, but it was more than adequate, since excavation of the burrows at the end of the study revealed a considerable amount of rotting food. During the 28 days of the study, a total of 4,398 gm. of food was removed, a daily average of 162.9 gm. of 40.7/gm./rat/day. These figures lie somewhere between the minimal requirements and the amount they would remove given an unlimited supply. Grain warehouses often have, what to the rats, are limitless supplies of food. In a study of 8 penned bandicoots Parrack (in press) found EIGHTS CHASES MOUNTS FIGHTS \ 33C V 34.0 APPROACHES Mihi: apie » hyn BEHAVIOUR OF LESSER BANDICOOT RAT 71 that given an unlimited supply the rats removed a daily average of 67.4 gm./rat and calculated that this amount was about 5 times the amount actually consumed. Deoras (1967) reported a daily consumption of 12.8 gm./rat/day and Spillett (1968) reported about 11 gm./rat/day. These figures are for the amount actually eaten and do not include hoarding. Our own studies (in press) of adults in individual cages which allowed no hoarding showed an average consumption of 14.9 gm./rat/day (34 rats; x body wt. =216.7 gm.). The discrepancies in these three reports are probably due to indivi- dual variations in the physiology of the rats, the body size of the rats, the season of the year, and the duration of captivity. If the average of the three reports (12.9 gm. rat/day) is taken to be fairly reliable estimate of actual food consumption, the animals in the present study were probably consuming 32 per cent and hoarding 68 per cent of the total amount removed from the food containers. General Comparison of Individuals During the course of the study the males lost weight and the females gained. Table 2 summarizes several types of activity for the entire study period. In most of these activities there is a strong difference between the sexes. In terms of the total number of squares entered, the males were much more active than the females, with the dominant male (No. 33) entering almost 7 times as many squares as the least active female. The number of squares entered is also associated with the initial weight of the animals, the heaviest animal (330) being the most active, the lightest (36 2 ), the least active. TABLE 1 CHANGES IN BODY WEIGHT DURING THE 28 DAYS OF THE STUDY Rat No. Initial wt. (gm.) | Final wt. (gm.) | Change (gm.) ‘| 2B yee gia amma aa 245.8 225.5 arg annoit aoc be , 211.4 196.0 ae Se B52 Jo telus vilab ay, 190.0 229.5 e305 369 165.5 1953 | 1-298 Overall average body wt.=207.4 gm. The subordinate male spent more than twice as much time above ground than did the dominant male. It seems likely that he was prevented from entering the burrows by the dominant. Not only did the subordinate 6 72 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 67 (1) male spend more time above ground, he moved about less rapidly than the other 3 animals, entering only 1.7 squares/minute above ground, as compared with 5.4 for the dominant and 7.6 for 35 9. Female 35 and the dominant male made frequent trips to the food platform (both more than 3000 times), while 34 & and 36 2 went much less often. The sub- ordinate male did much more wandering per trip to food (21.6 squares/ trip) than did the others. The 2 females had taken up residence in burrows near the food platform and confined most of their movement to food gathering, hence they entered only 2.2 (352) and 3.1 (36 9) squares per trip. Female 35, who occupied a hole under the food platform, visited the food dishes on an average of every 17 seconds (.3 min./trip) when she was above ground, while female 36, occupying a hole slightly further away, returned to the platform every 38 seconds (.6 min./trip). The sub- ordinate male returned to platform on an average of every 12.5 minutes in contrast to the dominant male who returned after average intervalsof 1.6 minutes. Grooming : Neither of the females was observed grooming. Male 33 groomed for a total of 9 minutes and male 34 for 20 minutes. Grooming as a displacement activity has been reported for several rodents and Barnett (1958) describes it in R. rattus. Displacement activities occur when the expression of a drive is blocked or frustrated. That the males, rather than the females, groomed in this study and that the subordinate male groomed much more than the dominant, suggests that at least some of the grooming observed here was a displacement. Digging : The amount of time of observed digging was not related to sex or rank. It is known that most, if not all, of the burrows were interconnected, and as the burrows were extensive, much of the digging must have been done when the animals were invisible to the observers. Trips to water : The timing of the trips to the water container reflected the general pattern of activity, that is, during those hours when the animals entered many squares, there was an increase in the number of trips to water. Most of the trips fell between 18.00-24.00 hours and 06.00-09.00 hours, the times in which the food platform was visited more frequently. There was, however, no correlation between the daily total of squares entered and the daily total of trips to water. Diurnal activity : Although bandicoots are generally nocturnal, they, like R. norvegicus (Calhoun 1962), will become active during the day time under undisturbed conditions. Of the total time spent above ground by all 4 animals about 35 per cent was during the day time and about 48 per cent of the trips to the food platform took place during the day-light hours. Fig. 5 TOTAL 120] 100 Ir HO ‘| O===0 .. .. APPROACHES | @- wg { AGGRESSIVE ENCOUNTERS le«, @ 3 4 5 4 DAY PERIODS Fig. 6 _ BEHAVIOUR OF LESSER BANDICOOT RAT 73 Use of Burrows Forty-one holes were dug by the rats during the 28 days of the study. The usage of these holes (as indicated by the number of times the animals entered or left them) was far from uniform. No entries were recorded for 2 of the holes after they had been dug. On the other hand, some of the holes were entered well over a thousand times. Fig. 2 gives a history of the occupancy of the holes which has been simplified by considering only those holes which were entered 10 or more times in a day by an individual rat. The records of entries and exits were so nearly identical that only the entries will be considered. The most striking characteristic illustrated by fig. 2 is that the females tend to settle down very quickly to occupying one hole, while the males are more inclined to change burrows. On day 2, female 35 began frequent- ing hole No. 3 (under the food platform, fig. 1) which she occupied through- out the remainder of the study. In the 26 days of her occupancy she made a total of 3,983 entries of which 3,310 (83 per cent) were into that hole. The other female (36) established herself in hole No. 5 on day 6 and used it as a residence for the rest of the 28 days even though on days 19, 20, and 23 she was generally inactive and entered the hole less than 10 times. She was somewhat less active than 35 making a grand total of 2,348 entries ; 1,943 (82 per cent) of which were into hole number 5. The domi- nant male occupied several holes. On day 6 he began frequenting No. 4 and deserted it on day 14. His second major hole was No. 19 which he occupied from day 11 through day 28. Twenty per cent of his 4,060 entries was to hole No. 4 and 44 per cent was to hole No. 19. Hole No. 30 was less often visited by him and accounted for only 5 per cent of his total entries. The subordinate male never established a permanent residence. His longest residence was for 3 days (hole No. 8) after which he was dis- placed by 33 o&. He was likewise displaced from holes No. 4 and 30. The difference in the males’ total number of entries is striking, with 4,060 for 33 o and only 616 for 34. Social Interactions The following social behaviour were recorded : fighting, chasing, bumping, genital sniffing, mounting, pelvic thrusting, and approaching and following. Chasing differed from following in that the former was slower than the latter. Approaching is defined as an interaction in which one animal comes toward another and in which no other type of interaction (fighting, mating, etc.) results. Bumping is used to describe the striking of one animal with the hip of another. The other terms are self-explanatory. No occasion of what Barnett (1958) called “‘amicable’” behaviour in R. rattus were seen in this study, 74 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) Categorizing of most of these behaviours into headings such as Aggressive and Sexual is straight forward ; Aggressive behaviour involving fighting and bumping and Sexual involving genital sniffing, mounting and pelvic thrusting. Some behaviours, however, are less easily categorized. Chasing, for instance, could conceivably be aggressive or sexual in moti- vation and it seemed logical to consider all chasing as aggressive except for the questionable case of a male chasing a female. As it turned out, there were no cases of a male chasing a female. Approaching, like chasing, could conceivably be of sexual or non-aggressive motive. However, it seems likely that most of the cases of approaching were aggressive. This will be discussed later. In this analysis attention is focused on the number and type of inter- actions initiated (so far as the observers could determine) by the indivi- dual rat. The number of interactions initiated by each rat varied a great deal: 33 initiated a total of 597, while the next most active animal, 35 @, initiated only 66. Female 36 was still less active with 20 interactions, and the subordinate male throughout the 28 days of the study was seen initiating only one action, a single approach to 35 9. Figures 3 and 4 summarize the interactions of the 4 animals. Of the 597 interactions of 33 o& the majority (81 per cent) were either chasing or approaching the subordinate male. It seems likely that approaching in this case was aggressive, since the timing of the approaches and of the clearly recognisable forms of aggression (fighting, chasing) were almost mutually exclusive (fig. 2). Incidents of clearly recognizable aggression by 33" against 34 o& tended to occur on a 24 hour cycle, in the morning between 06.00 and 09.00 hours when the subordinate male made most of his trips to the food. This is taken to mean that during most of the “‘day’’ 34’s trips to food could be intimidated by a mere approach by 33 a, but that when hunger drove him to the food platform, more violent forms of aggression resulted (figs. 9, 11). Relatively little actual fighting occurred. Of the 33 fights recorded 17 were started by 33 o, 15 by 35 9, and 1 by 36 9. Twenty of the 33 fights involved 34 o& who, therefore, did somewhat more fighting than any of the other 3 animals. The females chased only the males, not each other, and 36 2 bumped 33 o 10 times. The subordinate male was not seen in any sexual activity. Similar observations were made by Calhoun (1962) on penned Norway rats (R. norvegicus) in which some low ranking males showed no sexual behaviour and in which highly dominant males sometimes held territories containing several females. DAV S 27 25 23 2t 19 17 15 3 th 8S F § 8 HOURS : 168 20 22 24 2 4 6 8 10 !2 14 16 18 oAY S 27 25 23 21 19 17 1 13 41 9 7 S 38 16 2022 242 4 6 § 10 12114 16 18 HOURS Fig. 7 = HOURS ; 8 20 22 242 4 6 B 10 12 14 16 SAVa '¢c¢ sz 6 tt & St 4 6 12 &@ G2 22 1 € GZ 6W St St 2 Gl te SZ Szaz SAWQG (18 20 22242 4 6 B 0 12 6 tt HOURS Fig. 8 BEHAVIOUR OF LESSER BANDICOOT RAT 75 The dominant male sniffed the genital region of 36 2 18 times and attempted to mount 9 times, but in 8 of these the female either kicked him off or moved away. Only once was successful mounting and pelvic thrusting observed (day 6) in the case of this female. Female 35 was somewhat more receptive. He sniffed her genital region 5 times, succeeded in positioning his feet on her back 4 times and displayed pelvic thrusting twice (both on day 25). Neither of the females was obviously pregnant at the end of the study. The relationship of social rank of males, and the number of off- spring sired is one which should be considered in campaigns of chemo- sterilization of rats. Calhoun (1962) showed in R. norvegicus high ranking males were more sexually active and the present study indicates that the same is true in bandicoots. If dominant males were shown to be more easily given the chemosterelant (either by their being more easily trapped or more willing to take bait), the task of chemosterilization might be made easier. If, on the other hand, low ranking and sexually inactive individuals were more easily trapped or more willing to take the bait, the task would be made more difficult. The interactions of the females were, for the most part restricted to a few squares, chiefly the squares in which their burrows or the food platform were located. The males, on the other hand, had interactions scattered over a much larger area of the pen. Of the 330 approaches by 33 &| to 34 o& for which the location was noted, the majority occurred in squares B-2 (food platform), B-4, A-6 (hole No. 4), C-6, D-6 (fig. 1). Chases were less common, with 115 of known location. These most frequently occurred in B-2 (food platform), A-3 and A-6 (hole No. 4). The locations of 11 fights are known: 5 took place in B-2 (food platform), 3 in B-4, and the remaining were scattered with single fights in 3 different squares. Cycles of Activity G. H. Wang (cited in Richter, 1965) showed that R. norvegicus females in activity cages have a 4-day cycle of wheel-running and that this cycle is associated with the oestrus cycle, ovulation occurring just before the peak of wheel-running. One of the female bandicoots used in the present study (35) displayed a rather well developed 3-day cycle in the number of squares entered (Table 3), which possibly reflects the oestrus cycle of this species. In her record there are five 3-day periods and one period of 6 days. The other female (36) was much less consistent with peaks of activity being separated by 2 to 6 days. The males showed peaks separated by 2 to 5 days, the most common being 4 days. 76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 ) During the first 10 days of the study there were 4 occasions when the peak of activity of one of the females coincided with the peak of one of the males, but during the remaining 18 days the peak of activity of the males were synchronized with each other. If the 3-day cycles shown by 36 ¢ were actually reflections of her oestrus cycle, a degree of synchrony between her and the males might be expected. This, however, was rarely the case. Calhoun (1962) reported an increase of fighting among male R. rattus when females were in heat, but in the present study fighting showed no pattern comparable to the 3-day cycle of 35 9. The cause of her cycle is unknown. Changes in Behaviour During the course of the study several aspects of behaviour changed considerably. While the amount of time above ground for the females remained low and constant throughout the 28 days, the males spent increasing amounts of time above ground (fig. 6). The subordinate male during the last two 4-day periods remained above ground about 80 per cent of the time and was often seen sleeping in the food platform when the dominant male was underground. Although the increase in the dominant’s time above ground could have been caused by a number of factors, it is difficult to avoid the impression that he was remaining above ground in response to the subordinate. The subordinate could not escape from the area, as he might have done in a warehouse or field, and he was physically and behaviourally capable of surviving the persecution by the dominant. This seems to have lead to increasing amounts of time above ground and to an increase in the amount of harassment. As shown in fig. 6, the amount of aggression (here defined as fighting and chasing) increased 11-fold from the first to the last 4-day period. As mentioned earlier, approaches seem to be of aggressive motivation. If fighting, chasing, and approaching are considered as one, the total amount of aggression increased 13-fold during the study. In addition to changes in the amount of time spent above ground and the amount of aggression there were changes in the daily patterns of activity. Figs. 7 and 8 summarize in a simplified fashion the daily activity (number of squares entered) of male 33 and female 35 for 28 days. These two animals were more regular in the timing of their activity than were the other two; however, the patterns of the two males were very similar to each other, and the same is true for the females. The females throughout most of the study displayed two peaks of activity, the first during the early hours of the night, 18.00-20.00 hours, the second in the morning, 06.00-07.00 hours. These peaks are associated with the weighing of the food at 17.00 and 06.00 hours. Female 35 lived in a burrow under the food platform and seems to have become active in response to the dis- turbance. The other female, living a short distance away, was not so Hrs. CzFYFILNA “SBS QFYFILNA “SOS GFYFILNI “SOS iy ty] AGGRESSIVE ENCOUNTERS ° C3FIYFALNI “SOS > @ < o™ HAs. 20 18 20 Hrs. 18 rA\ Q } ry s CFUTLANGZ 'SOS DAY w os] CIAFZANI SBS DAY ~) Ow CFYFLNI a! ) a "SOs = <- 4 50 9 So ee” C2YUFLNI SOS C-4 ~ a 20 1s 18 HRS. Fig. 10 BEHAVIOUR OF LESSER BANDICOOT RAT 77 regular in her response. The males also showed an early evening peak, but this declined during the last week of the study. Their morning peak was well developed, although not as uniform as that of the females. During the last half of the study the males had a third peak which occurred in the middle of the night, 24.00-03.00 hours. 