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JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

EDITED BY
ZAFAR FUTEHALLY, J. C. DANIEL & P. V. BOLE

VOL. 67

Nos. 1, 2 and 3

Containing 3 graphs and 28 black-and-white plates,
2 photographs in text, 1 map, and 100 text-figures

Dates of Publication

Part 1, (pages 1 to 136) . ee 30-6-1970
Part 2, (pages 137 to 364) oe, ... 31-10-1970
Part 3, (pages 365 to 646) ee a 25-3-1971

Agents in England
WHELDON AND WESLEY LTD.,
Lytton Lodge, Codicote, Nr. Hitchin,

Herts, England

PRINTED AT LEADERS PRESS PVT. LTD., BOMBAY
1972

Aaa, a fi

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

ABDULALI, HUMAYUN, A Catalogue of
the Birds in the Collection of the
Bombay Natural History Society-6.
Scolopacinae (part)

— , 7, Scolopacinae
(part) to Laridae a

—______—_—_—_§——§_§,On the occur-
rence of Swinhoe’s Snipe, Capella
megala (Swinhoe) near Bombay and a
note on its identification

——, Notes on Indian
Birds-11. On the Distribution of
Sterna fuscata Linnaeus in Indian
limits—A Correction

——_—_-___________—_.,An addition to
the list of Indian Birds. —The Mig-
ratory Jungle Nightjar, Caprimulgus
indicus jotaka Temm. and Schl.

——_—_____—_—_—,Notes on Indian
Birds-12. Extension of the southern
limits of the Eastern Stock Dove
(Columba eversmanni Bonaparte)

——_—__________—_—., and RoseErT B.,
GrusBH, A New race of the Black-
crested Baza Aviceda leuphotes
(Dumont) from the Andaman Islands

————_—_—__—_—_——————, and SHANTA,
Nair, Occurrence of ‘the Great Snipe,
Capella media (Latham), in Burma
and India AS Hig ee

AHMED, FAHIM, see RANADE, M.R.

AHUJA, K. K., see PATASKAR, R. D.

ALI, RAUF, Occurrence of Least Frigate
Bird (Fregata ariel iredalei Mathews)
in Bombay f

AMADON, DEAN, Taxonomic categories
below the level of genus : Theore-
tical and practical aspects

ANANTHAKRISHNAN, T. N., Trends | in
intraspecific sex-limited variations in
some mycophagous Tubulifera (Thy-
sanoptera) tee

BABu, C. R., The identity of Solanum
khasianum Cl. var. chaliericeaten
Sen Gupta (Solanacea)

BAL, D. V., see WaGcu, A. B.: “WAGH,
ARUN B.

BALAKRISHNAN, N. P., Nomenclatural
Notes on some Flowering Plants-II

—_—_—_____—__—___—, Studies in
Indian Euphorbiaceae—IV ...

BANERJI, M. L., and B. B., THAPA, Or-
chids of Nepal- 3 ;

BENNET, S. 8. R., The Taxonomic Status
of the Section Fissendocarpa (Haines)
Raven of the ee Genus
Ludwigia L. x wi ey

Page

yl
Pathe)

108

110

331

351

137

109

609 |

oy)
299
139

iZ5

BENNET, 8S. S. R., Nomenclature of two
Indian Plants ...

BHARGAVA, R. M. S., The fecundity of
Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch) oe

BHATNAGAR, R. K., The spider Lycosa
carmichaeli Graveley as a predator
of small frogs. .

BuatTt, V. S., Studies on the Biology
of some Freshwater Fishes...

Biswas, S. N. and R. PrRAsap, On the
occurrence of Buddleja davidii Franch
(Loganiaceae) in India ee

Basco, F., Aspects of the Flora, and
Ecology ‘of Savannas of the South
Indian Hills

BRAHMACHARY, R. ie B. Natives
and B. RAKSHIT, An attempt to de-
termine the food habits of the Indian
Rhinoceros

CAUGHLEY, GRAEME, Habitat. ‘of the
Himalayan Tahr, Hemitragus jemla-
hicus (H. Smith, 1826) :

CHAUDHARY, J. P., Johnson Grass,
Sorghum halepense—A new host of
Sugarcane Green Borer, Raphime-
topus ablutellus Zeller (Physitidae :
Lepidoptera) ...

DAKSHINI, K. M. M., Flora of Mothron-
wala Swamp Forest (District : Dehra
Dun, U.P., India) ve

DANIEL, Af C, The Tiger in ‘India :
An Enquiry—1968- -1969 oh

, The Nilgiri Tahr, Hemi-

tragus hylocrius Ogilby, in the High

Range, Kerala and the southern

Hills of the Western Ghats

| Das, DEBIKA and BHABESH PRAMANIK,

A Note on Chrysanthemum leucan-
themum Linn. Asteraceae :

Das, M. S., and B. H. PATNAIK, A new
host of the brinjal shoot and fruit
borer JLeucinodes orbonalis Guen
and its biology...

DavipaR, E.R. C., Wild Dog’s Courage
Rating Ay

— — a White Bison of

Manjampatti ...
Davis, T. A., Pre-foliation in ‘Seindap-
SUS officinalis Schott ee
Desal, J. H., The White Tiger ...
——_—__—_—., see SANKHALA, K. S.
Desal, M. H., see KULKARNI, A. R.»

DESFAYES, MICHEL, The Blackbird Tur-~

dus merula maximus in Nepal |
DESHPANDE, R. R., see RAWAT, R. R.
DHAMDHERE, SV: ‘see KAURAVA, A.S.
DHAWAN, RAJINDER. M.,

Page

358
583

589
194

359

522

558

103

aya

Stranding © :
of four Whales along "Goa coast.

vi LIST OF CONT RI BUT ORS

Page

between December 1968 to April 1970 = 327
FUTEHALLY, ZAFAR, 10th General As-

sembly and 11th Technical Meeting

of the International Union for Con-

servation of Nature and Natural

Resources ie a ae o' 30
— —, Peculiar accident to the

Butterfly, Delias eucharis Drury aa Stace LRG |

GARRILOV, E. I., and A. F. KovsHar,
Breeding Biology of the Himalayan
Rubythroat, — Erithacus _pectoralis
(Gould) in the Tien Shan ae 14

Guosu, R. B., On a newly recorded host
species of Dendrophthoe falcata (L.F.)
Ettingsh se res ise saat eySoe

—————., and R. PrRasapD, Cleome
rutidosperma DC. (Capparaceae)—

GONZALVES, ELLA A., and G. R.
SONNAD Aplanospore formation or

GOPALAKRISHNA, A., and A. MADHA-
VAN, Sex Ratio in some Indian Bats 171
GRUBH, ROBERT B., see ABDULALI,
HUMAYUN
GuPTA, B. M., Fishing methods for the
Spiny Eel Mastocembelus armatus in
Madhya Pradesh me eg PM Bs)
GUPTA, RAJENDRA, See SINGH, j. P.
Gupta, RITA, see MUKHERJEE, Paks
HALDER, D. D., Observations on the
food of young Hilsa ilisha (Ham.) of

rious to Pisciculture
KAHL, PHILIP M., Observations on the
breeding of storks in India and Ceylon

| KAPoorR, S. L., see HUSAIN, IBRAHIM

Kaurava, A. S., S.C. Opak and
S. V., DHAMDHERE, Studies on the
biology of Phytomyza_ atricornis
Meigen (Agromyzidae : Diptera)

| KHACHER, LAVKUMAR J., Notes on the

White-eye (Zosterops palpebrosa) and
White breasted Kingfisher (Halcyon
smyrnensis) i
KHOsHOO, T. N., see MUKHERJEE, Iva.
KovsHar, A. F., see GAVRILOV, E. I.
KRISHNAMURTHY, K. V., see SWAMY,
B. G. L.

_ KRISHNAN M., The estuarine crocodile
A new record for Assam aie sah rel aL Sa

the Hooghly estuarine system iyi O18 |

HEMADRI, K., see RAO, R.S.
HIMMATSINHI, Interesting Eagles in
Western India .. 330
,Grey headed Myna, Stur- -
nus malabaricus (Gmelin), in Kutch 332
HoimEs, J. R. S., Himalayan Tahr, He-
mitragus jemlahicus (H. Smith 1826)

HoMgI-MEHER, VY. M., Notes on some
peculiar cases of Phytogeographic
Distributions ... a a ey 81

—_—__—_—_———-, Analogous Bio-

climates and introduction of Econo-

mic Exotics 398 MUKHERJEE, Asit Kumar, Is the correct

HUSAIN, IBRAHIM §. and §.L. KAPoor
Some interesting plants from Luck-

Crocodilus porosus Schneider off the
Orissa coast

| KULKARNI, A. R., and M. H. Desat,
outcome of Parasitic attack ? 507 |

Tubers in Eriocaulon ritchieanum
Ruhl ah - ee my

—__-_____——, and P. V. MUDbDGAL,
Family Commelinaceae in Kolhapur
and its environs

KULKARNI, C. V., Spawning. “habits,
eggs and early development of Dec-
can Mahseer, Tor khudree (Sykes

_ Lancaster-Percy, S., An abnormal

Psidium mutation

| MADHAVAN, A., see GOPALAKRISHNA,

MAJUMDAR, N. C., Notes on Stellaria
saxatilis Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don,
Stellaria yestita Kurz and Stellaria
sikkimensis Hook. f.

MALLICK B., see BRAHMACHARY, R. t

MATHEW, K. M.,, The Flowering of the
Strobilanth (Acanthaceae) .

- MOHANASUNDARAM M., and C. Vv. SIVA-
in Bhutan it 106 |

KUMAR Swarming of Butterflies and
Moths ... ys ae pie ui
Mubaat, P. V., see KULKARNI, A. R.

| MUKHERJEE, P. K., and RITA GUPTA,

now and its neighbourhood 618 ©

HUSSAIN, S. A., Blackbuck, Antilope

cervicapra (Linnaeus) swimming... 106

JAIN, A. P., see PRAKASH, ISHWAR
JAIN, S. K., A rich but little known col-

lection of Indian Plants in U.S.S.R. 620.

JOGLEKAR, AsHA, and P. K. TALWaR,
The occurrence of Pennahia macro-
cephalus (Tang) (Pisces: Sciaeni-

_ NApDKERNY, N. T., Notes on some But-

dae) in Indian seas ... SD

JosepH, A. N. T., First record of Coe-
nomyia Latreille (Diptera : Coeno-
mylidae) from India ... 346 |

JULKA, J. M., On a Hymenopterous
Egg-parasite of Aquatic Bugs inju-

|

Field identification of Tephrosia
Pers.

name of the Mangrove Whistler :
Pahycephala cinerea (Blyth) or Pa-
chycephala grisola (Blyth) ?

MUKHERJEE, IvA, and T. N. KHOsHOO
Genetic- evolutionary studies on cul-
tivated Cannas.

MourtTny, T. S. N., The ‘occurrence of
the dog-faced water snake, Cerberus
rhynchops (Schneider) (Serpentes ; Co-
lubridae) around Madras

terflies in the collection of the Bom-
bay Natural History Society

_ NAGABUSHANAM, A.K., and K.V. RAMA-
Rao A review of the Taxonomy of
the Indian enoe-Pienes (ean Bat-
rachoididae)

Page
120
453

597

333

S73

134

616

510
133

135

574

(487

329

EIST

NAIR, SHANTA, see ABDULALI, HUMAYUN

NATARAJAN, A. V. and S. PATNAIK
Observations on the breeding ground
and development of the Chilka
Mullet Liza macrolepis (Smith)

NayaR, M. P., A Synopsis of the
Genus Ejisocreochiton Quisumb and
Merr. ...

NEELAKANTAN, K. fen The occurrence
of the Sanderling (Calidris albus) in
Kerala

NEUHAUSER, HANs N., ‘First Positive
record of Pipistrellus savii (Chirop-
tera : Vespertilionidae) from India ...

OpDAK, S. C., see KAURA, A.S.

PANDEY, N. D., DAYA RAM YADAVA,
and T. P.S. TeotrA, Growth Poten-
tial of Red hairy Caterpillar, Ams-
acta moorei Butler, in relation to
certain Food Plants

PANICKER, K, N., The Flight speed of
the House Crow, Corvus se neees
Vieillot ; a

PARRACK, Dwain W., “and “JAcOB.,
THOMAS, The Behaviour of the Lesser
Bandicoot Rat, Bandicota bengalen-
sis (Gray and Hardwicke) :

PATASKAR, R. D., and K. K. AHUIA,
Interesting Plants from Maharashtra
State

PATEL, R. J., On Chaetosphaeridium glo-
bosum (Nordst.) Klebahn from India

PATNAIK, B. H., see Das, M. S.

PATNAIK, S., see NATARAJAN, A. V.

PRAKASH, IsHwarR, and A. P. JAIN Eco-
Toxicology and control of Indian
Desert Gerbil, Meriones hurrianae
(Jerdon) a

PRAMANIK, BHABESH, see ‘Das, “DEBIKA

ae i, , see BISWAS, S. N. ; GHOsH,

RAJAGOPAL, A. S., Occurrence of the
snail Lymnaea (Galba) truncatula
(Miller) (Mollusca : Pulmonata) at
Malad, Bombay City—A new record
for Peninsular India

RAJAGOPALAN, P. K. Breeding beha-
viour and ” development of Rattus

rattus wroughtoni Hinton, 1919
(Rodentia : Muridae) in the labo-
ratory +... Ae oc Sed

—__——_——,, see Rao, K. RAMaA-
CHANDRA

RAJASINGH, IRENE V.—see RAJASINGH,
SIMON G.

RAJASINGH, SIMON G., and RAJASINGH,
IRENE V.,
Birds and Mammals eating the fruits

of yellow oleander (Thevetea
peruviana) : a ee i
RAKSHIT, B., see BRAHMACHARY, R. L.

RANADE, M. R., SAKUNTALA S. SHENOY,
and FAHIM, AHMED, Capture of a
Whale Shark Rhineodon typus Smith

Page

577

87

570

319

40

11

67

126
130

274

588 |

572 |

552 |

OFTEONTRIBUTORS

in Ratnagiri waters

Rao, K. KAMESWARA, Foraminifera. of

the Gulf of Cambay .
RAo, K. RAMACHANDRA, “A new record
of Br achydeutera longipes Hendel

(Diptera: Ephydridae) from West
Bengal ra: ae Le ae
Rao, K. V. RAMA, see A. K. NAGA-

BHUSHANAM. ;

Rao, R. S., and K. HEMADRI,
identity of peeereus lateriflora
Dalz. :

_

The

eS , ‘Nomen-
clatural notes on Indian Plants
Rao, T. ANANDA, A new locality record

of Cordiac renata Del in Piram
Island off South Saurashtra
Coast be Mee fs

and

A. R. K. Sastry, New distributional
records for coastal plants from
Andhra Pradesh i

Rao, T. RAMACHANDRA, and P. K.
RAJGOPALAN, Arthropod Fauna of the
nests of some common Birds in
Poona, India, with special reference
to Blood sucking Forms

RAO, V. VISWESWARA, A redescription
of Sirembo jerdoni (Day): (Pisces:
Brotulidae)

RATHorR, M. S., Notes on the Indian ;
sand skink Ophiomorus resis

(Blyth) a
RAVI, R., A new record Ge Cr otalari. ia
incana Linn. from south India

|, Lindernia angusti--
folia (Bent.) Whettst. (Scrophularia-

ceae)—A new record for south

India

Rawat, R. R., Sterility and abnormal

copulation behaviour in Agrotis in-
fusa (Boisol) (Agrotidae: Lepidoptera)
in relation to high temperature i

es, ~ and :R.-R.
DESHPANDE. An assessment of damage
and _ loss by Linseed Caterpillar
Laphygma exigua Hb.

| Roserts, T. J., A note on the Yellow

vii

Page

2337

259

345

355
357

128

614

414

114

334

132
611
596

344

Throated Marten, Martes flavigula ~

Boddaert) in West Pakistan .