10. SUMMARY . The amount of food removed from the food dishes by the 4 bandi- coots far exceeded the amount they consumed. Roughly 68 per cent of the food removed was hoarded in the burrows. The females spent much less time above ground than did the males. Each female occupied a single burrow throughout most of the 28 days of the study, while the males tended to change burrows and to use none as intensively as did the females. The subordinate male, unable to leave the pen, spent more time above ground than did the dominant male. The great majority of social interactions were initiated by the domi- nant male, and most of his interactions were aggressive and were directed toward the subordinate male. The amount of aggression increased with the passage of time. Most of the aggression occurred near the food platform. . The subordinate male was in no sexual activity at all. The females had two daily peaks of activity, one in the early evening, one in the morning, both probably associated with the disturbance of weighing the food. The males had a peak of activity in the middle of the night in addition to peaks in the early evening and morning. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This investigation was supported by United States Public Health Research Grant No. TW-00141-05 from the National Institutes of Health. 78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) REFERENCES BARNETT, S. A. (1958): An analysis of social behaviour in wild rats. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 130(1): 107-152. CALHOUN, J. B. (1962): The ecology and sociology of the Norway rat. U. S. Public Health Service Pub. No. 1008. 288 pp., Washington. DeEorAS, P. J. (1966): Some observa- tions on the probable damage caused by rats in Bombay. Indian J. Ent. 28(4): 543-547. KAVANAU, J. L. (1967): Behaviour of captive white-footed mice. Sci. 155 (3770): 1623-1639. NimpkKaR, Y. S. & DEoORAS P. J. (in press). PARRACK, D. W. (1966): The activity cycle of the lesser bandicoot rat, Bandicota bengalensis. Curr. Sci. 35(21): 544-545. PINGALE, S. V., KRISHNAMURTHY K. & RAMASIVAN T. (1967): Rats. Foodgrain Technologists’ Research Association of India, Hapur. 91 pp. RICHTER, C. P. (1965): Biological clocks in medicine and_ psychiatry. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois. 108 pp. SPILLETT, J. J. (1968): The ecology of the lesser Bandicoot-Rat in Calcutta. Bombay Natural History Society and Johns Hopkins University. 1s 20 Hrs. igs 20 HRS 11 Fig ne Roe d ry 2 ei a ae ire ES ICS ERE BSN SG amg AUDA 2 oes e a cas EA RIOTS URI EIEN eee he or * > ~ wt ae oes =) Sion ate s —_ £ i a = ars eye wes) aes oo shoe been . . 3 : = e : fi i ae are ee SESE SEL Sat aS aaa tile 5: nies Fneaperesme mts ee i sd ae : i 2 pe é ; ee Sot 0 : & = et ; - “ ee ol % - : 2 => ‘3 ~ ‘ “es > vt J 4 5 : i 3 . 2 3 ¢ #4 4 o eed is ? — ss : c= eS = i 7. = #4 "1 a* 3 wv I a ie = j “ z x ‘ sf .- + % : fed ee 3 5 Tate Se a ee 1 J t ae, Pi Box = ® a " i ‘ £4 i ees } ; 7% ¢ me | . ccm eater. » Be E % ; ea ; A ra a : 3 F = ar. ; Pa - - : ry 3 7 ; A * “ ~ ‘ é d E -% et. * * : . a oes d i 4 J’ : . — * * ~ cy * % i =e i & 7“ % ai E ' a a : , | s ; t . 4 4 : ‘J ed a je c q ‘ 5 2 Ay = zs < seed ~ i — Xx Me ke - “ n ~ et d 3 . oo i OLS ~ eo) — 2 “ % — 4 fe a= ~ be ie a : 5 : + ‘ j Pa ; : 2 wey ? 4 oem igtte he Pee ' or Py . ; wera ag ee or Mat . i : 7 8 | wa SX ve = Zz # ae ad “a . es, J —— ‘ =2) — a es es. Fa 5 ~ H 'g = oa i 4 be o = = i : = Fd A ; ~ 4 _ ¢ - a i . . : 4 7 eee ee we < : i , 2 7 x" is . ’ = re: : be " “ vet ; ‘ 7 ; - 4 yee fF a $ : ae _— t at F ~~. . : a « > | % d “ey ! on 4 Wa; a 4 3 i“ ? a } z ; =» f A o ‘ | 0 i . ‘ \ j 4 ie ; 4 i ; a ” ‘ 7 z, 4 & * ee * ee s 5 ae oe Se OSES eee Sree enw ee, wy Say Sh c : : Sas i Sioa Ao neste Da 5 + pena snge —_ “= — -~ 9 = Leh a RR RES a Se 79 BEHAVIOUR OF LESSER BANDICOOT L6 ect cel (4X6 JOE 0} sdity, OI oe 66 te (44 a4 | 89 9'T pooj 0} sdiq} ELIS /punois Sout oAoge soyNUl|y lee GC 9°17 0°6 pooj 01 dit} /sorenbs Plo O56 67 007'T Sere Ove wale €66 901'T €° CV L’t acaal ZOL‘E vst ves 0079 POOoj 0} punoig pano™ punoig3 sd} sA0ge on a a sA0qe JO ‘ON oun % |sarenbs soyNUI[ 8r8°s EES‘L 876° €7 p8EEE po19}us sorenbs TeI0L 5 9€ 5 SE filmes gle 15 ate "ON 1° SAV 87 ONIUNG SISNATVONT “Gg TWOCIAIGNI Ad SAILIAILOV TVudaAaS dO NOSIYVdWNOD Z Alavi, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,_: Vol. 67 (1) 80 “ON Aeq SISNTTVONAG ‘{ f JO (GAxaLNA SAUVNDS ‘ON) ALIALLOV JO SAV Avdd JO NOSIUVaWOD € Flav, Notes on some peculiar cases of Phytogeographic distributions BY V. M. MEHER - HOMII Institut Francais, Pondicherry (With two plates) INTRODUCTION The flora of a place is above all the result of phylogenesis which has bestowed to the area a certain number of species through the evolutionary history. The prevailing climate acts as a sieve of big dimension permitting only those species of the allotted stock to thrive whose tolerance range fall within the limits imposed by the climate. Soil factors act as a sieve of finer dimension operating further selection in the fraction passed on by the climate. Biotic factors, mainly man and his domesticated animals introduce a further check on the vegetation. Man’s action has been on the destructive side mostly, but even when protective like the silvicultural treatments, it is at the expense of a large number of species that a couple of economic ones are favoured. He and his cattle have degraded the optimum stages of the natural vegetation which are as a rule forests to thickets or savannas. He also plays an important role in extending the areas Of species, intentionally or accidentally. BIOTIC FACTORS Anthropogenic The accidental introduction may be illustrated at least with reference to three species. (1) Capparis decidua (Forsk.) Pax—The distribution of Capparis decidua is discontinuous. It is spread over Northern Tropical Africa, Egypt, Arabia, Persia and West Pakistan; in India it covers Rajasthan, Northern Gujarat and the Deccan from Julwania up to Bijapur. After a considerable discontinuity it reappears in the extreme south-east part of the Peninsula. Its introduction in this south-east corner via the ship route from Africa may be a possibility as is also suggested by the distribution pattern of Acacia planifrons. (2) Acacia planifrons-W. & A. (Plate 1) The Umbrella Thorn Tree is distributed mainly over the semi-arid area of south-east corner 82 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) of India near Tuticorin and Pamban in Tirunelveli and Ramanathapuram districts and at a few localities in Madurai and Coimbatore districts. It is found also in Bellary but is planted there. After a long discontinuity in the Peninsular India, the species is encountered near Porbandar (Kathiawar) which is and which was a port of some importance in the past like Tuticorin. Morphologically the species is closely allied to A. spirocarpa Hochst. ex A. Rich. of North-East Africa and Arabia (Fyson 1919; Viart 1963). The Map shows the distribution of A. planifrons. Marco Polo during his return from China (1291-1295), visited a part of India. One of his observations was concerning the flourishing horse trade between the ports of south Arabia (notably Aden) and Cail, a port of south India which has presently disappeared but which was at the mouth of the Tambraparani River in Tirunelveli District (Hambis 1955; Viart 1963). Annually about 10,000 horses were imported. A good number of these perished due to lack of care and had to be replaced. Marco Polo notes that the Sultans of the Arabian and the Persian Gulf ports received considerable revenues because of this commerce. This trade continued for a long time even in the hands of Portugese after the Arabs. Panikkar (1958) also reports that the Portugese supplied persian horses to the Vijayanagar Empire. This important trade route between Arabia, Africa and the above mentioned ports of India may be responsible for the accidental intro- duction of the species in India where over centuries it has emerged as a species only slightly distinct from the African-Arabian member. (3) Hyphaene indica Becc. The Indian Doum Palm has been reported from the sandy coast of Daman, Diu and near Bombay (Seshagiri Rao 1963, 1964; Abraham 1969). Hence the endemic occurrence of the species in the erstwhile Portugese territories is a noteworthy feature. Besides, H. indica has close morphological affinities with H. thebaica (L.) Mart. of Africa. This peculiar genus of branched palm is concentrated in Africa, Madagascar, and Arabia with as many as 30 species (Willis 1967). H. indica seems to be a case of early introduction on the west Coast of India. Anamalous Distribution The discontinuous patchy distribution of Hardwickia binata Roxb. in peninsular India is a puzzle. Hardwickia binata is encountered on acid parent rock, genissic complex, sandstone or quartz in the plateau region of Andhra Pradesh, (4oyinp :Soloyd ) ‘peddoy jou uayM 901} 94} Jo sduvlvadde ‘Adouvo padeys [eWIOU 34} SION “jsatOJ uadoO UI DJOWIG DIYIIMpsDT -BJOIQUIN SIVSTIN}OvIVYS S}I YM suosfiudjd DIIDIP J. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 67 (1) Meher-Homji : Phytogeographic Distributions PLATE II LEGEND QQ Hardwickia binata Albizia amaro Hordwickio binato Albizia amara Acacia planifrons Hyphaene indica 150 Above: Hardwickia binata (foreground) in tree-savanna. Note its deformed shape due to lopping and hacking. Below: Distribution of Acacia planifrons, Hyphaene indica, Hardwickia binata and Albizia amara NOTES ON PHYTOGEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION 83 Mysore State and Salem District of Tamil Nadu. After a long disconti- nuity it reappears in the Malegaon Desh, the Satmala and the Satpura ranges of the Deccan trap country and in a few parts of the Vindhya and Mahadeo ranges (Map). Another remarkable feature of its distribution is its complete absence in the Western Ghats. It occurs on the east-west oriented Satmala, Satpura, Mahadeo and Vindhya ranges but is conspicuous by its absence in the north-south oriented Sahyadris. It is found in dis- continuous patches in NE-SW oriented hills of Eastern Ghats (in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu) and near Haveri, Harihar, Chitradurga, Hiriyur and Tumkur (Mysore State) just to the east of the Western Ghats. Rainfall range is 500 to 1200 mm. spread over a period of 4 to 6 months in the areas of Hardwickia but the distribution of the species has not been satisfactorily correlated with climatic and soil conditions. It is not uncommon to come across statements like “‘ the distribution of Hardwickia is curious and not readily explicable,” “‘ distribution of Hardwickia cannot be logically explained ’’ in the Working Plans. Brandis (1911) noted that Hardwickia binata most commonly grows on sandstone, and if found on trap, as in south Berar, the rock is rich in veins of quartz. According to Champion (1936) this species is the most characteristic of shallow hard gravelly soils over trap but occurs on a variety of other rocks though then more mixed with other trees. In Satpura division of Chhindwara district Hardwickia occurs on sandstone with underlying marl,—a reddish, soft and crumbling material intermediate between rock and soil (Working Plan). Mahabale & Karnik (1958) considered Hardwickia forests of the Satpura range in Maharashtra to be edaphic climax because they are found only in a few definite localities on recent alluvial formations. They further reported that calciferous soils inhibit its good growth whereas black soils with higher percentage of silica favours better growth. Pataskar & Seshagiri Rao (1965-66) are of the opinion that in the Dhulia District Hardwickia is conspicuous on the leached out soils. Bhatia (1959) on the other hand states that Hardwickia occurs on the calcareous soil in Madhya Pradesh and that it grows well on the black cotton soil. He describes a Tectona-Hardwickia forest on limestone in the Nimar division. Karnik (1955) observes that the belt of Hardwickia in the Satpura range of Khandesh is associated with cherty or gritty soil. Pebbles of 84 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) white, yellow or red quartz and scanty and stunted nature of the grass growth are enumerated as the special features of the Hardwickia soil. In the Working Plan of North and East Khandesh Division (1958) it is stated that the soil carrying Hardwickia forest is hard, gravelly or gritty with admixture of pebbles of quartz crunching under feet. Because of its general association with skeletal soil, Hardwickia forests have been called as an edaphic type; however, we have observed this species on deep black soil in Andhra Pradesh. From the foregoing it may be seen that contrasting views have been expressed as to the edaphic requirements of the species; this is because every study has been on a local scale and not covering the entire distri- bution range of Hardwickia. Mall (1968) comparing the forest of Daultapur (in Dewas division at a distance of 113 km. from Bhopal) with that of Kalakund (in Mhow range about 40 km. from Indore) finds that Hardwickia is totally absent in the former. He attributes this difference to historical factor asserting that there is no significant difference in soil characters of the two forests. We would like to emphasise here the role of human interference and grazing. In the Working Plan of the Buldana sub-division (W. Berar Dn.) it is stated that there has been no reproduction in Hardwickia forests for at least 20 years. Seeding may not be good each year but it has been abundant every 3 to 5 years. After each seeding, a number of seedlings come up but they are all destroyed in the summer. It may also be added that Hardwickia does not coppice like other trees of the deciduous forest. Grazed areas show indications of reproduction having been killed back by browsing or badly hacked about by graziers. Burning and grazing are quoted as the devastating biotic factors in the Hardwickia forests by Champion & Seth (1965). Cattle and goats are fond of