SAHASRABUDHE, J. D., Abnormality in
the breeding behaviour of the Indian
Fruit Bat, Pteropus- giganteus ERR
teus (Brunnich)

SAMPATHKUMAR, R., Further studies on
the host range in Loranthus longiflorus -°

Desv.

a On the
production of adventitious roots from
the excised petioles of some
Angiosperms ..

SANKARANKUTTY,, G:, “Studies. on the

larvae of Decapoda Brachyura 1.
Xenophthalmus garthii Sankarankutty

321

550

360

Vill

SANKHALA, K. S., and J. H. Desai, Re-
productive behaviour of Browant-
lered deer 7 hee sh mid

SANKOLLI, K. N., The Thalassinoidea
(Crustacea, Anomura) of Maharashtra

SANTHAKUMARAN, L. N., Preliminary

* observations on the natural resistance
of sixty-nine species of Indian Timber
to Marine borer attack at Bombay ...

Sastry, A. R. K., see RAO, T. ANANDA

SATYAMURTI, S. T., A record of the

’ Tiger Bittern, Gorsachius melanolo-
phus (Raffles) from Karaikudi, Rama-
nathapuram District, Tamil Nadu ...

SAXENA, D. K. , Honey Bees and Wasps
as pests of Grape §

SCHALLER, GEORGE B., Observations on
the Nilgiri Tahr (Hemitr agus hylocri-
us Ogilby, 1838) a

SHAH, C. K., A note on the toadrush
Juncus bufonius L. from India

SHAH, J. D., Some observations on
distribution of alae dulcis Linn.
in India ae nen

SHENOY, S. SAKUNTALA, see RANADE
M.R.

SINGH, C. S., Studies on bottom living
Diatoms of a Freshwater Fish Pond
SINGH, J. P., and RAJENDRA, GUPTA,
- The Red Pumpkin Beetle Raphidopal-
pa foveicollis (Lucas) as a pest of the
Japanese Mint : aa a

, Chafer
beetle, Adoreiits sp. (Coleoptera:
Scarabaeidae) a new pest on guava in
India ‘

SINGH, VUJENDRA, Occurrence ‘of Cera-
topteris thalictroides (Linn.) Brongn.
in Rajasthan

SIVAKUMAR, C. V.,
DARAM, M.

SIVAPRAKASAN, mL E. , Amphipoda from
the East Coast of India-2...

SOANS, A. B., and J. S. SoAns, The
time of emergence and the periodicity
of occurrence of the Tiger Beetle,
Cicindela_ cancellata Dej. (Order:
Coleoptera, Family: Cicindelidae) ...

—_—_—_____________., Observations
on the mating behaviour in the Ant
Monomorium gracillimum Smith (Hy-
menoptera: Formicidae) an

SOANS, A. B., and Joyce S. SOANS,
Anemotactic response in the Firefly
Luciola sp. (Coleoptera: Lampyridae)

SOANS, J. S., see SoANS, A. B.

SOANS, Joyce S., see SOANS, A, B,

see MOHANASUN-

Page

430

443

£23

354

153

347

350

122

_ SURYANARAYANA,

| Tawar, P. K.,
| TEOTIA,
| THAPA,
_ THOMAS, JACOB, see PARRACK, DWAIN

DIST OF .CONTRIBOCT ORS

SONNAD, G. R., see GONSALVES, ELLA
A.

STAIRMAND, D. A., Occurrence of the
Indian Skimmer or Scissorbill (Rhyn-
chops albicollis Swainson) in Salsette

Island

| STARKEL, LESZEK, Cause and ‘Effects

of a heavy rainfall in Darjeeling and
in the Sikkim Himalayas ...

SuRVE, V. G., The breeding of the
Indian Giant Soe Coe indica)
in captivity

M. ro. Plietesiat
species of Strobilanthinae (Acan-
thaceae) in the Western Ghats (India)

SWAMINATHAN, M. S., Agricultural
Research—Progress, Problems and
Prospects ibs

Swamy, B. G. L., ‘and K. V. KRISHNA-
MURTHY, Cyclonic damage to plant
tissues ... Apt ae aus si

see JOGLEKAR, ASHA

T. P. S., see PANDEY, N. D.

B. B., see BANERN, M. L.

TIKADER, B. K., Spider Fauna of India:
Catalogue and Bibliography

VAIDYA, VIDYADHAR G., The feeding
behaviour of Lemon Butterfly, Papilio
demoleus L.

VENKATAREDDI, B., T wo new records of

Araceae from the Upper Gangetic
Plain

| WaGu, AB. and D. v_ BAL, ‘Various
603 |

associates of Sessile Barnacles
Bombay waters

WaauH, ARUN B., and D. V. BAL, Dia-
metrically opposite result of human
activity on Barnacle populations

in

WHITAKER, ROMULUS, Slight reaction

from bites of the rear-fanged
snakes, Boiga ceylonensis (Gunther)
and Dryophis nasutus (Lacepede)

— , Cannibalism in
the Indian Rat Snake, Pryas mucosus
(Linnaeus) ae a AS,
——_—________-__—-—., Notes on
bites by the Saw-Scaled Viper, Echis
carinatus, in the Deogad area of
Ratnagiri District, Maharashtra

YADAVA, DAYA RAM, see PANDEY, N. D.

YIN, Tun, The Dugong, Dugong dugon
(Muller), in Burmese waters

, Record of the Himalayan

Monal Lophophorus impejanus
(Latham) in Burma if

Page

Sui

45

551

604

466
462

212

118

129

351

589

113

(114

3395

326

328

INDEX OF SPECIES

Note—Page reference in bold print refers to illustrations.

abdimii, Sphenorhynchus
Ablepharus ,
ablutellus, Raphinetopus-
abnormis, Spindasis
absus, Cassia
Acacia
acaulis, Crepis
———., Impatiens
acherusicum, Corophium
acicularis, Nitzschia
acmella, Blainvillea
aculeata, Lantana ©
aculestus, Gasterosteus ...
acuminata, Ehretia

—, Plumeria
acuminatus, Calidris
acuta, Sida
acuticauda, Sterna

". 450-452, 448

Page

117, 118

156, 158

296

acuticornis, Nesothrips 483, 484, 495, 499, 500

acutiflorum, Cirrhopetalum’
adenocarpa, Jurinea
Adoretus :
Adraneothrips
aegyptica, Sphex
aenariensis, Bolivina
Aerides a
affictitia, Macroglossa he
affine v. longiceps, Neidium
affinis, Cypselus
—-—-, Orchomenella
—-—-, Synedra
agama, Kleothrips :
agamemnon, Graphium
agelenoides, Hippasa
, Pirata
aglea aglea, Danaus
Agropyrum
Agrostistachys
ajax, Themeropis
——, Thelcticopis
alaicus, Ablepharus
alata, Laggera
, Leea
——, Paracaprella

, v. nepalensis, Terminalia
alba, ’Eclipta ae
, Eria
——., Plumeria
monte, Gygis
albicilla, Haliaeetus
albicollis, Rhynchops
albida, Crotalaria ;
albifrons albifrons, Sterna -

—_——.

“445, Ps 446

525

545

OSE 212/213
94

349

422
164

444, ie 452, 446

483

180

- 163, 164, 164
436, 439, 440
93, 362, 362
see -~ 149
101

298

330

298-571

son 180
297

albifrons saundersi, Sterna
sinensis, Sterna
albipinnes, Culicoides
albiventer, Petaurista
Albizzia ... Be
albus Calidris
alecto, Colias i‘
alexandrinum, Trifolium
alismoides, Ottelia
alliaria, Guarea ... on
, Hartighsea _ ...
alliarum, Dysoxylum
Allothrips
almana, Precis
alpestre, Dendrobium
alpina, Brassaiopsis
—_——., Euaraliopsis
alpinus alpinus, Calidris
centralis, Calidris
schinzii, Calidris
, Cuon :
Alternaria yas
amabilis, Azaleothrips sa
, Leptacanthus
—-—-—, Sonerila
amara, Albizzia ...
amaryllis, Balanus
Amblypharyngodon
americana, Mycteria
americanus, Oreamnos ..
Ammophila a
amoenum, Dendrobium
ampala, Katherinea ;
amphioxys vy. densestriata,
chia) 4.
amphitrite, Balanus
amplum, Bulbophyllum...
, Dendrobium ...
: Epigeneium
amplus, Pygothrips
anaethetus, Sterna

anaethetus, hs

antarctica, Sterna
fuligula, Sterna
anagallis, Lindernia
Anastomus

anceps, Dendrobium _ ...
andamanica, Araliopsis ...
aneus, Johnius

angulata, Melothria a
angustifolia, Lindernia ...
annandalei, Lycosa ee
annandeli, Sphaeroma ..

Hantzs- . ----

450, 451, 448

352, 590, 591

iho ts

.. 148

148, 151
see 488, ae

aes “306
S299

RAMS Sr, |
612, 613, 619

of 1, Gi 245D
140, 143, 142
er aey 60

575
fouiacS25
7611: -613, 612
2206

x

Page
annulatum, Dichanthium es ee 33
anolis, Nesothrips 5 Re 500
anomala, Cardanthera .., 7 oe 64
, Orchestia oe soe tn LOS.
’ Thalassina 235, 242-249, 243, 245
” squamifera, Thalassina 248
anomalum, Synnema ... sa oe 64
anomalus, Cancer (Astacus) Sen eee
anophelis, Culicoides... se ei PA
antennatus, Phlebotomus ae 421, 423
Anthocoridae ae 418, 424, 425
antiquitatis, Tichorhinus is 317
antiquorum, Colocasia Sti: 255, 256
aor, Mystus se af .. == 194
apetala, Sonneratia P a 437
aphaca, Lathyrus Ne. a Se MST
Aphanocapsa oe Ea fF S82
Aphodius a Ay: oe 21
aphyllum, Dendrobium | — ag te RA
——_, Limnodorum. . ae. 143
arabica, Acacia ... a ays 33, 454
Araliopsis Se Ra sph as 60
arborea, Careya 92, 436
——_——., Gmelina ey ae cent) 436
arboreum, Rhododendron oe 526, 527
ardeola, Dromas 287
Argas ve : 414, 418, 420, 421, 423

argentatus heuglini, Larus Maer |
mongolicus, Larus ... 292
argenteus, Anisochilus 525
argiades indica, Everes ... om Sot SESS
Argyrosomus... Ah a Sct aD
Argythamia mae 300
ariel, Fregata 569
—— iredalei, Fregata 569
aristata, Hygroryza 355
aristatum, Ischaemum .. 529
aristolochiae, Tros 349
arjuna, Terminalia eet 435
armatus, Mastocembelus 338
arnicoides, Ligularia... we Wes 61
—_———, Senecio ... al aa 61
armmottii, Doronicum _... a 44s 62
arquata arquata, Numenius ... a 51
orientalis, Numenius ... a 51
artemisifolia, Ambrosia Br 618, 619
articularis, Borreria ay. Se) SeTTSB
Artocarpus we git one 435, 439
Arundinella Hes oe AN egg 7 203
arvensis, Anagallis ‘ ae SP raiseer 4s))
———— haplocaly, Mentha s 123

v. piperascens, Mentha

re 123
asiatica, Toddalia is pie aie
asiaticus, Ephippiorhynchus .. ‘453, 458
————., Xenorhynchus .. 453, 457, 455
aspera, Leucas wi ae 362, 362
asperulata, Primula bl as a 62
asperum, Helictotrichon 529
v. polyneuron, Helictotrichon 525

astacina, Laomedia 235, 236, 240, 237, 240

ater ater, Hipposideros ... “171-175
athis, Alcedo te ic SLO
atlanta, Ocyale ... 219

INDEX OF SPECIES

Page
atrata, Nacaduba 189
atrax, Amblypodia ay 190
atricornis, Phytomyza ... 597, 598, 600
atropalpis, Pardosa ig feat oe
atropurpurea, Indigofera woe 80
attu, Wallagonia 194, 205
aurantia, Sterna 295
aureus, Phaseolus 478
auriculata, Cassia 412

WNiMettla. | Sono ant

aurota, Anaphaesis 349
australe, Acanthospermum oot) ELS
avana, Cardanthera a ay) ae 65
, Pedicularis, ... es a, 65
avanum, Synnema : .. 64, 65
vy. biplicatum, Synnema wet 65
avosetta, Recurvirostra .. 287
axillaris, Amischophacelus 616
, Cyanotis 616

, Petunia 393

axis, Axis ay eh ae 378, 563
Azaleothrips Hen eh a) 486, 490
baccata, Taxus wae a a BLA
baccifera, Ammannia ... ne Searing 3k,
Bactridothrips 493
balot, Quercus oie aN 325
balsamea, Adenosma ... aa sie 64
balsamica, Cardanthera a 64
v. thymus, Cardanthera ... 65

, Ruellia Be se we 64
balsamicum, Synnema ... oy 64
———_—_—— v. thymus, Synnema ing 65
barbata, Crotalaria ike 524
barbigera, Synnema __.... bg ne 64
Barbus. ... Me a Ay ing tot
Barleria ie, in Lies 488
barnesi, Lycosa ... 216
batatas, Ipomoea 362, 362
Batrachus ay, se «J 8339
batrachus, Clarius. oat Soe 584, 588
beddomei, Alysicarpus ... Hanae
i ’Anaphalis = 525

, Impatiens __... rE Ree tbs 25)
—_———., Salacia se eSB
bendula, Hoya ; i 93

bengalensis, Bandicota " 67-80, 68, 69, 70, 71
72, 73, 74 75, 76, 77, 78

benghalensis Commelina 617, 618
, Hiptage... Nan CE
benghalensis, Rostratula — 286

Berberis ... RA SZT

berenice plumbeomicans, ‘Nacaduba veoh thBO

bergii velox, Sterna ; eh eIeOd

bertheloti, Discorbina ... At 27

, Discorbis ‘ ‘27D: 272/273
bhagava, Daimio vid ie ae aT Loe

bhutanica, Pyrus is a by 59

, Sorbus of ue whe 59

bhutanicum, Sisymbrium i at 57

bhutanicus, Senecio ae Me BS 61

bicolor, Allothrips she a 484, 491

bicornutus, Thelcticopis Santee 213

——, Themeropis 213

bidens, Glossogyne 619

INDEX OF .SPECTES

Page

bidentata, Paradeutella ... 161, 162
biflora ,Micromeria ecamoan
biloba, Liparis Mineo
binata, Hardwickia BD 83, 85, 434, 438,
439, 82, 83