Hard- wickia leaves and the trees in the vicinity of villages are badly lopped and hacked for fodder (Plate I and II). Great is the utility of the tree in dry years like 1966 when it was chiefly responsible for feeding the herds in absence of grasses, in some drought-stricken parts of Madhya Pradesh (Pers. Comm., D.N. Pateria, D.F.O., Khargon). In short, unassisted Hardwickia eidhice itself extremely slowly. : There is some natural regeneration of this species by seeds in E. and N. Khandesh divisions as also in Satpura division, Chhindwara District where the site factors are favourable. Hardwickia resists fire but - NOTES ON PHYTOGEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION 85 the growth for the first few years is very slow. (Working Plan for the Satpura forests of East and North Khandesh Divisions, 1958). Natural regeneration is again very poor in Dewas division. There is also a dearth of younger age classes due to past selective working, though Hardwickia represents over 50 per cent of the trees in the overwood. We too have observed that the seedlings of Hardwickia are practically lacking in many of the open forests and tree-savannas where there are big old trees of the species. Does this lack of natural regeneration mean that the. areas where Hardwickia exists to-day will in course of time be replaced by other species when the old trees will have completed their life span? The gradual disappearance in patches may explain the dis- continuous distribution of the species. Working Plan of Buldana division makes a note that in the folds of hills and along many nalas teak reproduction is plentiful and it is probable that teak may one day replace Hardwickia over greater part of this type. In the open forests of the Satpura and Satmala, Hardwickia is generally gregarious towards the borders of the forests but not so in the interior. Because of its very hard wood it is not so easy to fell. Whereas the other species become the victim of axe at the forest margin, Hard- wickia escapes the maltreatment. In the interior where the forests are better protected not being easily accessible, other species have a fair chance of survival and the abundance of Hardwickia is not so striking. ROLE OF EDAPHIC FACTOR That the soil factor can bring about discontinuous distribution is shown by the range of Albizzia amara Boiv. This species which is so common in the southern part of the Peninsula disappears from Bijapur northwards over the black soils of the Deccan trap zone. In this tract geology changes from gneissic complex, quartzite, slate and sandstone to the Deccan trap. It reappears in the Nasik, Dhulia, Jalgaon and West Nimar districts (Map). In these areas it is associated with alluvial soils or with red ferruginous soils derived from the trap on the hills but not with black clayey calcimorph soils. Its acidophilous nature seems to explain its discontinuous distribution. SUMMARY The role of biotic, especially anthropogenic factor, has been emphasised to explain the discontinuous distribution patterns of Capparis decidua, Acacia planifrons, Hyphaene indica and Hardwickia binata. 86 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) The discontinuity in the range of Albizzia amara may be correlated to its acidophilous nature, eliminating it over the black calcimorph soils of the Deccan trap. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I am thankful to Dr. P. Legris for having extended to me the facility to tour the mapped area and to consult the forest working plans. REFERENCES ABRAHAM, V. (1969): A preliminary survey on the flora of Trombay. Proc. S$6th Indian Sci. Congr. Abstr. Pt. UI: 326-327. BuaTiA, K. K. (1959): Teak bearing forests of Old Madhya Pradesh. Indian For. 85: 710-722. BRANDIS, D. (1911): Indian trees. CHAMPION, H. G. (1936): A preliminary survey of the forest types of India and Burma. Indian For. Rec. 1: 286 CHAMPION, H. G. & Setu, S. K.: (1965): A revised survey of the forest types of India. Dehra Dun. Fyson, P. F. (1919): Acacia planifrons W. & A. Bot. Bull. Presidency College, Maaras. pp. 4-5. Hampis, L. (1955): La description du monde par Marco Polo. Paris 433. KarRNnIK, C. R. (1955): A contribution to biogeographical studies of Khandesh with special reference to the Satpura range. Bombay Geogr. Mag. 1: 65-72. MAHABALE, T. S. & KARNIK C. R. (1958): Ecology of Satpura forests, Bombay State, India. J. Univ. Bombay 26 (pt. 5): 33-49. Matt, L. P. (1968): Ecology of Daultapur and Kalakund forests of Madhya Pradesh. Proc. Symp. Recent Adv. Trop. Ecol. 2: 398-406. ISTE. Varanasi. PANIKKAR, K. M. (1956):. Histoire de l’Inde. Paris 396 p. PATASKAR, R. D. & SESHAGIRI RAO, R. (1965-66): Studies on the vegetation of Toranmal ranges and surrounding areas of Dhulia District, Maharashtra State. Proc. 53rd Indian Sci. Congr. Pt. IV: 267-268. SESHAGIRI RAO, R. (1963): Hyphaene indica Becc. along the West Coast of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60(3): 761-763. (1964): The Doum palms in India. Principes J. Palm Soc. 8(2): 49-54. ViaRT, M. (1963): Contribution a étude de laction de homme sur la végétation dans le Sud de l’Inde. Thése Sci., Toulouse. Wiis, J. C. (1966): A dictionary of the flowering plants and ferns. Cambridge Univ. Press. 7th ed. revised by H. K. Airy Shaw. A Synopsis of the Genus Fisocreochiton Quisumb. & Merr. (Melastomataceae ) BY M. P. NAYAR (With two plates) A new species Eisocreochiton furfuracea Nayar, is described from Borneo with illustrations. Anplectrum monticola Ridl. is transferred to the present genus as Eisocreochiton monticola (Ridl.) Nayar. Creochiton kinabaluense Heine is found to be conspecific with E. monticola (Ridl.) Nayar. A key to the species so far known is also presented. INTRODUCTION The author has carried out a taxonomic study of several genera in the family Melastomataceae at the Central National Herbarium, Calcutta, the Herbarium, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, U.K. and the Rijksherbarium, Leiden, Netherlands from 1960-68. The present paper deals with the genus Dissochaeteae Quisumb. & Merr. belonging to the tribe Dissochaeteae Triana. Quisumbing & Merrill (in Philipp. Journ. Sc. 37: 177, 1928) established the genus Eisocreochiton on the basis of specimen Ramos & Edano Bur. Sc. No. 45610 from Luzon, Philippines. While describing the type species Eisocreochiton bracteata, they observed that the inflores- cence and vegetative characters agree with that of Creochiton B1. However, since the “floral characters are totally different’? they assigned the genus Eisocreochiton to the tribe Oxysporeae near Blastus Lour. The genus Ejisocreochiton is closely allied to Creochiton, but differs in having dorsally spurred and ventrally biappendiculate connective; whereas in the genus Creochiton Bl. the connective is dorsally spurred and ventrally inappendiculate. Quisumbing & Merrill (1.c. supra) wrongly assigned the genus Eisocreochiton to the tribe Oxysporeae. Since the genus Ejisocreochiton has baccate fruits, it belongs to the tribe Disso- chaeteae; while the tribe Oxysporerae has capsular fruits. The name Eisocreochiton is derived from Greek, ‘ Eiso ’=alike, equal; ‘ creo’=fleshy; ‘ chiton’=an outer covering, in allusion to the thick bracteoles covering the flowers. Ejisocreochiton=plants alike Creochiton. Of the three species so far known, the type species E. bracteata Quisumb. & Merr. is endemic to the Island of Luzon in the Philippines. 88 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) The other two species E. monticola (Ridl.) Nayar and E. furfuracea Nayar are both endemic to Borneo. KEY TO THE SPECIES OF Eisocreochiton I. Stamens 4: II. Bracteoles oblong-ovate, 8-11 mm. long, 4-8 mm. wide, pale green, thin; leaves when dry pale green, under surface of leaf when young more or less covered with ferrugineous plumose and stellate hairs, hairs deciduous and leaves glabrescent .... E. bracteata II. Bracteoles obovate, 5-6 mm. long, 3-4 mm. wide, dark brown, thick; leaves when dry brown, under surface of leaf densely covered with ferrugineous plumose and stellate hairs. .... .... E. furfuracea I. Stamens 8, four large and four small .... E. monticola ENUMERATION OF SPECIES 1. Eisocreochiton bracteata Quisumb. & Merr. in Philipp. Journ. Sc. ST lia, 1928: . Distribution: Philippines, Luzon, Nueva Vizcaya Prov., Mt. Alzapan, Ramos & Edano Bur. Sc. No. 45610 (isotypes K, BM) 2. Eisocreochiton furfuracea sp. nov. (Plate I) _ Affinis E. bracteatae Quisumb. & Merr., sed bracteolis obovatis, brunneis, minoribus, foliis subtus dense pubescentibus differt. Frutex scandens. Rami subteretes, dense ferrugineo-plumoso- furfuracei. Folia ovato-lanceolata, 4.5-6.52.5-3 cm., basi subrotunda vel subobtusa, apice acuminata, margine integra, supra glabra, subtus dense ferrugineo-stellata, coriacea, 3-5 mnervia, venulis transversis indistinctis; petiolus 8-11 mm. longus, dense ferrugineo-plumoso- hirsutus. Inflorescentia axillaris, racemosa, 3-7 cm. longa; bracteolae obovatae, 5-6 x 3-4 mm., dense furfuraceae, brunneae; pedicellus 4-5 mm. longus. Calycis tubus campanulatus, 2.5-3 mm. longus, stellato-furfur- aceus, limbus truncatus. Petala 4, 2-2.5x2 mm. glabra. Stamina 4, filamentis 1.5 mm. longis, antheris 2 mm. longis, connectivo non producto, dorso in appendicem triangularem 0.8 mm. longam exeunte, in parte ventrali in appendices duas 0.7 mm. longas exeunte. Ovarium calycis tubo septis 4 adnatum, ‘ loculis ’ 4, usque ad quartem partem prolongatis ; Stylus 2-2.5 mm. longus, glaber, stigmate inconspicuo. Bacca globosa, stellato-furfuracea; semina numerosa, cuneata, 0.7-0.8 mm. longa. - J. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 67 (1) Nayar: Eisocreochiton PLATE I Eisocreochiton furfuracea Sp. nov. A. Habit. B. Bracteole. C. Stamen-side view. D. L. S. of calyx tube J. BoMBay NaT. Hist. Soc. 67 (1) Nayar: Eisocreochiton PLATE IT Diarra EE er ss a Oe ee ibang RET SI . insan bite =a = -d a Eisocreochiton monticola (Ridl.) Nayar comb. nov. A. Habit. B. Large stamen-side view. C. Small stamen-side view. SYNOPSIS OF THE GENUS EISOCREOCHITON 89 Typus lectus a Jacobs and locum Rajang, altit. c. 500 m. in dist. Kapit, Sarawak in Borneo die 25 augusti anni 1958, et positus in Herb. kew, Anglia, sub numero Jacobs 5293; Isotypus positus in Riksherbario in urbe Leiden, sub numero Jacobs 5293. _ Climber. Branches subterete, densely ferrugineous and plumose furfuraceous. Leaves ovate-lanceolate, 4.5-6.5 x 2.5-3 cm., base subrotund or subotuse, apex acuminate, margin entire, upper surface glabrous, under surface densely ferrugineous and stellate, coriaceous, 3-5 nerved, transverse venules indistinct; petiole 8-11 mm. long, densely ferrugineous and plumose hirsute. Inflorescence axillary, racemose, 3-7 cm. long; Bracteole obovate, 5-6 3-4 mm., densely furfuraceous and brownish; pedicel 4-5 mm. long. Calyx tube campanulate, 2.5-3 mm. long, stellate- furfuraceous, limb truncate. Petals 4, 2-2.5x2 mm., glabrous. Stamens 4, filament 1.5 mm. long, anther 2 mm. long, connective not produced, dorsally ending in a triangular appendage 0.8 mm. long, ventrally ending in two appendages 0.7 mm. long. Ovary concrescent with the calyx tube by 4 septa, extra-ovarial chambers 4, descending to + of the ovary; Style 2-2.5 mm. long, glabrous, stigma inconspicuous. Berry globose, stellate-furfuraceous; Seeds numerous, cuneate, 0.7-0.8 mm. long. Distribution: Borneo: Sarawak, Kapit Dist., Rajang, alt. below 500 m., 25 Aug. 1958, Jacobs 5293 (Holotype K, isotype L.) E. furfuracea Nayar is allied to E. bracteata Quisumb. & Merr., but differs in the size and shape of bracteoles and in the nature of pube- scence on the under surface of the leaf. In E. furfuracea the bracteoles are obovate (5-6 mm. long and 3-4 mm. wide), dark brown and coria- ceous ; whereas in E. bracteata the bracteoles are oblong-ovate, (8-11 mm. long, 4-8 mm. wide), pale green and membranaceous. 3. Eisocreochiton monticola (Ridl.) Nayar, comb. nov. (Plate II). Anplectrum monticola Ridley in Kew Bull. 1: 31, 1946. Type: Brooks 50 (K). | Creochiton kinabaluense Heine in Mitt. Bot. Staatssamml. Munchen 1. Heft 6: 214, 1953. Type: J. & M.S. Clemens 32646 (Isotypes K, BM)—Synon. nov. Climber, about 13 m. in height. Branches subterete, furfuraceous and lepidote, pilose, nodes usually 1-2 cm. apart. Leaves elliptic, 1-3.5x 0.7-1.5 cm., base cuneate, apex retuse, upper surface glabrous, under surface sparsely puberulous, hairs deciduous, glabrescent, 3-nerved, cross-venules distinct on the under surface; petiole 3-4 mm. long, furfur- aceous. Inflorescence axillary, 3-5 cm. long, furfuraceous; bract elliptic or obovate, 5-6 mm. long; bracteole obovate, 4 mm. long, furfuraceous ; 90 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 67 (1) pedicel 1-2 mm. long. Calyx tube campanulate, 2.5-3 mm. long, furfura- ceous, limb sinuate. Petals 4, oblong-lanceolate, 2.5-3 mm. long, acuminate. Stamens 8, 4 small and 4 large stamens; large stamens: filament 1-1.5 mm. long, anther 2-2.5 mm. long, provided with a short connective, dorsally ending in a triangular appendage, 1 mm. long and ventrally ending in two linear appendages 1 mm. long; small stamens: filament 0.5-0.8 mm. long, anther 1.5 mm. long, dorsally ending in a minute tubercle and ventrally inappendiculate. Ovary 4-chambered, apex of the ovary furfuraceous ; Style 4-5 mm. long, glabrous, stigma punctiform. Berry globose, stellate-furfuraceous ; seeds numerous, cuneate 0.5-0.8.mm. long. Distribution : Borneo: Sarawak, Summit of Benkaran, Brooks 50(K); Gunong penrissen, Kuching Dist., 29 Apr. 1962, Ilias Pa’ie S. 16371 (K); Sabah, Mt. Kinabalu, alt. 1166 m., J. & M. S. Clemens 32646 (K, BM); Colomban basin, alt. 1166 m., 14 Aug. 1933, J. & M.S. Clemens 34455 (K); Tenompok, alt. 1666 m., 25 May 1932, 28616 A. (K); Ibid., J. & M. S. Clemens 28616 (K). While describing the type species Anplectrum monticola, Ridley (in Kew Bull. 1:31, 1946) commented as follows: ‘This very curious plant is quite unlike any other species in its densely set, small coriaceous leaves and short axillary panicles.’’ Heine (in Mitt. Bot. Staatssamml. Munchen 1: heft 6:214, 1953) independently proposed the binomial Creochiton kinabaluense for the same taxon on the basis of Clemens gatherings (J. & M. §. Clemens 32646, 33951) from Sabah, Borneo. In the original description of C. kinabaluense there is no description of the nature of stamens and it is presumed that Heine erected this species basing on the nature of bracteoles enveloping the flower buds and in the presence of axillary panicles. Besides the bracteoles enveloping the flower buds, the main generic character which distinguishes the genus Creochiton BI. is the dorsally spurred and ventrally inappendiculate stamens. In this taxon the stamens are dorsally spurred and ventrally biappendiculate. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I wish to express my gratitude to Sir George Taylor, Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, U. K. for all facilities during my stay at Kew from 1961-67. Obituary FR. H. SANTAPAU, s.J. (1903-1970) The death of Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, s.J. on 13 January 1970 was a grievous loss to Indian Botany, to the Bombay Natural History Society and to his numerous friends and colleagues at the Society, in the City of Bombay, and throughout the world. Born at La Galera, Tarragona, Spain on 5 December 1903, Fr. Santapau joined the Society of Jesus at the age of 16 and was educated in Spain and London and took his Ph.D. in Philosophy at Rome in 1927. In 1936 Fr. Santapau joined the London University but his studies were interrupted by the war. He later joined the Imperial College in London and took his Ph.D. in Botany based on his Flora of Khandala, worked out during his two years (1946-48) at Kew Gardens. Fr, Santapau reached India in 1928 and became one of the Professors of Botany at St. Xavier’s in 1940. His botanical exploration of the country of his adoption took him from the deserts of Baluchistan to the rain forests of Assam and from the Darjeeling hills in the Himalayas to the Nilgiri and Palni hills in the south. His vast collection of over 100,000 specimens is mainly housed at the Blatter Herbarium at Bombay. He gave freely of his knowledge of Indian Botany and lectured to students of universities throughout the country and was a recognised postgraduate teacher in many of them. He was a ‘ Visitor ’ to the Universities of Delhi and Poona. His contributions on Indian Botany which number over 350 include authoritative treatises on taxonomy of Indian plants such as his floras of Khandala, Purandhar, Saurashtra and his papers on various families of plants. His ‘ Orchids of Bombay State’ is another notable contribution. Fr. Santapau had the rare ability to communicate with the scientist as well as the layman with equal facility as is evident from his book COMMON TREES published by the National Book Trust, India. He was a fellow of the National Institute of Sciences of India and was associated with numerous societies and scientific bodies. He was a member of many committees of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research and was responsible for re-organising for the Government of India, the Botanical Survey of India and retired as the Director of the Survey in 1968. Fr. Santapau’s association with the Bombay Natural History Society dates back to 1944 when he joined as an ordinary member and was 92 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) elected to its Executive Committee the same year. He became an editor of the Journal in 1948 (volume 48) and was elected Vice-President in 1954. Fr. Santapau’s services to India and to Indian Botany were recognised by the award of Padma Shri by the Government of India and the Birbal Sahani Medal by the Indian Botanical Society. He was made a member of the Order of Alphonso the Wise by the Spanish Government. His publications in the Society’s Journal are listed below: 1944 Ventilago bombaiensis Dalz. (with a plate). 44(3): 496- 498. —— The flowering of Strobilanthes. 44(4): 605-606. 1945 New plant records for Bombay Presidency. 45(3): 445-448. —— Curcuma pseudomontana Grah. 45(4): 618-623. 1946 An abnormal flower of Gloriosa superba Linn: (with a plate and a text figure). 46(1): 202-204. — No pleat records for the Presidency of Bombay (II) (with a plate). 46(2): 77-381. —— Abnormal flowering of Careya arborea Roxb. in Khandala. 46(2): 409-410. oe erro in the numbers of floral parts in Jasminum malabaricum Wt. 46(3): 563-566. 1947 Notes on the Convolvulaceae of Bombay. 47(2): 337-355. 1948 Notes on the Solanaceae of Bombay. 47(4): 652-662. —— The Genus Ceropegia—further comments. 47(4): 775-777. 1949 Artificial key to the Papilionaceae of Bombay Province. 48(2): 277-282. —— Notes on the Gesneriaceae of Bombay. 48(3): 489-492. —— The genus Ceropegia: still further comments. 48(3): 613-614. 1950 Notes on the Scrophulariaceae of Bombay. 49(1): 25-49. —— Editorial note on the growth of herbarium specimens. 49(1): 135-136. —— Notes on the Lentibulariaceae of Bombay. 49(2): 217-221. -—— The flowering of Strobilanthes. 49(2): 320-321. — A plea for the Preservation of Wild Plants. (with a plate). 49(3): 427-429. —— Further remarks en the flowering of Strobilanthes. 49(3): 575-576. 1951 The genus Dioscorea in Bombay State. (with three plates). 49(4): 624-638. — Newrecord for Frerea indica Dalz. in Bombay Province. 49(4): 801-802. — Frerea indica Dalz.—A new record in Bombay. 50(2): 427. —— A branched specimen of Costus speciosus Smith. 50(2): 427. — Critical notes on the identity and nomenclature of some Bombay plants (with two plates). 50(2): 305-312. —— A note on Neuracanthus sphaerostachyus Dalz. (with two plates). 50(2): 428-430. (Jointly with P. V. Bole). 1955 | | | ‘Neuracanthus sphaerostachyus Dalz.—Further comments. OBITUARY 93 Contribution to the bibliography of Indian Botany. (Part I). 50(3): 520-548. On a common species of Curcuma of Bombay and Salsette Islands. (with a plate). 51(1): 135-139. Contribution to the bibliography of Indian Botany. (Part II). 51(1): 205-259. Notes on the Acanthaceae of Bombay. 51(2): 349-368. Critical notes on the identity and nomenclature of some Bombay plants II. The genus Zizyphus Mill. 51(4): 801-804. The species of Crotalaria in Bombay. 51(4): 960-962. Critical notes on the identity and nomenclature of some Bombay plants III. Murdannia scapiflorum (Roxb.) Royle. (with two plates). 52(1): 137-141. (Jointly with R. R. Fernandes). The genus Murdannia in Bombay State. 52(2 & 3): 658. New plant records for Bombay. (with two plates). 52(2 & 3): 661-663. (Jointly with A. Randeria and R. R. Fernandes). A new species of Chlorophytum from Salsette Island. (with a plate). 52(4): 897-900. (Jointly with R. R. Fernandes). Alternanthera polygonoides R. Br. var. erecta Mart.—a new record for Bombay State. (with a plate). 52(4): 957 (Jointly with G. P. Shrivastava). Ney eae excursion to North Kanara, Bombay State, in May 1954. 53(1): 0-28. Laurentia longiflora Endl. a new record for Bombay State. (with a plate). 53(1): 156-157. The botanical exploration of Krishnagiri National Park, Borivli, near Bombay. (with two maps, one coloured and two black-and-white plates). 53(2): 185-200. (Jointly with A. Randeria). New plant records for Bombay III. (with five plates). 53(2): 210-213. (Jointly with C. Saldanha). New plant records for Bombay IV. (with four plates). 53(2): 214-216. (Jointly with several students). Name changes of a few Bombay plants. 53(3): 499-500. (Jointly with D. Panthaki). Extensive loss of water by forest trees in the Dangs Forest. 53(3): 501. Dolichos bracteatus Baker. 53(3): 501-502. (Jointly with D. Panthaki). The name Hoya bendula. 53(3): 504. Tobacco without nicotine. 53(3): 504. The poisonous qualities of Calotropis gigantea R. Br. 54(1): 218. Notes on Aerides maculosum Lindl. (with a_ text-figure). 541): 220-221. (Jointly with Z. Kapadia). Some new plants for the Dangs Forest, Bombay State. (with two plates). 54(1): 221-225. (Jointly with D. Panthaki). Eclipta prostrata, E. erecta or E. alba: Which is the correct name? 54(2): 475-476. Alternanthera paronychyoides St. Hil—A correction. 54(2): 476-477. Habenaria panchganiensis—New name for a Bombay Orchid. 54(2): 478. (Jointly with Z. Kapadia). The genus Cuscuta in Bombay. (with a plate). 54(3): 707-713. (Jointly with V. Patel). Further notes on the Indian species of Curcuma (Zingiberaceae). 54(4): 966- 967. The species of Lagenandra of Bombay and Madras. 54(4): 967-969. 54(4): 969-970. (Jointly with G. L. Shah). 1959 1963 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) The phyllotaxy of Euphorbia neriifolia Linn. 55(1): 186-187. (Jointly with G. L. Shah). The coconut, Cocos nucifera Linn. Observations of the first English Jesuit in India. 55(1): 188-189. New plant records for Bombay-V. (with five plates). 55(3): 481-485. (Jointly with R. R. Fernandes & Z. Kapadia). Cryptostegia madagascariensis Boj.—A new record for Bombay. (with a plate). 55(3): 594-595. (Jointly with N. A. Irani). The leaves of Alseodaphne semecarpifolia Nees. 56(1): 160. Critical notes on the Orchidaceae of Bombay State. I—The genus Habenaria Willd. (with six plates). 56(2): 188-203. (Jointly with Z. Kapadia). Lectotypes of the species and varieties described by Blatter and Hallberg in their ‘ Flora of the Indian Desert.’ 56(2): 276-281. Salmalia malabarica and S. insignis in Bombay. 56(2): 364-365. a Reval Botanic Gardens, Kew. By W. B. Turrill. (A Review). 56(3): The flowering of Strobilanthes. (with a plate). 56(3): 677. The leaves of Alseodaphne semecarpifolia Nees.—A correction. 56(3): 678. Critical notes on the Orchidaceae of Bombay State. IJ. Platanthera L. C. Rich. & Peristylus B1. (with four plates). 5711): 124-135. (Jointly with Z. Kapadia). The identity of the Entada plants from Bombay. 57(1): 238-240. Critical notes on Orchidaceae of Bombay State. III. The genus Oberonia Lindl. (with five plates). 57(2): 252-269. (Jointly with Z. Kapadia). Artocarpus heterophyllus Lamk. (with a plate). 57(2): 447-449. Critical notes on the Orchidaceae of Bombay State. IV. The genus Dendrobium Sw. (with ten plates). 57(3): 491-510. (Jointly with Z. Kapadia). Black colour in flowers: Is there such a colour in nature? 57(3): 701-702. Critical notes on the Orchidaceae of Bombay State. V. Eulophia R. Br. and Aerides Lour. (with five plates). 58(1): 53-67. (Jointly with Z. Kapadia). Critical notes on the Orchidaceae of Bombay State. VI. Nervilia Gaud & Malaxis Sw. (with three plates). 58(2): 332-350. (Jointly with Z. Kapadia). New plant record from Bombay, Physalis longifolia Nutt. 58(2); 550-551. [Jointly with G. L. Shah, Z. Kapadia (née V. Patel)] New plant record from Bombay: Alternanthera pungens H.B.K. 58: 551-553. (Jointly with G. L. Shah). Critical notes on the Orchidaceae of Bombay State. VII. Eria Lindl. & Porpax Lindl. (with three plates) 58(3): 595-607. (Jointly with Z. Kapadia). Critical notes on the Orchidaceae of Bombay State. VIII. Some of the smaller genera. (with six plates). 59(1): 154-172. (Jointly with Z. Kapadia). Critical notes on the Orchidaceae of Bombay State. IX. Some of the smaller genera (Continued). (with eight plates). 59(2): 382-404. (Jointly with Z. Kapadia). Gregarious flowering of Strobilanthes and Bamboos. (with a plate). 59(2): 688-695. Critical notes on the Orchidaceae of Bombay State. X. Some of the smaller genera (continued). (with two plates). 59(3) : 827-842. (Jointly with Z. Kapadia). Critical notes on the Orchidaceae of Bombay State. XI—Some of the smaller genera (continued). (with two plates) 60(1): 92-103. OBITUARY 5) —— Additions to the Flora of Bombay State: Grasses from Salsette Island. (Malad- Madh Area). 60(1): 134-139. (Jointly with G. L. Shah) 1965, Further contribution to the botany of eat ae Forest, Gujarat. 62(2): 201-210. (Jointly with G. L. Shah). 1969 A contribution to the Flora of Salsette Island, Bombay, (Malad-Madh Area). 66(3) : 430-442. (Jointly with G. L. Shah). EDITORS Reviews 1. THE TWILIGHT OF INDIA’S WILD LIFE. By Balakrishna Seshadri. pp. 212 (24x16 cm.) with 58 illustrations and 5 Raps. London, 1969. John Baker Publishing Ltd. Price 52s. net. __ There are two important points that Seshadri makes in his book: THE TWILIGHT OF INDIA’S WILD LIFE which if seriously noted by the powers that be, may yet save India’s wild life from becoming extinct. The total area of all existing wild life sanctuaries and national parks in India is approximately 4700 sq. miles. This is an insignificant percentage of the total forest area of the country. Yet, these tiny pockets, the last refuge of India’s vanishing wild life are far from inviolate. Grazing is permitted in them. Commercial quality timber is grown and extracted from them. Poaching is common, both by villagers allowed to live within the sanctuaries and permitted to keep ‘crop protection’ guns and affluent visitors (contractors and sometimes even Government officials). All these not only disturb animal and bird life but also make their habitat unsuitable. If grazing, and commercial exploitation of timber, and poaching are not stopped soon in these wilderness areas they will have nothing left to show except emaciated cattle. The other point is that there has, sadly, been no effort made by the Government to get the expert advice of conservationists while planning projects (conservationists until very recently have been classified as cranks and eccentrics) so that vast areas at dam sites and irrigation and industrial projects have been thoughtlessly denuded of valuable forest cover resulting not only in the extinction of several species of animals along with their habitat but also in the washing off of the top soil leading to serious erosion. It is entirely practicable to plan towards control of further despoliation. There are men and women in India who can do valuable work to help this cause. It is their duty to make the Government aware of the urgent need to take corrective action before it is too late. Once it is accepted that conservation is essential the first step is to provide effective management. Seshadri has listed 48 sanctuaries and national parks. Of these only a handful have any sort of management. The rest are neglected, and if neglected much longer, may cease to exist except on paper. I did not know that the Tons, or Govind Ballabh Pant Sanctuary, created in 1955, in Tehri Garwal, is 368 sq. miles in area, that the Rishi- ganga or Nanda Devi Sanctuary formed in 1939 in the Himalayas for UREVIEWS 0.60 6 eas A 97 high elevation fauna is 250 sq. miles or that the Rajaji Srncgeted west of the Corbett Park was 173 sq. miles.: All these are bigger than the Conbett and Kanha National Parks and what wonderful places they would be to visit if only we heard more about them. Obviously, they are not as accessible as the better known sanctuaries; not considered important, and so they languish. Poachers and woodcutters will soon turn these beautiful forests into wasteland. It is nothing short of criminal that we so callously neglect our most wonderful heritage. Too late, as Seshadri says, will the people of India realise that they have lost what nature took aeons to create. G. S. RANGANATHAN. 2. THE MALAYAN NATURE JOURNAL. RAIN FOREST ISSUE. Vol. 22 (1968-69). Parts 3 & 4. September 1969. pp. i-viii +99- 206 (25x16 cm.). Kuala Lumpur, 1969. The Malayan Nature Society, P.O. Box 750, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Price M$ 10. Pes US $ 3.30/ £1-7-6 Sterling). This special Rain Forest Issue of The Malayan Nature Journal carries several papers of interest to botanists, foresters, and naturalists generally. Among others may be mentioned a study by T. C. Whitmore and C. P. Burnham of changes with altitude of forests and soils on granite near Kuala Lumpur, another by J. A. Bullock and Khoo Bin Khong of the formation of litter in tropical rain forest, a preliminary study by J. B. Kenworthy of water balance in tropical rain forest in the Ulu Gombak Forest Reserve, and a discussion by P. F. Burgess of ecological factors in hill and mountain forest in Malaya with a description of the rain forests at different heights. Among the shorter papers are a study by J. L. Harrison of the abundance and population density of mammals in Malayan lowland forests, an estimation by H. Elliott McClure of bird population density in the primary forest of Selangor, and a description by P. F. Burgess of colour changes in the Malayan forests in 1968-69. On the practical side are papers by Paul Wycherley on forests and productivity, and by J. A. Bullock on the productivity of the rain-forest ecosystem. As is usual with The Malayan Nature Journal, the papers are illustrated with numerous well taken and well reproduced photographs. D.. E.R 98 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) 3. THE CLUE BOOKS: INSECTS AND OTHER SMALL ANIMALS WITHOUT BONY SKELETONS. By Gwen Allen and Joan Denslow. pp. 61 (22.5 x20.5 cm.) with many illustrations by Derek Whiteley. London, 1969. Oxford University Press. Price 15s. net. The Clue Books are a slim, square series for children between the ages of eight and twelve. The other books in the series are ‘ Birds,’ * Bones,’ ‘ Flowers,’ and ‘ Trees.’ We have become used to a children’s natural history literature which is out to charm the child, using lavish photographs and exotic colour. The Clue Books fall in a different category. Most pages are in sober black and white, although there are attractive and accurate colour pictures as well. The book aims to capture the intelligent child by making the whole business of insects an absorbing game, like a jigsaw puzzle, and by showing him that he can win; he can find out what a particular insect, found in the salad, actually is, discover its larvae and pupae, and finally, he can keep it as a pet. It seems a more enduring method than to merely enthrall him for a few moments by enormous shiny pictures. In fact the book could be used to very good purpose by the imaginative school-teacher. Although it is oriented to Britain and Europe, it could be used for India with a little bit of pruning by an adult. The first pages deal with ‘ What are Insects’ generally, illustrated by line drawings and diagrams. The next pages deal with what the insect (or ‘ other small animal without a bony skeleton ’) looks like under a magnifying glass. Does it have wings but no waist? If so, turn to page 19. On page 19 you learn something more, with another picture, and then turn to the right page. In the next section, where there are colour pictures dealing with various groups: Butterflies, Ants, Grasshoppers, etc. with short trenchant notes on each such group. The last pages deal with vivaria made out of jam-jars and daddy’s shoe-box. SHAMA FUTEHALLY 4. THE WORLD OF THE POLAR BEAR. By Richard Perry. pp. 195 (21.5 14.5 cm.) with 12 illustrations. London, 1966. Cassell & Company Ltd. Price 30s. net. How many people realise that the polar bear is not far from extinction and that the total number currently is reckoned to be not more than about 8,000 to 12,000. Considering the vast area of the northern polar region which these animals inhabit it is dismal proof that no part of this earth, however, remote from Civilisation, escapes the pernicious influence of man, REVIEWS 99 Richard Perry (who has also written a book on the Tiger) noting that not much information was available in book form about polar bears set out to rectify the deficiency and he has succeeded in putting between the covers of his book a wealth of information in a systematic manner. Observations about polar bears have been recorded since 890 A.D. and Perry quotes from over fifty sources from the earliest times to the 20th Century. A polar bear litter consists of one or two cubs, very rarely three. A cub when born is | to 2 Ibs. in weight and a big adult male is 8 to 9 ft. long and weighs about a thousand pounds (females are smaller). The largest male recorded was 11 ft. long and weighed 1,800 Ibs.—about as big as the Alaskan or Kodiak bear. Cubs are cast off after the first spring when they are 15-16 months old although some stay longer even up to the 3rd year. Polar bears are fertile up to 25 years and have a maximum life span of 35-45 years. The Polar bear is a powerful and indefatigable swimmer capable of doing 120 to 180 yards per minute. About the only creature he fears is the killer whale which may be the reason the polar bear, although an excellent swimmer, avoids water if he can. He is also wary of the Bull Walrus which may attain a length of 15 ft., a weight of 14 tons and is equipped with 3 ft. long tusks weighing 10 lbs. apiece. The polar bear is no fool. Seals form the staple diet of Polar bears, mainly blubber, the flesh being mostly left to Arctic foxes and ravens who are hangers on. In addition, along with vegetable matter (during summer) they also eat cast up marine animals, mussels, starfish, shrimps, and other crustacea. They seldom catch fish. 156 lbs. of walrus blubber and meat has been found in the stomach of a polar bear. This is about twice as much as what a hungry tiger or lion can consume at one sitting. In captivity, very much less suffices to feed a polar bear, the menu at one zoo being 10 lbs. of horse flesh, 3 Ibs. of butterfish, 3 lbs. mackerel and 4 to 5 Ibs. of stale bread. Polar bears are canny hunters and either when waiting patiently near the blow holes of seals or swimming submerged towards an un- suspecting seal on an ice floe, they exhibit great intelligence. When frustrated, which must be fairly frequently, they vent their rage almost in human fashion. A thwarted bear may jump up and down with fury, smack the water, roar and toss snow. One bear smashed his paws against a rock out-crop severely injuring them as subsequently discovered. Polar bears also gambol and glissade down slopes with keen enjoyment. 100 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) The ice pack travels clockwise around the North Pole at about 2 miles per day and Polar bears are usually to be found on this, leaving it for the mainland where they go to hibernate. Before hibernation they eat moss to provide an internal obstruction referred to as ‘tappen’, then stuff themselves with blubber which must keep them alive for several months. The dens constructed for hibernation are quite large and show considerable SUES skill. Cane frequently, an entrance tunnel in the snow leading to an ‘ ante room’ and an inner chamber at a slightly raised level (to retain warmth) with a ledge between. Estimates of Polar bear population vary between 6,000 to 17,000 and Perry thinks it may be 8,000 to 12,000. The replenishment rate (excess of cubs over mortality) may not be adequate. The species, therefore, is in danger of becoming extinct. The Russians were the first to ban the killing of polar bears (in the late fifties?) and the Canadians and Norwegians followed suit. The U.S. called an international meeting in 1965 to discuss measures to protect the Polar bear.. The Arctic regions have a wealth of animal and bird life and Mr. Perry has provided much interesting information not only about the polar bear but also about the seal, walrus, muskox, arctic fox, wolf, killer-whale, glaucous gull, kittiwake, skua and ptarmigan. It would be wonderful to visit the fascinating world of the Polar bear. The next best thing is to read about it. ~~ G.S. RANGANATHAN —5. THE WEALTH OF INDIA: A DICTIONARY OF INDIAN RAW MATERIALS AND INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS. Vol. VIII: Ph-Re. pp. xxx+394+ XII (27.5 21.5 cm.). 11 plates and 142 text- figures. New Delhi, 1969. Council of Scientific & Industrial Research. Price Rs. 70; 140s; $ 21. Vol. VIII of the Raw Materials portion of THE WEALTH OF INDIA, which follows its predecessor after an interval of two years and more, keeps up the high standard of the series. During the interval the Editorial Committee suffered a serious loss by the death of Dr. Baini Prasad. Since then another eminent member of the Editorial Committee has died, the Rev. Fr. H. Santapau. The reviewer trusts that their absence from the Committee will not slow down the rate at which this valuable encyclopaedia of India’s resources makes its appearance. Several of the genera teeih with in this volume cover Regd ae of common use or occurrence and furnish the layman with detailed and REVIEWS 101 helpful information about familiar things, regarding the origin, procuring, and uses of which his knowledge is limited and vague, for instance Phoenix (date palms), Pinus (pines from which, besides commercial timber, turpentine, and rosin, come the chilgoza seeds that we eat with such relish), Piper (betel leaves, black pepper), Pithecellobium (Madras Thorn, known among other vernacular names as vilayati imli, the fruit of.which to our schoolboy palates was a delicacy), Plantago (isubgol), Plumbago (a common garden plant, which besides other uses provides a drug which we are told may be of use in the treatment of leucoderma and baldness of the head), Prunus (almonds, apricots, plums, peaches, cherries), Psidium (guavas), Pyrus (pears), Punica (pomegranates), Raphanus (radishes), and many more. Deserving of special mention is Rauvolfia, the source of a drug for a long time in use in Ayurvedic practice, the value of which was realised by allopaths only in the last decade, leading to a sudden drain on our wild-grown supply and to a hurried search for practicable methods of establishing a cultivated supply. On the zoological side attention may be drawn to articles on Prawns, Shrimps & Lobsters, and on Porpoises & Dolphins, and on the minerals side on Rare Earths, Quartz & Silica, and Phosphates. One slight mistake has crept in, at page 165. The tree illustrated in text-figure 57 is Plumeria alba, not Plumeria acuminata. The index, giving the common English names as well as those in the principal Indian vernaculars and also trade names, makes reference easy for the layman. DY E.R. Miscellaneous Notes 1. WILD DOG’S COURAGE RATING Wild dogs, Cuon alpinus (Pallas), have always been presented to the world as intrepid, ruthless and wanton killers. Yesterday, I watched an incident, which together with the encounter between a pack of dogs and a herd of sambar hinds, I had reported earlier, leaves me in doubt as to their courage rating. A pack of wild dogs was hunting in and around ‘ Cheetal walk ’ our week-end home in the jungle in the low country in the Nilgiris. I followed them unseen by working my way from one hide to another, placed by me along the Sigur River. From the first machan I could see 9 dogs; six of them were sub- adults and were lolling about waiting for a lead, while 3 older dogs were running up and down the far bank trying to pick up a fresh scent. As the dogs went down stream, beyond sight, I got down from the machan and got into another, which was 150 yards below the first. This machan commands an excellent view of the river for nearly 300 yards. As I was sitting there, I saw about half a dozen dogs at the water’s edge 100 yards below, hesitating to get in. The river which usually holds about 6 inches to a foot of water, had about 2 to 3 feet of water in it, after recent rains. Just then a sambar stag carrying 20 in. antlers walked into the stream-bed from my side of the river, almost opposite the spot where the dogs were. Without hesitation it waded into the stream and made, in a leisurely manner, for the section of the bank where the dogs stood. I was so sure that the stag was being driven towards the waiting dogs that I fully expected the rest of the pack to break cover behind the stag at any moment. Instead, to my surprise a larger stag followed. Seeing the stags making their way towards them, the dogs retreated. Shortly afterwards I saw them cross the river 50 yards further down. There were 16 of them and half of them had just grown out of their puppy-hood. I remained to see if the retreat was designed to be a tactical move. It was not. The stags had moved up and were almost opposite me, on the far bank. [I had them under observation for nearly an hour. They hung about together and were joined by two hinds, who were obviously in the area even when the dogs were operating there. They seemed to be together, just in case. Only some months previously we came across a very freshly killed young sambar stag with 15 in. horns in the Moyar flume channel, about MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 103 5 miles from ‘ Cheetal walk.’ On seeing us the dogs fled. Watching the dogs were a young sambar stag and 3 hinds, some 50 yards away. This would show that wild dogs in our area do kill adult sambar, but prefer not to if they can help it. It is also possible that sambar around ‘Cheetal walk’ have, out of necessity, learnt to gang up to defend themselves, whatever the case, it is apparent that wild dogs have been over-rated, so far as their courage is concerned. ““CANOWIE” Coonoor-1, E.R.C. DAVIDAR NILGIRIS, October 12, 1969. 2. HABITAT OF THE HIMALAYAN TAHR HEMITRAGUS JEMLAHICUS (H. SMITH) The genus Hemitragus comprises three forms that are usually each assigned specific rank. The morphological differences between them may not be as great as that reported and subspecific distinction might prove to be a better expression of relationship. Previous reports on the habitat of the Himalayan tahr imply that it is a forest dwelling species. In New Zealand its preferred habitat is the zone above the tree line and below the permanent snow. A reappraisal of habitat requirements in the Himalaya showed that tahr were observed only above tree line, both in winter and summer. Previous reports therefore appear to be in error. Habitat requirements in New Zealand and the Himalaya are identical within the limits imposed by differing plant communities. The error in previous descriptions of habitat may be due both to confusion of the tahr with the serow (Capricornis) and to the finding of male tahr wandering below their normal altitudinal zone. The Himalayan tahr Hemitragus jemlahicus ranges from Kashmir to Sikkim along the Himalaya (Wrenicke 1943, Bailey 1944, Ellerman & Morrison-Scott 1951, Frenchkop 1955 and Das 1966). Prater’s (1934) contention that it also occurs in Bhutan has not been confirmed!. Pohle (1949) proposed a separate sub-species for the tahr of Sikkim, differentiating this postulated form from that in Nepal on alleged differences in horn spread and pelage. Apparently he was unaware of the marked seasonal changes in pelage colour of tahr because he has compared the winter pelage of Sikkim specimens with descriptions of summer pelage of specimens collected farther west. Pohle does not make a good case for morphological differences between tahr of Sikkim and Nepal. Neither 1 See the following note—Eds. 104 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) does Schaefer (1950) argue convincingly for geographic and genetic isolation of the two populations. The sub-species is not recognised here. Charles (1957) proposed that until more material becomes available for detailed comparison, the three forms of Hemitragus (jemlahicus in the Himalaya, hylocrius in southern India, and jayakari in eastern Arabia) should be considered provisionally as races of the nominate form Hemitragus jemlahicus. On zoogeographic grounds I suspect that sub- specific rather than specific distinction of forms will prove to be the more meaningful expression of their interrelationship. | The habitat of Himalayan tahr has been described as thick forest interspersed with rocky bluffs (Kinloch 1876, Blanford 1888, Ward 1922, Burrard 1925, Prater 1934, Morris 1965) and Burrard (1925) stressed that individuals “‘ never by any circumstances wander above the tree-line’’. In contrast, its habitat in New Zealand, where it was introduced in 1904, is restricted almost entirely to the zone above tree-line (Anderson & Henderson 1961, Christie & Andrews 1964, Caughley 1965, 1966). Its altitudinal range of about 3,000-7,000 ft. in that country is ecologically and climatically equivalent to 12,000-16,000 ft. in the Himalayas. Tahr do occasionally descend below 3,000 ft. in New Zealand, but only as a result of males wandering before the rutting season. From March 1968 I spent a year in Nepal and was able to investigate’ this apparent paradox. Although all altitudinal zones from tropical to frigid were investigated, tahr were found only in the region above tree line at altitudes between 12,500 ft. and 16,000 ft. The greatest number of observations were made between 13,000 ft. and 15,000 ft. and this range was the same for both summer and winter. These observations suggest that previous statements on the habitat of tahr in the Himalayas are incorrect, and that habitat requirements in New Zealand and Nepal are identical within the limits imposed by different vegetation types. Two reasons for the confusion come to mind. Firstly, most of the quoted reports on habitat appear not to be based on observation but are repetitions without acknowledgement of observations made by Kinloch (1876) and Burrard (1925). Both these men certainly shot. tahr in forest but these animals are likely to be males wandering in winter. No report is available of a female having been shot in forest. Secondly, some reports of tahr in forest may have originated from mistaken identity. The serow Capricornis sumatraensis is called “‘ tahr ”’ by several hill groups in Nepal, the “‘ th” form indicating a hard “t”’ and not the ‘‘ th’? of English useage. No ethnic group in Nepal uses *‘ thar ’’ for Hemitragus: Brahmins and Chetris use “ jharal’’; Tamang and Gurung use “ jharal,” “‘jharal-thar’’ and sometimes the Tibetan MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 105 *‘ yang ’’; and sherpas use “ reiwo.” This confusion of names may have resulted in the occasional instance of serow being reported as tahr. On the basis of observations reported here and those reported from New Zealand, the published descriptions of the habitat of the Himalayan tahr require amendment. In both winter and summer the habitat comprises the zone of grassland between tree line and the permanent snow. In the Himalaya this zone lies between 12,000 ft. and 17,000 ft. Occasionally individuals will be found lower than this but such occurrences are at variance with normal behaviour. SCHOOL OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES, UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY, SYDNEY, AUSTRALIA, September 12, 1969. GRAEME CAUGHLEY REFERENCES ANDERSON, J. A. & HENDERSON, J. B. (1961): Himalayan Thar in New Zealand. a Zeal. Deerstalkers’ Assn: Spec. Pub. 2. BaiLey, F. M. (1944): The Himalayan Tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus H. Sim.) [Sic]) in Sikkim. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 45: 82-83. BLANFORD, W. T. (1888): The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma. Mammalia. London. BURRARD, G. (1925): Big Game Hunting in the Himalayas and Tibet. London. CAUGHLEY, G. (1965): Horn Rings and Tooth Eruption as Criteria of Age in the Himalayan Thar, Hemitragus jemlahicus. New Zeal. J] Sci. 8: 333-351. ——, (1966): Mortality Patterns in Mammals. Ecology 47: 906-918. CHARLES, R.P. (1957): Morphologie Dentaire du Thar et du Bouquetin Espéces Actualles et Subfossiles des eo Préhistoriques. Mammalia 21: Curistig, A. H. C. & ANDREWS J. R. H. (1964): Introduced Ungulates in New Zealand. (a) Himalayan Tahr. Tuatara 12: 69-77. _ Das, S. M. (1966): Palaearctic Elements in the Fauna of Kashmir. Nature 212: 1327-1330. ee DS ELLERMAN, J. R. & MORRISON-SCOTT, T. C. S. (1951): Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian Mammals 1758 to 1946. London. FRENCHKOP, S. (1955): Sous-ordre des Ruminants ou Sélénadontes, pp. 568-593. In P.-p. Grassé (ed.) Traité de Zoology. Paris. | KINLOCH, A. (1876): Large Game Hunting in Thibet and the Northwest. London. Morris, D. (1965): The Mammals. London. PoHLeE, H. (1949): Hemitragus jemla- hicus schaeferi sp. n., dieostlichste Form des Thars. Zool. Anz. 194: 184-191. PRATER, S. H. (1934): The wild animals of the Indian Empire and the Problems of their Conservation. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 37: 59-96. (1965): The Book of Indian Animals, second (revised) edition. Bombay. SCHAEFER, [E] (1950): uber den Schapi (Hemitragus jemlahicus schaeferi). Zool. Anz. 145: 247-260. Warp, A. E. (1922): Game Animals of Kashmir and the adjacent hill Pro- vinces. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 23: 595-609. WRENICKE, C. J. T. (1943): Occurrence of the Himalayan Tahr (Hemitragus Jemlahicus) in Sikkim. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 44: 114-117. 106 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) 3. HIMALAYAN TAHR, HEMITRAGUS UaMEA BaeUS (H. SMITH, 1826) IN BHUTAN In so far as neither S. H. Prater in his BOOK OF INDIAN ANIMALS nor Ellerman & Morrison-Scott in their CHECKLIST OF INDIAN AND PALAEARCTIC MAMMALS mention the presence of tahr in Bhutan, I wish to record that this animal is present and not uncommon in the Chuka, Gedu, Phutlibr areas of S. W. Bhutan on the Thimphu road, between 5,000 to 7,000 ft. above sea-level. I had heard of its occurrence at Chuka a year ago, and I was given some * poached’ tahr meat a few weeks ago. I myself was lucky to see a young animal (sex unknown) with short horns, at Phutlibr on 27 October 1969 at midday in rocky jungle whilst I was watching birds in a favourite haunt. The animal did not see me and approached head-on to within less than ten yards when it stopped and, puzzled by my keeping still, watched me for some ten seconds before taking fright. My Bhutanese companion also saw the animal and stated its name in Bhutanese to be ‘ Chara,’ similar to the Nepalese name of * Jharal.’ Its occurrence in Eastern Bhutan will be investigated and the subject of a further letter if any reliable information comes to light. BANK OF BHUTAN, J. R. S. HOLMES PHUNTSHOLING, | BHUTAN, November 7, 1969. 4. BLACKBUCK, ANTILOPE CERVICAPRA (LINNAEUS) SWIMMING ~ .On 16 December 1969, I was walking back to the Rest House at about 5-30 P.M. after watching a large number of Blackbuck around the observation tower at the Point Calimere Sanctuary. As I came near the forest rest house, my way was blocked by a lagoon about 25 yards wide, which was either a backwater fed by the sea or a drainage of the water from the forest. I was looking for a safe place to cross it when a fisherman coming from the opposite direction shouted a warning to me not to cross where I was, as there was apparently a strong current at the junction of the sea and the lagoon. As I crossed further up as he directed, I saw him swimming across. It must have been quite deep. I started walking towards the Rest House when I saw: a Blackbuck standing to my left towards the sea. On seeing me he started to gallop along the shore, until he came near the lagoon. He stopped momentarily, when he saw his way cut off, but the next moment jumped into water and with two characteristic leaps he was in the middle of the lagoon and promptly MISCELLANEOUS NOTES | 107 went down. After a couple of seconds I saw his head bob up and he Started swimming steadily till he reached the opposite shore. He shrugged and sneezed a few times and bounded off out of sight. I am not aware whether Blackbuck have been observed swimming before. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY’S S. A. HUSSAIN BirD MIGRATION STUDY CAMP, POINT CALIMERE SANCTUARY, TAMIL NADU, January 4, 1970. 5. A RECORD OF THE TIGER BITTERN, GORSACHIUS MELANOLOPHUS (RAFFLES) FROM KARAIKUDI, RAMANA- THAPURAM DISTRICT, TAMIL NADU In December, 1968, Prof. J. Samuel Raj, Head of the Department of Zoology, Alagappa College, Karaikudi, brought to the Museum a mounted specimen of a medium-sized bird more or less resembling a Black Bittern. Since the species was not represented in the Museum collection and as we were doubtful about its correct identity, we had it sent to the Bombay Natural History Society, where it was identified as the Tiger Bittern or Malay Bittern, Gorsachius melanolophus (Raffles). This is quite an unusual record for this species since it had not been apparently recorded earlier from eastern India, although there was one record from the Nilgiris in the report of the Eastern Ghats Survey by Whistler and Kinnear. The occurrence of this species in Tamil Nadu is therefore quite unique and is worth reporting. Prof. Samuel Raj who secured the specimen reports that the bird was caught on the Alagappa College campus, Karaikudi, Ramanatha- puram District, on 7 November, 1967, which was a rainy day. Due to heavy rains, the bird is reported to have dropped down from a tree. It was kept alive for a week and stuffed and mounted later on and finally brought to the Madras Museum in December, 1968. Prof. Samuel Raj reports that specimens of the Tiger Bittern are seen occasionally in and around Karaikudi during November and December. The distribution of this species is cited in Stuart Baker’s (1929) FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA 6: 362 as “‘ Ceylon, the Malabar Coast to the Southern Bombay Presi- dency, Assam, Manipur, Burma, South through the Malay States to Sumatra, Java, Borneo and Formosa.”’ ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I am grateful to Prof. J. Samuel Raj for having kindly donated the specimen of this Bittern to the Madras Government Museum, where it 108 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) was hitherto unrepresented, and for furnishing the necessary information on its locality, date of collection and the circumstances under which the specimen was collected. GOVERNMENT MUSEUM, ae S. T. SATYAMURTI EGMOoRE, MADRAS-8, Director of Museums, Madras December 1, 1969. 6. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF SWINHOE’S SNIPE, CAP- ELLA MEGALA (SWINHOE) NEAR BOMBAY, AND A NOTE ON ITS IDENTIFICATION On 7th December 1947, while shooting with Dr. Salim Ali on the lower portion (c. 300’) of Cathedral Rock, near Kalyan, Bombay, we put up two snipe out of tall rushes on the edge of terrace paddy. In flight they appeared much heavier and darker than either Pintail (C. stenura) or Fantail (C. gallinago). We preserved the less damaged one, believing it to be Swinhoe’s [C. megala (Swinhoe)] which has been recorded in eastern and southern India but not so far north-west. It was sent to the British Museum, but was identified by Sir Norman Kinnear as a Pintail (C. stenura). In the course of cataloguing the collection recently, I found this specimen (No. 14938) listed among C. gallinago. The notes on the label prompted me to re-compare this with the Pintails and, as the tail (originally noted to have 22 feathers with the central pair in moult, and a part of which is preserved) definitely lacked the more pin-like feathers on the outside, I sent the skin to Dr. Dillon Ripley who agrees that it is Swinhoe’s Snipe (C. megala). This extends the accepted winter range of the species north-west of Madras, Mysore, and Kerala. In 1934, La Personne (JBNHS 37 : 734) stated that Swinhoe’s Snipe could be distinguished from the Pintail by its bastard wing being 20 mm. or longer as against 17 or less in the latter. Stuart Baker confirmed the difference and suggested diagnostic limits of over 19 mm. for Swinhoe’s and under 19 mm. for the Pintail. This is repeated in subsequent literature including IND. HANDBOOK (2 : 285), but the spike-like and longest feather in the bastard wing only measures 15-18 mm. in this and six other specimens in the Society’s collection and does not appear to be any longer than in the Pintail. This species resembles the Pintail in the shape of the bill tip, the barring on the underwing, and the absence of the broad white tips to the secondaries, and the only consistent differences appear to be: (a) the absence of the pinfeathers at the side of the tail, MISCELLANEOUS NOTES _. A 109 (6) aslightly longer wing (135-144, cf. 128-137), and (c) alonger tail (52-60, cf. 44-50). The last character does not appear to have been noticed before but is very consistent. : 15, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, | HUMAYUN ABDULALI BOMBAY-3, January 9, 1970. T.? OCCURRENCE OF THE GREAT SNIPE, CAPELLA MEDIA (LATHAM) IN BURMA AND INDIA - Only three records of the Great Snipe [Capella media (Latham)] have been accepted from peninsular India and, though it is said to have been obtained in Ceylon and the Andamans, it has not been recorded from Burma. It may therefore be interesting to note that in the course of cataloguing the Society’s collection, we found 9 birds of this species listed as Capella gallinago (Linnaeus). Six of them are from Iraq and Persia but, in addition to one from near Bangalore collected by Capt. A. Boxwell on 28th October 1910 (the label now reads: “ Capt. A. Boxall, 2 December 1910’) and which is one of the three records referred to above, there are two more, from Walmer, Nilgiris, and Moulmein, Burma. The first of these two specimens was collected by Phythian-Adams and is marked as received in November 1933. It was no doubt sent to the Society as it appeared different from the Common Snipe but was apparently marked C. gallinago by one of the Society’s assistants and the identification not checked upon subsequently. This forms the fourth record from India. The Burmese bird was collected at Moulmein by W. A. W. Dawn but the label bears no date. This also was marked as the Common Snipe and has been overlooked for many years. Mr. Dawn was elected a member of the Society on 28 February 1899, a fact which gives some indication of the date of collection. In addition to the longer wing the additional amount of white on three of the outermost tail-feathers is very distinctive. The sketch in IND. HANDBOOK (reproduced from BR. HANDBOOK) represents this correctly but reference is made to the Key in the FAUNA which refers to the black base to the feathers and implies that the distal portion is pure white and without the black bars. The Key in IND. HANDBOOK (2 : 278) perhaps needs another correction, for it specifies a wing under 150 mm. The 110 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) specimens available have their wings 138 (frayed)—150. The upper limit would be larger in fresh birds. The tarsus is noticeably stouter than in gallinago. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, HUMAYUN ABDULALI HORNBILL HOUSE, SHANTA NAIR SHAHID BHAGAT SINGH ROAD, BoMBAY-1 BR, October 25, 1969. 8. NOTES ON INDIAN BIRDS-11. ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF STERNA FUSCATA LINNAEUS IN INDIAN LIMITS—A CORRECTION At a monthly meeting of the Bombay Natural History Society held on 4 July 1887 (JBNHS 2:286), reference was made to a Sooty Tern Sterna fuliginosa, now S. fuscata, said to have been obtained by W. F. Sinclair at Alibag, Kolaba District; this is noted as the only record from the area in “* The Birds of Bombay and Salsette ’ (1939, JBNHS 40 :636). In 1938, Salim Ali, Charles McCann and I collected numerous re- mains of terns and their eggs on the Vengurla Rocks, off Malwan, south of Bombay, and among them the smaller wings could be divided into two groups, brown and grey. Salim Ali who compared our specimens with specimens in the Society’s collection (1939, JBNHS 43:448) divided the brown wings into two groups: (a) measuring 237 (2), 240, and 242 mm., which he identified as Sterna anaethetus, recorded there by Hume in 1875, and (b) 2 measuring 270 and 294, which he identified as Sterna fuscata, making the only nesting record for the area, the next nearest being from the Laccadives. It may be mentioned that the wings found by us have not been preserved. On 21 October 1947, I obtained 2 terns out of a loose party of 5 or 6 on wooden boxes and similar rubbish floating in a calm patch in the sea, about a mile south of Bombay and 5 miles off the mainland. These were identified as Sterna fuscata by Salim Ali. When working out my first collection from the Andamans (1968), I was unable to separate the material in Bombay into two species fuscata and anaethetus, and one of the two just mentioned was sent to the Smith- sonian Institution where they identified it as anaethetus. Presumably for this reason this record is omitted from the INDIAN HANDBOOK, but a reference is made to Sinclair’s specimen. While cataloguing the collection (1969), the bird from Alibag seemed to me to be no different from the several others accepted as anaethetus, MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 111 and I requested the British Museum (Natural History) to send me re- presentative specimens of both species. With this additional material in hand, Salim Ali and I are agreed that we have no specimen of fuscata in the Society’s collection, and that the bird collected by Sinclair is anaethetus and not fuliginosa (fuscata) as originally recorded. Judging from the material available, fuscata is larger (wing over 270) than anaethetus and is separable from it by its much darker upper parts and the white eye-stripe not continuing beyond the eye as it does in anaethetus. The two wings from Vengurla Rocks, if correctly measured, indicate that fuscata breeds there but, in view of the possibility of error in ascertaining the correct measurements from broken wings separated from the body, it is advisable to await a confirmation. The 16 specimens of anaethetus available in Bombay from the Red Sea to the Andamans and the Ceylon specimens obtained from the British Museum cannot be separated into the three races now accepted in the FAUNA and INDIAN HANDBOOK. 