bipinnata, Desmostachya 118
biplicata, Adenosma _... nat ote 65
biplicatum, Synnema _... ay als 65
bipunctalis, Psarah 349
birmanica, Lycosa 216
—_——-—.,, Pardosa 216
bistriata, Lycosa 216
bistrigata, Arca ... 353
biternata, Bidens i 184
bitorquatus, Cursorius ... 290
bituberculata, Coenomyia a .. 346
Blastus... ne ee es a 87
Boiga wae bad 113
Bolivina ... 266
bombaiensis, Ventilago ... my i 92
bombayensis, Senecio: .:. “Ae ae 61
Bonnaya ... 611
bonnieri, Grandidierella | 157
Bosmina ... 582
boueanum, Nonion nolo) 272, 273
——, Nonionina ... 262
Bougainvillea 348, 462
bourneae, Actinodaphne _ 525
bouvieri, ‘Anisops : 120
bouvierii, Elaphrothrips 496
brachiata, Centaurium ... 357
Brachydeutera 345
brachyotus, Sonchus 184
bracteata, Eisocreochiton §7-89
, Moghania ie 182
bracteatus, Dolichos _... say a 93
bractescens, Eria te thee 149, 150
bradleyi, Hoplothrips ae aieu OO
brandisii, Randia 183
brasiliensis, Cerapus 159
—_——__-—, Cyrtophium 159
—-———~—., Ericthonius sot57, 159, 165
-—_—__—_—_-, Hevea Lg 4 398
—_—-——., Platophium ae 1 au SO
———-—, Podocerus ... sie 159, 165
———_- , Pyctilus a ond OT
Brassaiopsis 60
brassicae, Liriomyza : : 598
breviflora v. ciliolata, Pavetta ... 524
brevifolia, Sarcococca 527
brevisetosus, Le uaeeae 489
Brotula iy 114
brunnicephalus, Larus ines 292
buchanani, i ena 185
Buddleia ... ” he Ves O
bufonius, Juncus — ah oe 608, 608
Bulbochaete . -— ae At tOOT
Bulimina 266
bupleurifolius, Alysicarpus 181
burchelli, Equus .. 381

burmanicum, Eranthemum siascwitune wads <t@ 3
bursa, Bdellonyssus
414, 418,

——., Ornithonyssus .
| 420-422, 426, 428

buxifolia, Cotoneaster ...
caballus, Equus ...
cadornae, Pipistrellus
caesium, Acer

cairica, Ipomoea

cajan, Cajanus

Calanus

calcar, Rotalia
calcaratus, Phaseolus
Calliadne

callosa, Carvia nih
callosus, Strobilanthes ..
calomorpha, Nodosaria
calophyllifolium, Syzygium
calthaefolius, Senecio
calycina, Crotalaria

, Kydia
campanellata, Bankia
campestris, Eulophia
canadensis, Cervus
—____——., Ovis
cancellata, Cicindela
candicans, Crotalaria
candida, Tephrosia
candidum, Dendrobium
candolleana, Aplotaxis
—_—_—_———,, Saussurea ...
canescens, Viola

Canna ;
canorus, Cuculus”

canus canus, Larus ;
canutus canutus, Calidris
capense, Eranthemum
capensis, Vigna ...
cappa, Inula

caprae, Barleria ...
Capricornis bs
capsularis, Corchorus
Cardanthera
Cardiastethus

Carex: «i... ne
carinatus, Echis ..
carmichaeli, Lycosa
@arun) 5)... cat
caryophyllus, Eugenia ive
caspia caspia, Hydroprogne
catappa, Terminalia
catechu, Areca

catula, Lycosa on
caudatum, Desmodium
ceiba, Bombax se
celebensis, Dinothrips ....

centaurioides, Centaurium 2. |
’ Chironia Ge < er eee : Coe

Centurus
Cephaleuros aS
cephalus, Mugil ...
Cephonodes
cerasoides, Sie vetun
Cerberus ... i
Ceropegia
cervicapra, Antilope
ceylanica, Vernonia
ceylonensis, Boiga

526, 528

xi

Page

317
319
323
362

~ 40, 478

ipia.2

” 506, 6

503, 5

582
72, 273
182
235
06, 607
05, 608

0
60, 61

181
” 482

xii INDEX’ OF SPECIES

Page

ceylonensis, Pipistrellus © 422
ceylonica, Nacaduba : eee 89
ceylonicus chrysothrix, Pipistrellus 171-175
chamaedryfolia, Verbena oly SS
champaca, Michelia 436
chaperi, Lycosa .. : = 216
chapmannii, Nepenthes | ee ae 65
chebula, Terminalia j 435, 438
Chela__... : 205
chelonoides, Steriospermum : . 434, 438, 439
Chiloschista Ae ; 66
chinense, Polygonum 531
chinensis, Albizzia 437
, Impatiens 529
—_———., Salacia ae Reet 615) 3)
Chlorophytum me 3 oe Bee 93
Chrysanthemum ; 348
chrysanthum, Dendrobium iat) 143, 142
chrysippus, Danais ea Ape 195 89
Chrysopogon a : cae DOM
Ciconia 454, 457
ciconia, Ciconia . 455-457
ciconia, Ciconia 461

ciliata, Toona 179
cinerea, Muscitrea da 112
———-—.,, Pachycephala ... 112, 113
-, Vernonia 183
cinereus, Ibis ae a 454
clarkei, Saussurea abe Be ee 61
clavatum, Dendrobium ... 141, 143
clavicornu, Impatiens 532
Cletodendron sue se son Ae
Cobresia ... ae vet, i 18
cochinchinensis, Salacia a 358
coeca, Polydora .. 352
Coenomyia 346
Coleochaete 130, 132
Colophyllum 462
colutea, Indigofera 127
colutes, Galega ... 127
comans, Coenomyia 346
Commelina a Ms 618
communis, Ricinus aah a, Be 40
compestris, Lytocoris 424
compta, Grubia ... ; 155
concanensis, Cyanotis ... 616
concolor, Hirundo 414, 415, 417, 419 ,420
conferta, Crotalaria Be 525
confervae, Chytridium ... 509°
confusa, Eria A ok 149,150
conica, Saussurea ne BE a 61
conica, Saussurea a a 61
uniflora, Saussurea bs. a 61
connatus, Senecio ay a es 61
consimilis, Stigmothrips 488
contortus, Heteropogon 531
convallarioides, Eria : rhe 149, 150
conyzoides, Ageratum ... ... 184, 362, 362
corchorifolia, Melochia an 178
cordata, Sida ; 178
Cordia _... ; 128
cordifolia, Rubia 183
————, Tinospora 177
Cordyline 257

Page
core, Euploea : eas .. 349
‘coriacea, Agrostistachys. 304,305
, Caesaria oe UID
coriaria, Caesalpinia 348,305
corniculata, Oxalis sh
cornigerus, Echinops oi SS
coromandelica, Lannea 180, 433, 435, 439
-coromandelicus, Cursorius 289
coronaria, Coelogyne hl ag @l5O
, Eria 149,150
coronatus, Eucamptopus- amp 2) a
Corophium et 156
corymbosa, Knoxia ha 183
_—— , Oldenlandia 183
Coscinodiscus.. by SSE
cracens, Polyphemothrips 484, 488, 490, abe
49
crassiceps, Elaphrothrips 489
crassum, Oedogonium ... 508
crenata, Cordia ... 128
, Impatiens 532
crenulata, Exoecaria AY ES26
Creochiton ey: ... 87,90
crepidatum, Dendrobium ... 141, 143,142 ©
Crepis -... wie ah O28
criantha, Digitaria. 559
Cribrinopsis Se 352
crinitus, Abelmoschus ... 178
crispa, Polystomella 4 264
crispum, Elphidium ” 264, 212273
cristata, Barleria 362cs, 362
cristata, Cyanotis 616
cristatum, Nymphoides F 355
Crotalaria Fe Aes He 93
crotalarioides, Polygala | 4 178
croceus, Colias Ne ae be eh MOT
cruenta, Sphacelotheca sh oa G74
crumeniferus, Leptoptilos APY 458,461
cruralis, Bunothrips is .. 488
cuculata, Ostrea . : 353
cucullata, Amischophacelus 616
———_—., Cyanotis 616
Culicoides ie 418, 421, 423, 424, 426, oa
culinaris, Lens ... bins Lh vest 69
cumingi, Ibla 353
cumini, Eugenia ... 440

, syzygium Le igh ? 436, 440

cuneifolia, Moniera 362
cupularis, Osbeckia 529
Curcuma . 3 93, 257
cursor cursor, Cursorius | eas 289
Cuscuta ... nee a si ee 93
cuspidata, Olea ... 325
cyanophlyctis, Rana 589
Cyclops ... a 582
Cyclotella 582
cylindrica, Imperata 118, 559
dabia, Bletia ie me aa 66
—-—, Eulophia ... oe, ve fas 66
Daedalacanthus ... ae igh APR AGS
Dalbergia : wed 560
dalbergioides, Ougenia .. ae ve PAST

' Pterocarpus one 434, 439

DNDEX WORF: SPE@DES Xilk

Page
dalhousieanum, Dendrobium ... Scalp WAP
dallatorensis, Elaphrothrips 484, 493
dalzellianus, Gastrochilus er 359
——_——_—,, Sarcochilus eg? ‘DS
dalzellii, Pimpinella Le oe Bee ues) sii)
damaris, Orinoma i Ae Fae ne Li ests,
Daphnia ae : sn Ae ah DOL
davidii, Buddleja oh i Eh ag,
debilis, Impatiens ne i eens,
decaisneana, Ceropegia aay Stee Dae
decapetala, Caesalpinia se eat OD
deccanensis, Isachne ... te ae. ROIS
deccanus, Pellonyssus 422
decidua, Capparis st; 85
Deionix Med 462
delavayi, Buddleja t ou360
demoleus, Papilio “118, 119, 349
Dendrobium 94, 139, 140, 147, 148
Dendrolycosa 214
densiflorum, Dendrobium ai 141, 143
denticulata, Tlex a3 at MORI S25
—————., Ventilago ... ayy peutnag 5)
denudans, Dendrobium oe 140, 144
deodara, Cedrus ve 437
depressula, Nonion 4263, oype 273
——_———., Nonionina.. is 263
Desmotrichum .. ine rete hSO.
devangiriensis, Bulbophyllum bbe a 66
Diadumene a uf : wes 3D
Diaphorothrips ... 488, 491
Diceratothrips ons 488, 492
dichotoma, Cordia eS ane pleas |,
dichroa, Ipomoea Fak Hi. as TSG
Dicrocephala_... a a, nan Ps)
didymus, Coronopus _... se Besa W/V
Dieffenbachia ; is RT Oy:
diemensis, Coryzichthys ae Pea 10343
difformis, Cardanthera ... ae ids 65

—, Ruellia es Ae eM 65
diffusum, Cnidium ae ay 2 eil26
, Ligusticum ... Ret ee 26
——--—., Siseli ... ie AN. Bp Peal WI)
digitata, Photis. ... ne a) 166
, Polytoca ae : 558, 559
Dinothrips oe ~ 488, 492, 501
dioica, Momordica we A 183
Dioscorea Bhs Se ia a 92
Dipterocarpus sat Me RA 6S)
Discorbis .. Ye aa Pg Del
disjunctus, Ericthonius . ae his .s ~ 159
disperma, Grewia aes has ES
Dissoura ... She ie ath, EGOS.
disyphonia, Guarea A ne es 58
divaricata, T abernaemontana ay Aig AOD
doltsopa, Michelia me .. 436
domesticus, Gallus 421
, Passer ‘414, 415, 417, 419 420

———— domesticus, Passer Page: PAI
dormeri, Pipistrellus —... oe 171-175
dorsata, Apis... 323, 503
dougalli korustes, Sterna 296
Dracaena ae 4 2h Ss teas 17)
Drosophila ae 1, ahs He 10
Dryophis ... a we or Hg maid © We)

Page
dubius, Leptoptilos 458, 461, 458, 459
dubyii, Androsace 62
dugon, Dugong eols 327
dulcis, Scoparia ... 222-226
Duranta 462
dussumieri, Austrobatrachus ee nal, uaa
, Batrachus ... .. 339-341, 343
———_——— ; Halophryne . 341, 340, 342
duthieanus, Rubus 58
—_—__—_—— y. tomentosus, Rubus EP 58
Ecacanthothrips .. 486, 488, aae 501
Echis oe 5, 336
edgeworthii, Leea fe ey s3 ~~ L80
—_—_—__—_——., Saussurea ... ae Ba 61
edulis, Canna ve . 397
Eisocreochiton 87-90
Elaphrothrips ~ 481, 488, 493
elatum, Calophyllum .. : 435, 439
eldi eldi, Cervus ... és i, 26 1 Va6
elegans, Vernonia at fn sve -- 361
ellioti, Euprosthenops 214
, Podophthalma ... 214
elliptica, Dichopsis 437
— , Habenaria 525
ellipticum, Palaquium p 437
elongatum, Sedum se Sisal ce 59
Elphidium : 983 ae ini 264
Entada ... wi ae ae oe 94
Enteromorpha : 352
Ephemerantha ie "139, 140, 147
Ephippiorhynchus ae - 458
Epigeneium : a "139, 140, 147
episcopus, Ciconia 453, 457
— , Dissoura : 453, 456
equisetifolia, Casuarina os 436, 440
Eranthemum ne shee roe ee 63
erecta; Eclipta’. ... He ah Ris, 93
—-—-, Hygrophila a, ate 65
Eria 94, 139, 148
eriaeflorum, Dendrobium 140, 144
Ericthonius wee a Se Papen kay |
eriocarpa, Ipomoea oes on Pier 53)
erubescens, Viburnum ... ue Re ye)
erythropus, Tringa as he Su; 53
esculentum, Lycopersicum _... oe O02
Euagrostistachys He ate s den « SO
Euaraliopsis ae - 5S
Eucalyptus 435, 439, 528
Eucamptopus set ene
eucharis, Colotis zat a Sipeen Sao
———., Delias ... Bs ad ie ENS
Eudorina ... re me ae ici S82
Eulophia ... ey ae a as 94
Euprosthenops sca 214
europaea, Olea ... 403
Eurya ee nae Wad 528
eversmanni, Columba ae on iba aok
Evippa_... Lia ss ate en | 2L4
excavata, Eria... ae we 149, 150
excelsa, Michelia in a » - 436
exigua, Laphygma ee she 344, 345
exstipulata, Aglaia uy er vie 57
exstipulatis, Euphora ... a ie 57
fabrei, Heteropoda nas : 212

XIV

Page
fagifolium, Glochidion 526
fairholmianus, Rubus ... 525
falcata, Dendrophthoe ... are 8).
falcatus, Nesothrips 483, 484,

488, 495, 500, 501, 499

falcinellus falcinellus, Limicola 284
————-— sibirica, Limicola shhh DOG
falconeri, Capra ... 384, 388
farnesiana, Acacia 182
fasciculata, Cyanotis : eS OLS
——— v. glabrescens, Cyanotis Bo GEG
fasciculatus, Rubus se 58
—-— y, tomentosus, Rubus 58
fasciventris, Cardiastethes 424
febrifuga, Soymida ; 412, 437
feisthamelii, pea 192
ferox, Rubus BY 58
ferrea, Mesua oe 435
ferruginea, Coenomyia .. 346, 347
—-—-——, Crotalaria 180
fici, Idiothrips 489
ficoidea, Telanthera 362, 362
ficus, Idiothrips be . 484
filiformis, Rhamnus : 58
——_—_——, Sageretia ar 58
filosa, Cymadusa : ee EDO
fimbriata, Ephemerantha 144, 147
~—, Habenaria eS