75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, HUMAYUN ABDULALI BOMBAY-3, January, 30, 1970. 9. THE FLIGHT SPEED OF THE HOUSE CROW, CORVUS SPLENDENS VIEILLOT On 19 August 1969, I was going from Vellore to Arkonam (North Arcot Dt., Tamil Nadu) in our departmental jeep for field work, when near the village of Vallam, I noticed a pair of house crows flying in the same direction as the jeep. As the trunk road was almost straight and they were flying overhead parallel to the road, we kept pace with them for nearly five kilometres. The speedometer of the jeep showed a constant speed of 35 kilometres per hour. They were flying leisurely quite often calling to each other and it appeared that this was their normal flight speed as against the hurried flight when they are late to return to the roosting place from feeding areas. Care K. N. PANICKER VIRUS RESEARCH UNIT, C. M. C. HOspIrTAL, VELLORE, December 26, 1969. 9 112 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) 10. IS THE CORRECT NAME OF THE MANGROVE WHISTLER, PACHYCEPHALA CINEREA (BLYTH) OR PACHY- CEPHALA GRISOLA (BLYTH)? Blyth (1842, J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 11: 799) was confused over the identity of a female specimen supposed to be an example of Tephrodornis superciliosus Swainson v. Lanius keroula Hardwicke and Gray. It differed considerably from the male. Both specimens were collected together out of a small party (from the neighbourhood of Calcutta). At a later date he shot another female of 7. superciliosus and found that the male and female were alike. The controversial female specimen could therefore be isolated specifically and it appears that he could not place it with any other species. The description laid down by him was as follows :- “*. . « » no white whatever on the tail, which is besides shorter and less rounded and the superciliary streak and dark colour of the ear-coverts are also wanting.” He further pointed out “‘... the diversity in the tail is so remarkable that I imagine few would incline to regard them specific- ally the same.” This expression of doubt was cleared by him when a year later (J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 12: 180) he remarked, ‘‘The supposed variety of Tephrodornis superciliosus, having no whitish line over the eye, nor white on the exterior tail feathers may be designated T. grisola’’. In the year 1847, Blyth described Muscitrea cinerea (J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 16: 122) from Arakan, Burma. It was later found that Muscitrea cinerea was the same as Tephrodornis grisola. The species name grisola has been subsequently used by Jerdon (1862, BIRDS OF INDIA, 1: 411) Gadow (1883, CAT. BIRDS BRITISH MUS. 8: 220), Oates (1890, FAUNA BRITISH INDIA, Birds, 2: 31), Oberholser (1912, Smithson. misc. Collns. 60: 11), Stresemann (1913, Novit. Zool. 20: 355), Baker (1924, 1930, FAUNA BRITISH INDIA, Birds, 2: 484; 7: 190), Robinson (1927, THE BIRDS OF MALAY PENINSULA 1: 189) Delacour & Jabouille (1931, LES OISEAUX DE L’ INDOCHINE FRANCAISE p. 208), Kuroda (1933, THE BIRDS OF THE ISLANDS OF JAVA 1: 151), Junge (1936, Temminckia 1: 59), Riley (1938, Bull. U.S. nat. Mus. 172: 484-485), Chasen (1939, THE BIRDS OF MALAY PENINSULA 4: 231), Smythies (1940, THE BIRDS OF BURMA, p. 164). From the literature as far as available to me I find that since 1940, the species name cinerea has been used by De Schau- eusee (1940, Proc. Acas nat. Sci. Phil. 91: 409), Delacour (1947 BIRDS OF MALAYASIA, p. 298), Glenister (1951, THE BIRDS OF MALAY PENINSULA, SINGAPORE AND PENANG, Pp. 227), Smythies (1953, THE BIRDS OF BURMA, p. 159), Ripley (1961 A SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN, P. 440), Mayr (1967, CHECK-LIST OF THE BIRDS OF THE WORLD 12: 8), Ali & Ripley (1968, HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN I: xlvi) and others. Ripley, Mayr, and a few others explained that Tephrodornis grisola was unidentifiable, hence the later name cinerea should be used. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 113 The genus Muscitrea has since been synonymised with Pachycephala Vigors (1825, Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. 14: 444). An examination of the type specimen of Blyth’s Tephrodornis grisola (9, Botanical Garden, Sibpur, near Calcutta), present in the Zoological Survey of India, how- ever, leaves one without any doubt as to its correct identity—that it is the same bird currently known as Pachycephala cinerea (Blyth). No doubt Blyth’s (J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 12: 180) description of Tephrodornis grisola is vague and inadequate, but the species can be identified by referring to the type specimen. Since the species name grisolais older than cinerea and is identifiable, it should be resurrected. Such an action will not violate Article 23b of the code. ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, AJIT KUMAR MUKHERJEE CALCUTTA-13. April 10, 1969. 11. SLIGHT REACTION FROM BITES OF THE REAR- FANGED SNAKES BOIGA CEYLONENSIS (GUNTHER) AND DRYOPHIS NASUTUS (LACEPEDE) While handling a Cat Snake (Boiga ceylonensis, 750 mm.) which I had collected from Khandala, it bit and held the middle of my left middle finger, the snake’s whole mouth closed over the finger. There was slight bleeding and after a few minutes the bitten area was swollen to the degree of a moderate bee sting, accompanied by itching. These symptoms per- sisted for about half an hour, the swelling gradually disappeared after about two hours. In April, while handling a Green Whip Snake (Dryophis nasutus, 680 mm.) it made a sudden jab at my face (which is a common habit of this species) and made a quick bite on the tip of my nose. Immediately blood started dripping and this continued for an unusually long time (18 minutes). The nose tip is a very sensitive area and I experienced the itchiness mentioned above, but only slightly noticeable swelling. Species of Boiga and Dryophis in India grow to over six feet in length, but the only danger from their bites would be to those rare in- dividuals “‘ hyper-sensitive”’ to the venom (similar to the more com- monly occurring allergy to bee and wasp venoms). The only rearfanged snake considered dangerous to man occurs in Africa, the Boomslang (Dispholidus typus). C/o CHATTOPADHYAYA, ROMULUS WHITAKER CHATEAU MARINE No. 6, MARINE DRIVE, BOMBAY, March, 1968. 114 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) 12, CANNIBALISM IN THE INDIAN RAT SNAKE PTYAS MUCOSUS (LINNAEUS) I am at present keeping a number of rat snakes of various sizes and the water snakes Cerberus and Natrix together in a large pit with smooth high walls to prevent escape. Periodically I put live frogs, live and dead mice and rats in for the snakes, most of which thrive. Those that refuse to eat I simply release as all these specimens are common. Yesterday I noticed one of the rat snakes (8 feet in length) with a elongate bulge in its body which was obviously a snake. Checking, I noted the absence of a large Natrix piscator (44 inches and heavy-bodied). Today as I was iooking into the pit I saw a seven foot rat snake seize a four foot snake of the same species and attempt to swallow it. The small snake, however, struggled fiercely and soon escaped. Later in the day I found a Cerberus rhynchops nearly bitten in two, evidently by a large Ptyas. Ptyas mucosus undoubtedly prefers mice, rats, frogs, and toads, but in the absence of sufficient quantities will attack and devour other snakes including its own kind. Deoras in SNAKES OF INDIA (1965) mentions snakes as part of the widely varied diet of the Indian rat snake. C/o CHATTOPADHYAYA, ROMULUS WHITAKER CHATEAU MARINE NO. 6, MARINE DRIVE, BOMBAY, January 8, 1968. 13. A REDESCRIPTION OF SIREMBO JERDONI (DAY): (PISCES: BROTULIDAE) (With a text-figure) Five specimens of Sirembo jerdoni (Day) measuring 95 mm., 105 mm., 123 mm., 137 mm. and 145 mm. total length were collected during April 1964 from boat seine catches on the Visakhapatnam coast. This species has so far been recorded only from the Madras coast (Day 1888, Menon & Rac 1963). There is one specimen in the collections of the Zoological Survey of India, Indian Museum, Calcutta (Registered No. 13202/1), also collected from Madras (in 1940). Until now this species has not been assigned to its correct genus and the few earlier descriptions are meagre (Day 1888, 1889). Hence, it is redescribed here in detail under the relevant genus. Day (1888) originally described this species under Brotula Cuvier as B. jerdoni despite the absence of barbels on both jaws, a characteristic feature of Brotula. His description is very brief and the counts for dorsal fin rays (126) and anal fin rays (95) are much too high. No figure is given, MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 115 but he stated that a coloured figure of this species was amongst Jerdon and Elliot’s illustrations. Neither these illustrations nor Day’s type specimen are traceable, but the colour pattern of this species is more or less accurately described by Day. Menon & Rao (1963), while discussing the systematic affinity of this species, stated that a new genus should be erected to accommodate it, since it differs from related brotulid genera in having the ventral fins behind the eyes and the dorsal originating in front of the pectoral. How- ever, no description was given and their specimen is not available for examination. My observations on fresh specimens have shown that the origin of the ventrals is below eyes, well before the posterior margin of the orbit. The position of the origin of the dorsal fin does not seem to have any generic significance in this group. The confusion regarding the origin of the ventrals by Menon & Rao (1963) may be due to the fact that their observations were limited to a single preserved specimen. However, examination of the specimen of S. jerdoni in the Indian Museum (text. fig.) also shows that the ventral origin is in front of posterior margin of the orbit. The absence of barbels on both jaws and the origin of the ventrals below the eyes are characteristic of two genera, Haplobrotula Gill (Smith 1961) and Sirembo Bleeker (Gunther 1862, Norman 1939); the latter can be distinguished from the former by (1) a single ray in each ventral fin (2 in Haplobrotula), (2) the presence of scales all over head and (3) the absence of spines on the preopercle and opercle. The characters of the present species conform to those listed above and hence it is placed in the genus Sirembo. The erection of a new genus as suggested by Menon & Rao (1963) is not necessary. | Sirembo jerdoni (Day) D 89-92: A 61-63; V 1; P 23; C 10; Vert. 48 (13-35) Body elongate, laterally compressed, tapering posteriorly. Greatest body depth 5.6-6.6, length of head 4.2-4.6, distance from snout tip to insertion of dorsal 4.8-5.0, to origin of anal 2.2-2.5, length of pectoral 8.0-9.0, all in total length. Snout 4.8-5.7, eye 3.4-3.8 and interorbital distance 3.8-4.2 in length of head. Snout blunt with three pores on either side; eyes covered by membrane. Mouth inferior, both lips with numerous tubercles. Maxilla reaches to a little behind posterior margin of orbit. Two rows of conical teeth in both jaws, the outer row a little enlarged; villiform teeth on palatine in oblong patches and a single inverted V- shaped patch on vomer. vise 116 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) A blunt spine at the superior corner of opercle. Four gill rakers on lower arm of the first gill arch; five branchiostegals; pseudobranchiae absent. Lateral line in the upper half of body, single, distinct and complete. Dorsal, caudal and anal fins continuous; dorsal originates before gill openings; anal originates one-fourth length behind that of dorsal; pectoral fins rounded, situated in the lower half of body; rays of all fins unbranched and embedded in thin membrane; no spines in fins; ventrals situated well before posterior margin of orbit, each a single ray, two- thirds length of head. Scales cycloid, covered by skin, present all over head and body; base of pectoral scaly; no scales on fins. ; : Cais “ 5 P= — eters SSS Sa = ian ee SSE ee Sirembo jerdoni (Day), total length 145 mm., showing the colour pattern. Vent in advance of mid-point of total length; pyloric caecae 9 to 11; vertebrae 48 (13 prehaemal and 35 haemal). Colour: Body light brown; an oblique dark band from above snout across eye to the inferior corner of opercle; one band between eyes dorsally, one transverse band behind eyes which descends vertically on either side to some distance and then runs back obliquely through the superior corner of opercle fading out before anal origin. From nape two dark grey-brown bands run back along the body on either side, the first along the dorsal base to the last fifth of body and the second descending to the lateral line and running along it to the base of caudal; the second band gives off a branch above pectoral tip; this latter runs obliquely to above anal origin from where it runs parallel to the second band and gradually fades away by about middle of anal. In one specimen the two main bands are connected by a short band above anal origin. The bands of the two sides have a common origin dorsally in front of dorsal fin. Pectoral fin base slightly brown. There are five discrete roughly semicircular blotches on the dorsal fin, the first, third and fifth black in colour while the second and fourth are dark grey. The last blotch ends at about two-thirds length of the fin. After the MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 117 fifth blotch the smaller specimens have one or more blotches but in larger specimens there is a continuous black band in the lower half of the fin up to tip of caudal. The anal fin has a broad black band running all along its lower half to meet that of the dorsal at the tip of caudal fin. The edge of anal fin may sometimes be lighter. The colour fades a little in formalin preserved specimens. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am grateful to Dr. S. Dutt and Mr. P. J. P. Whitehead for valuable suggestions. My thanks are also due to Professor P. N. Ganapati for excellent facilities. To Dr. P. K. Talwar I am grateful for kindly examin- ing the specimen of B. jerdoni in the Indian Museum for me and furnishing necessary information. I am indebted to the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research for the award of Senior Fellowship, during the tenure of which this work has been carried out. CENTRAL REGIONAL STATION, V. VISWESWARA RAO ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, JABALPUR, (M.P.), May, 20, 1969. REFERENCES Day, F. (1888): Fish. India, Suppl. 804. (1889): Fauna of British India, Fishes. 2: 435. GUNTHER, A. (1862): Catalogue of the Acanthopterygian Fishes in the collection of the British Museum. 4: 371-374. MENON, A. G. K. & RAMA RAO, K. V. (1963): Notes on three rare fishes from Madras. Ann. Zool. 4(5): 47-48. Norman, J. (1939): John Murray Expedition, Sci. Rept., Fishes. 7(1): 80. SmitTH, J. L. B. (1961): The Sea Fishes of Southern Africa. 4th ed., Central News Agency Ltd., South Africa. pp. 360-364. 