, Stictothrips . 489
Fimbristylis 529
Fissendocarpa ae 125
fissendocarpa, Jussiaea 126
flabellifer, Borassus 434, 438, 439, 488
flaccida, Canna .. 391- 394, 390
, Primula ite aa ae 63

flava, Ban 149, 150
flavescens, Memecylon ue ay lige; OS
flavigula, Martes vi 321-325
indochinensis, “Martes A eile P21

: peninsularis, Martes ade 321
flavisculatus, Culicoides 421, 424
fletcheri, Lycosa ... 216
flexile, Jasminum 362, 362

flexuosus, Senecio ae ae Beh 61

foetida, Passiflora 183
foina, Martes ae +t 322; 323
foliosa, Aplotaxis i ee ee 61
——~—., Saussurea ; 61
formosa, Crotalaria cs Pees:
formosensis karnyli, Nesothrips 484, 488
formosum, Dendrobium 140, 144
forrulacea, Polysiphonia 352

forskalaei, Commelina ... z 617, 618

forskohlii, Coleus 531
fossilis, Heteropneustes . 199, 583-588
foveicollis, Ree nee 123
Fragaria ... 528
fragrans, Polyalthia 437
fragrantissima, Gaultheria 531
frondosa, Mussaenda 361
frontalis, Plea 120
fructicosa, Woodfordia . 183
frutescens, Ichnocarpus — 185
fruticulosus, Abrus 181

INDEX “OF -SPECTES

Page

fulicarius, Phalaropus 285
fuliginosa, Sterna oo) £10
fulvus fulvus, Hipposideros a 174, 172
fungosus, Hoplothrips 483, 484, 488, "490,
495, 487

furfuracea, Eisocreochiton 87-89, 88
fuscana, Lycosa ane bi, ong EG
fuscata, Arundinella ... es 529, 531
, sterna : rat he ae tO
“nubilosa, Sterna 297
fuscipappa, Crepis 527
fuscus, Eptesicus 174
fuscus, Larus 292
fysonii, Vernonia ah 525
gaimairdi, Operculina 265, ‘240 273
galeata, Euxenura : eo) See
gallica, Tamarix 361
gallinacea, Echidnophaga ote) SADT
gallinago, Capella a 108, 109
— gallinago, Capella | 1280
gallinula, Gallinago 285
gamblei, Ascopholis 525
, Poa OT MES
gangene, Batrachoides 339, 340, 341, 343, 340
, Batrachus 5843

—, ’ Halophryne 341, 343, 340
gangeticum, Desmodium e 4 181
gardneriana, Dalbergia ... b U8824
garthii, Xenophthalmus 592, 593, 595, 3s,
garzetta, Egretta 454
Gastrochilus : ck 2) bee
gaudichaudil, Agrostistachys Mh 301, 303
Gaultheria ne es sa ZS
gaurus, Bos ae +83 ee, 378, 565
Gebiopsis Ao Hy wie ees
genei, Larus 293
geniculata, Garnotia ae 525
| Geranium é ne ae eis 18

gibba, Pinnularia
gibbosa, Zornia ...
gibsonii, Dendrobium
gigans, Kleothrips

Gen 450, 452, a
181

ee 141, 144
s, 481, 483, 484, "488,
492, 496, 500, 501, 482

gigantea, Calotropis 93
siganteus, Pteropus she's
giganteus, Pteropus .. 550, 551

Biles. Grandidierella ... su Por (ce)
glandulifer, Rubus a 58
glandulosa, Indigofera ... 180
—-—, Lysimachia ... 62
glareola, Tringa 55
glauca, Canna 391, 393, 390
—-——, Cassine ... 358, 361
glaucum, Agalma 60
—-——-, Heptapleurum 60
glaucippe, Hebomoia 349
globosa, Entosolenia 260
——_—-—-, Gomphrena us "362, 362
, Lagena . 260, 272273

’ Pila 2 455, 461
globosum, Chaetosphaeridium 130, 132, 131
globularis, Discorbina ... at 271
= -, Discorbis foc e lie 22 273

INDEX, OF SPECIES XV

Page

glochidiatum, Echinoglossum ... ee 63
—_—-—, Paracaryum sae ii 63
glumaceus, Alysicarpus ss TOME eh |
gobara, Dysoxylum ee i ak yr
, Guarea bee te is a7

, Hartighsea ee a o2 57
gomata, Ismene (Bibasis) ose ener 4
gouriana, Clematis ms 1h
gracile, Gomphonema 445, 449, 452, 447
gracillimum, Monomorium _... 350
grahamii, Senecio ae iti 61

graminifolia, Eria "149, 152, 151
graminifolium, Dendrobium _... 66
graminis, ee eS 484, 490, 495, 494
Grandidierella_... : cies iy cl

grandiflora, Notonia 54 hn SOL
, Portulaca ... 361, 362

grandis, Tectonia 361, 434, 438, 439
Ail, 440

grantil, Gazella ... 383, 389
granularis, Digitaria... $59
granulosa, Operculina ... 264, 22. 273
greeni, Elaphrothrips .... ia 496
griffithii, Adenosma _... any Bh 65
—, Brassaiopsis ... i aie 60

, Cardanthera ... Bs Su 65

, Euaraliopsis ... Hf aie 60

, synnema ate aan nite 65

grisola, Pachycephala ... ip OI) EF?
, Tephrodornis ... ae 112, 113
Grossera Hy ae “4g 299
grunniens, Batrachus ane eo 339, 341- 343
—, Batrichthys ... a5) Poy eae

-—, Cottus it 339, 343
guajava, Psidium an 134, 603
guttifer, Culicoides 421, 424, 426
—, Tringa ... ae Dp)
guttulatum, Hatha piiydliaa 1h ate 66
——_—_-—,, Cirrhopetalum ... Ae 66
gwatkinsi, Martes ‘ 527
Gyrosigma Be ah ie Aa ae kote} 2
Habenaria a i see 94
habilis, Sorghum Niles 118
Haemaphysalis 414, 418, 420, 421, 423
halepense, Sorghum 115, 118
Halophryne es sas nt waa Oa
hamiltoniana, Stellaria ... . 26-28
—_—_—_—_—_———_ y. sikkimensis, Stellaria | 28
hamiltonii, Dysoxylum .. We ot, a)
hampsoni, Heteropoda ee Ming, eo
Haplobrotula __... et Li, Supa Tat Hi I
Hardwickia atk 83-85
hasskarlii, Commelina ... By ee a OMe
hebanthum, Viburnum ... Ns AE tanta 28
hebraeus, Polistes a et pace teer |p|
hecabe, Eurema 319
hector, Tros ! 349
hedleyi, Nausitora 433
heliaca, Aquila 330
Heliconia Ay 257
helictus, Strobilanthes ae 503
Helminthosporium 474
hemitoechus, Dicerorhinus 317
Hemitragus bo 103, 104