14. JOHNSON GRASS, SORGHUM HALEPENSE—A NEW HOST OF SUGARCANE GREEN BORER, RAPHIMETOPUS ABLUTELLUS ZELLER (PHYSITIDAE: LEPIDOPTERA) The green borer, Raphimetopus ablutellus Zell. is one of the major pests of sugarcane in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana States. It causes dead hearts on young shoots from March to June. Besides sugarcane, it has also been recorded on Saccharum spontaneum (Siddiqi & Singh 1959) and Saccharum munja (Gupta 1959). During 1962 and 1963 a survey was made to record its alternate and collateral host plants in and around the Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research Farm, Lucknow (U.P.) from March to June, when this borer is found in serious form on sugarcane crop. Observations were made on various Graminaceous crops and weeds like wheat (Triticum vulgare), barley (Hordeum vulgare), oats (Avena sativa), maize (Zea mays), jowar 118 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) (Sorghum vulgare), kans or kahi (Saccharum spontaneum), Johnson grass (Sorghum halepense), sarkanda (Saccharum munja), kush (Des- mostachya_ bipinnata), bharuhi (Imperata cylindrica), motha (Cyperus rotundus) and some unidentified weeds. In both years, young shoots of Johnson grass were observed to be attacked by two species of sugarcane borers, namely, Chilotraea infuscatellus Snellen and R. ablutellus, the latter being the first record on this weed. Out of 15 per cent of the total dead hearts found during June, 1963, 11 per cent were caused by R. ablutellus alone. During this period, full grown larvae were observed forming waterproof silken covering around their bodies in preparation for diapause. The infestation from March to April was very low in this grass and hardly 1 to 2 per cent shoots were attacked. DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY-ENTOMOLOGY, J. P. CHAUDHARY PUNJAB AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY, LUDHIANA, May, 29, 1968. REFEERNCES GupTA, B. D. (1959): Insect pests of Biology of Raphimetopus ablutellus Zeller sugarcane in India IV. The green borer, (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), the green borer Raphimetopus ablutellus Zeller. Indian of sugarcane in Uttar Pradesh. Indian Sugar. 9(5): 269-271. J. Ent. 21(2): 132-136. Siwpiar, Z. A. & SINGH, O. P. (1959): 15. PECULIAR ACCIDENT TO THE BUTTERFLY, DELIAS EUCHARIS DRURY The Common Jezebel (Delias eucharis Drury) is always about in our garden at Andheri, Bombay, and on the morning of 7 September 1968 at 8 a.m. I found several of these alighting on a white Lantana shrub, which was covered with flowers. One butterfly, however, appeared to be struggling to get away from the flower, but its proboscis seemed to be entangled in the blooms, and the antennae thickly covered with pollen. Another of the same species came along, flitted over it for a while, and passed along. I watched this situation for some time and then pulled the butterfly away from the flower and placed it on the ground but it could not fly. I had it examined at the Society and was told that it was not damaged in any way. I wonder if any butterfly enthusiasts have ever come across a similar situation. 32-A, JUHU LANE, ZAFAR FUTEHALLY ANDHERI, BOMBAY-58, September 9, 1968. 16. THE FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF THE LEMON BUTTER- FLY PAPILIO DEMOLEUS L. A large number of observations on the feeding visits of Papilio demoleus to flowers were recorded in the gardens attached to the Fruit MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 119 Experimental Station at Kirkee. The feeding time of these insects is restricted to a few hours in the morning. The number of such visits on the flowers of different plant families were as follows Convolvulaceae .. Mis a Re: 549 Geraniaceae oye mee me cay 764 Verbenaceae i as Bis of 488 Compositae a Se Me He 434 Caryophyllaceae .. “3 ae i 323 Scrophulariaceae }. a 3 107 Nyctaginaceae .. a a a3 13 With the exception of Nyctaginaceae (Apetalae) and Caryophyllaceae (Polypetalae) these families belong to Sympetalae, in which the petals are all united together. The nectaries are situated at the base of the fused petals and are therefore well protected. A very large number of visits were recorded on blue, violet and purple shades. Next in preference were the purple-eyed and violet-eyed white flowers. Then came the yellow and white flowers. Least preference was shown to scarlet-red, pink, scarlet-red-eyed white and pink-eyed white flowers. These field observations substantiate the conclusions arrived at by extensive experimentation (followed by statistical analysis) under the controlled conditions of the cage with the help of the standardized Ostwald coloured papers and the Bauman grey papers. They confirm : (a) that these insects tend to prefer flowers with compactly arranged and limited number of parts offering less contour (Vaidya 1958); and (6) that they prefer for feeding blue and purple colours (Ilse & Vaidya 1956). DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, VIDYADHAR G. VAIDYA UNIVERSITY OF POONA, POoON~-7, December 20, 1967. REFERENCES ItsE, D. & VatpyA. V. G. (1956): VaIDYA, V. G. (1958): Visual percep- Spontaneous feeding response to colours tion in Papilio demoleus L., Ph. D. in Papilio demoleus L. Proc. Indian Acad. Thesis submitted to University of Poona. Sci. XLII, 23-31. 120 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) 17. ON A HYMENOPTEROUS EGG-PARASITE OF AQUATIC BUGS INJURIOUS TO PISCICULTURE Parasitism by hymenopterous egg-parasites has been observed in a few cases of aquatic insects. During our investigations on the biology of aquatic bugs, a number of eggs of Anisops bouvieri Kirkaldy and Plea frontalis (Fieber) collected from a temporary pond near Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Barrackpore, were found to be infested by a hymenopterous parasite, Prestwichia sp. (Family Trichogrammatidae). Examination under the microscope of these eggs showed that some of them had exit holes. Such eggs were discarded and only complete eggs were selected for the determination of the number of parasites per host egg. Fifty parasitized eggs of each species were dissected and the number of parasites in each egg were counted. Results of these observations are given in the Table below. Number of parasites Number of host eggs Anisops bouvieri Plea frontalis 1 5 50 2 20 af 3 19 4 6 In the laboratory freshly deposited eggs of Anisops bouvieri Kirkaldy and Plea frontalis (Fieber), in the stems of aquatic plants, were exposed to the attacks of the female parasite and her behaviour was observed. She walked on the plant twigs, touching them with her antennae until the host egg was located when she raised her body and thrust the needle- shaped ovipositor into the host egg. While ovipositing, she quivered and scratched the plant tissue with her legs. The process of egg-laying took from 4-6 minutes. The parasite takes about 11 days to complete its life-history at a temperature ranging from 26.6°C to 32.2°C. Further studies on the biology of these parasites would probably lead to evolving a suitable method for the biological control of aquatic bugs preying upon fish fry. It is noteworthy that the genus Prestwichia Lubbock is recorded for the first time from India and the eggs of Anisops bouvieri Kirkaldy and Plea frontalis (Fieber) are new hosts for the parasite. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author is grateful to Dr. B. S. Bhimachar, former Director, Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, for his guidance. Thanks MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 121 are due to Dr. D. S. Hill, Commonwealth Institute of Entomology, London, for confirming the identity of the parasite. CENTRAL INLAND FISHERIES J. M. JULKA! RESEARCH INSTITUTE, BARRACKPORE, WEST BENGAL, January 29, 1969. 18. HONEY BEES AND WASPS AS PESTS OF GRAPE Honey bees usually feed on nectar but, the Indian Honey Bee, Apis indica F. and Wasps, Polistes hebraeus (Fb.) and Vespa orientalis Linn. damage the ripening grape berries in Madhya Pradesh. A. indica has not so far been reported as a pest of grapes as far as the author is aware. Exotic varieties of grapes, particularly Perlette, Muscat, and Beauty Seedless are the most promising varieties of economic importance in Madhya Pradesh. They start ripening from the middle of May and the fruiting season is almost over by the end of June. During 1962, 1963 and 1968, at Gwalior a single vine on an average bore 136, 147, and 183 bunches consisting of 2,441, 2,876 and 3,087 berries, respectively. The berries of Perlette and Muscat are light greenish to light yellowish in colour, seedless, sweet, having edible thin skin, tasty and of pleasing texture. The normal sugar content of these fruits is 18 per cent with acid at 0.8 per cent. They are the most preferred by A. indica followed by Beauty Seedless that are purplish in colour whereas the seeded varieties with inedible skin are comparatively less favoured and sour varieties are least favoured. Hard inedible skinned varieties almost escape damage. The percentage of damaged berries in Perlette and Muscat varieties varied from 15.6 to 64.8 and 12.7 to 58.6 respectively, during 1962, 17.2 to 63.5 and 10.7 to 54.5 during 1963; and 18.7 to 70.3 and 13.5 to 62.7 during 1968. The infestation attains a peak during the first fort- night of June. No varietal preference has been observed by wasps. The bees and wasps make minute punctures on the ripe and ripening berries only and feed on the pulp by gnawing the epicarp leaving the skin behind. Such infested berries either remain on the bunch or fall to the ground. During 1966 and 1967, the pests of grape vine at Jabalpur in Madhya Pradesh were also surveyed. Thrips caused maximum damage during the blossom and fruiting stage, adversely affecting fruit formation and causing cracking and scab formation on grapes. Bees and wasps were secondary minor pests on these cracked berries at Jabalpur. At Gwalior, honey bees and wasps are major pests of grapes irrespective of thrips infestation, and are a potential menace as well as a great setback to the 1 Present Address: Zoological Survey of India, 27, Chowringhee Road, Calcutta-13. 122 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) cultivation of grapes in this region. If the ripening bunches are not pro- tected by paper bags, no ripe fruit can be harvested and even the cost of cultivation cannot be realised. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author is thankful to Shri R. C. Srivastava, Chairman of Horticulture, for permission to record observations and Director, Zoologi- cal Survey of India, Calcutta, for the identifications. Partial use of data collected along with Shri S. U. Kittur during 1962 and 1963 is duly acknowledged. The author is indebted to Dr. R. R. Rawat, Chairman of Entomology, for guidance and encouragement. DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY, D. K. SAXENA J. N. KrisHi VISHWA VIDYALAYA, COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, GwWaALior, M.P., December 24, 1968. 19. ANEMOTACTIC RESPONSE IN’ THE FIREFLY, LUCIOLA SP. (COLEOPTERA: LAMPYRIDAE) Positive response to wind currents by insects has been observed by many workers (Wheeler 1899; Fraenkel 1932; Kennedy 1939). Terms such as anemotropism and anemotaxis have been applied to this behaviour. In some cases, the positive reaction to air currents is closely linked up with visual or olfactory stimuli (Fraenkel & Gunn 1961). During the second week of May, 1968 fairly large numbers of the firefly, Luciola sp. were seen flying around trees at night in the Malabar Christian College compound. At night, around 9 p.m., about ten of them flew into our room, evidently attracted by the electric light. An electric ceiling fan was at that time, revolving at top speed in the room. It was observed that the fireflies flying inside the room were frequently knocked down by the blades of the fan. In order to find out whether the flight orientation was in any way connected with the wind current produced by the fan, the lights in the room were switched off and there was total darkness. The course of flight of the fireflies could be easily followed with the help of the bright flashes of greenish yellow light produced by them. It was found that the insects persistently flew towards the fan, directly against the strong wind current. This is a positive and directional response to the wind current, which is apparently not connected with any other stimuli and it may therefore be termed positive anemotaxis, MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 123 This behaviour must be having some adaptive significance in nature under certain conditions. DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, A. B. SOANS MALABAR CHRISTIAN COLLEGE, JOYCE S. SOANS CALICUT 1, KERALA, June 8, 1968. REFERENCES FRAENKEL, G. (1932): Die Wanderun- KENNEDY, J. S. (1939): The visual gen der Insecten. Ergebnisse der Biologie, orientation of flying mosquitoes in still 6: 8. and in moving air. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. A. 109: 221-242. & GuNN, D. L. (1961): WHEELER, W. M. (1899): Anemo- The Orientation of Animals. Dover tropism and other tropism in insects. Publications, Inc., New York. Arch. EntwMech. Org. 8: 373-381. 20. THE RED PUMPKIN’ BEETLE RAPHIDOPALPA FOVEICOLLIS (LUCAS), AS A PEST OF THE JAPANESE MINT The Red Pumpkin Beetle, Raphidopalpa foveicollis (Lucas), is a serious pest of cucurbits and is very widely distributed all over India. Besides cucurbits, it has been reported to damage the leaves of plants such as Lathyrus odoratus L., Pisum sativum L., Medicago sativa L., Oryza sativa L., Zea mays L., Cyamopsis psoraloides DC., Trifolium resupinatum L., french beans, Phaseolus vulgaris Linn, etc. The beetle is reported here for the first time as causing damage to mint, Mentha arvensis L. subsp. haplocaly Briq. var. piperascens Malinvaud. The menthol in the leaves of this new host plant gives them a strong aroma and bitter taste but does not deter the pest. The Japanese mint, an important exotic aromatic plant, was initially introduced on the farm of the Northern Zonal Centre of the Central Indian Medicinal Plants Organisation, Haldwani (Nainital) and is now grown as a cash crop in about three thousand acres in the Tarai tract of Uttar Pradesh. Adult red pumpkin beetles, Raphidopalpa foveicollis (Lucas) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) were observed in groups of three to six on leaves of Japanese mint in March-April 1967 and 1968 at the farm of CIMPO, Haldwani, situated on Bareilly-Nainital Road about a mile north of Pantnagar Railway Station. They fed on the underside of the leaves and caused fairly severe damage. Initially the damage is mainly to the palisade tissue in between the veins, causing transparent patches on the infested leaves which are progressively holed. Unless large number of such patches appear, the pest escapes detection while feeding on the undersurface of the leaf and continues to damage it. Besides the leaves, young growing apical and auxiliary buds are eaten. This, however, 124 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1) retards growth only temporarily. In severely infested plots, the loss of crop ranges from 15 to 20 per cent. Even though the beetles were observed feeding on the foliage and also pairing on the plants ; it is not yet known as to how far they complete their development on this new host. However, the ease with which they feed on this plant suggest, in addition to the pairing recorded on the host, that the pest might be able to complete its life cycle on the Japanese mint itself. The extent of damage caused afford sufficient justification to classify it as a serious pest. Control Measures: Spraying 0.02 per cent endrin at the rate of about 1,000 litres per ha. in the early hours of the day effectively control the pest. In this case, the crop should not be harvested within three weeks of the date of spraying. Dusting 5 per cent malathion at the rate of 2 kg. per ha. or spraying 0.1 per cent malathion at the rate of about 1,000 litres per ha. is also effective in reducing infestation. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors are thankful to Dr. R. L. Paliwal, Director (Research), Experimental Station, and Dr. N. K. Anant Rao, Dean, College of Agriculture, U.P. Agricultural University, Pantnagar and Director & Scientist-in-Charge, Central Indian Medicinal Plants Organisation, Lucknow, for their keen interest in