Page
hemprichii, Larus Nes a see 1 2OE
Heracleum : uf 379
Heterocalyx 4 ee 300
heterocarpon, Desmodium eo PPT (to
heterocarpum, Dendrobium 140, 144

heterophyllus, Artocarpus 94, 434, 439, 440

heteroplatos, Gelidium 352
heteropoda ae Sided
hexagonolapis, Barbus (Lissochilus) cay.» ho
—______——-—., Lissochilus .... SOLO
hierta, Precis : 349
Hilsa A ere 582
himalaica, Saxifraga tee vs ae 59
himalaeyensis, Venonia ... 220
himalayensis, Hippasa ... ZlS
—_—_—_—-——., Lycosa PAI
himantopus ceylonensis, Himantopus 287
himantopus, Himantopus 286
Hippasa ... anh ae fe De
hircus, Capra... ve wis 378, 388
hirsuta, Artocarpus 435, 440
, serpicula ee)
hirsutissima, Oldeniandia_ 524
hirundo hirundo, Sterna 295
— tibetana, Sterna 296
hispidum, Acanthospermum 618
hissaricum, Polygonum oe nie 18
hohenackeri, Acacia 524
—_—_—___—-—., Pavetta 524
holmerae, Hippasa a Ah pp uaa 4)
honorei, Thoressa (Halpe) a 192
hookeri, Agrostistachys * 300, 301, 305
——-—, Sarcoclinium a
————., Sedum my te Ae 59
hookerianum, Heracleum me 524, 529
Hopea ... ma oe 435
Hoplandrothrips _ 486, "488, 490, 495
Hoplothrips 488, 490, 493, 501
hubli, Steatonyssus ane cata 472
hudsonius, Circus (Cyaneus) ... Re 10
hurrianae, Meriones _... i 422
hybrida indica, Chlidonias 293
——-— hybrida, Chlidonias . 294
hybridus cruentus y. paniculatus,
Amaranthus ve a seh WOL9
hylocrius, Hemitragus ... 365-389, 527
535-542, 366, 369, 370, 371
Hylopetes ; a oee
hypoleucos, Tringa Bes ve fie ap)
hyssopifolia, Ludwigia ... ne 126
hyssopioides, Lindernia 612
hystrix, Castanopsis 436,438
ibex, Capra 378, 384
ibis, ‘Ibis ... we 454
ichthyaetus, Larus 292
Idiothrips 488, 489
ilex, Quercus se eles
ilisha, Hilsa ; ee oa 578-582
Ilysanthes Lae one ia 5 Ol
Impatiens : Oe Merida |= 4
impejanus, Lophophorus .. 328-330, 329
Imperata : 3s see, S00
incana, Crotalaria 132; 133

XVi

impejanus, Quercus
incisa, Primula

, Verbena ...
indagatrix, Lycosa

indica, Aeschynomene ...
—-—-, Agrostistachys ...

longifolia, Agros-

—-—-, Alocasia
—-—-, Apis Kg
—-—-, cadizachit
, Canna
—-—-, ; Dillenia
—-—-, Fragaria
—-—-, Frerea
—-—-, Hyphaene
—-—-, Loyolaia
—-—-, Madhuca
— —-, Mangifera
—-—-, Melicope
—-—-, Motacilla
—-—-, Paracalliope
—-—-, Parhyalella
—-—-, Perenethis
—-—-, Potentilla
—-—-, Ratufa
—-—-, Reinwardtia
ee 7 peescneputbalg
—-—-, Vateria ‘
—-—-, Vicoa
indicum, Chrysanthemum
, Gnaphalium
, Seseli
, Solanum aa
, Trichodesma ...
indicus, Caprimulgus

——-— jotaka, Caprimulgus

, Hoplandrothrips

, Nesothrips

, Neurothrips

, Polynemus ee
, Polyphemothrips
, Tamarindus ee
, Uredothrips
inerme, Clerodendrum ...
infusa, Agrotis Mp
infuscatellus, Chilotraea
ingrata, Navicula

insigne, Bombax

insignis, Salmalia
insularis, Pinus
integrifolia, Artocarpus ..
——-———-, Holoptelea ..
-—-—, Mackenziea _
intermedia, Egretta
-—-—, Littorina
interpres interpres, Arenaria
interrupta, Pinnularia
inyacka, Parhyale

iphisia, Tylophora

iranii, Lycosa

indica, Agrostistachys i;

INDEX “OF ~ SP EGRESS

~ 299-301
300, 302

ae 300, 303, 304

5, 256

oo MONT 21508
.. 456, 462, 464
391, 393, 390
e 6(436

see 434, 439
433, 437, 440, 488
: TS
335

166

166

220

182

551

Lig

220

437

184

362, 362

. 184

126

186

185

seh), MOE
331,332

484, 490,

495, 494

483, 484, 493, 500
si 484, 489
sac QOn

488

. 456

488, 493

isa) OL9

596

; SALA)
445, “450, 447

... 434, 439, 440
.. 434, 438, 439
wscy 4, SOU

454

353

on ‘ih 56
445, 450, 452, 447
oH Rennie. os)
527

ZT

iridiflora, Canna

Isnardia ... oes
isora, Helicteres .
ixiocephala, Thelepaepale
jacobsoni, Dinothrips
jalapa, Mirabilis
jambolana, Eugenia
japonica, Conyza :
— —-—, Cryptomeria ...
; Bunya. %.

’ Ternstroemia ..

, Youngia

japonicum v. Major, Hypericum

javanica, Oenanthe i
javanicum, Thalictrum ...
javanicus, Leptoptilos
javensis, Steatonyssus
jayakari, Hemitragus
jehana, Tajuria ... ig
jemlahicus, Hemitragus
jenseni, Elphidium
jerdoni fairbanki, Garrulax
, Sirembo. . Fy:
jujuba v. fruticosa, Zizyphus
juncea, Crotalaria {
junciformis, Fimbristylis
Juncus aa :
Jussiaea Ae
kabandha, Priesneriana
kachinensis, Pyrus

, sorbus
kamrupi, Culicoides
karachiensis, Brachyodontes
kashmirianus, Senecio
Katherinea
kempi, Lycosa

Keratella
kergueleni, Lembos
keroula, Lanius ...

kewalramanii, Callianassa (Callichirus)

khashiensis, Triaeris
khasianum, Solanum

Solanum
khasianus, Senecio
khudiensis, Lycosa
khudree, Barbus (Lor) 3;
khudree, Tor 510-521,
kinabaluense, Creochiton

kirchbergensis, Dicerorhinus

klatti, Primula
kleiniana, Potentilla
Kleothrips eae
knuthiana, Lysimachia
kodaiensis, Crotalaria
koenigii, Murraya
kolus, Puntius
konkanensis, Drupa
krasskei, Navicula
kumaonensis, Rubus
kundaicus, Senecio
kunthiana, Isachne

schaeferi, Hemitragus

, Upogebia ( (Upogebia) ..

——yv. chatterjeeanum,

Page
..391, 393, 390

526

. 459, “461, 461

; Dew sy: eee
365

190

103- 106, 365, 388
sce), HOD
264, 272, 273
ue ie SO
... 114-117, 116

125
484, 488, 491, 493
5

609, 610

609-611

ts 62

woo ps ae

510; 513

514, 516, 517, 519
es 87, 89, 90

353
445, 450, 452, 447
58

523
532

kunthianum, Phlebophyllum
kunthianus, Strobilanthes
kurzii, Commelina ...
—-—-, Rubus

—-—-, Sonnerila

lactea, Glareola

lactuca, Ulva

Laelaps

Laematophilus:

laevis, Ehretia

Lagena

Lagenandra

Lagerstroemia

lagopoides, Aeluropus
lagopus, Ochroma
lakoocha, Artocarpus
lampas, Thespesia ape!
lanatum, Phlebophyllum
lanatus, Rubus 4 a)
lanceolaria, Blumea
lanceolata, Lagerstroemia
lankadiva, pHpuesicres
Lantana oF
Laomedia

laotica, Heterocalyx
Laphygma

lapponica lapponica, Limosa
larvata, Paguma a
lasiocarpum, Sisymbrium ...
lateriflora, Pimpinella
laticornis, Impatiens
latifolia, Ampelocissus

, Anogeissus
——, Bassia oie.
_—___—_—., Dalbergia

, Dichrocephala
—, Zizania ...
Laurentia

laurifolia, Syncarpea_
laurifolius, Cocculus
lavenia, Adenostemma
lawii, Anaphalis

lawsoni, Impatiens ..

, Senecio

lawsonii, Andrographis
——-—-, Strobilanthes

laxa, Stellaria ;
laxiflorum, Desmodium
laxum, Cynoglossum
lemonias, Precis

lentula, Heteropoda

leo, Felis oe

—- persica, Felis

Lepisma ;
leptocheir, Laetmatophilus.
Leptoptilos ... :
leptostachya, Gouania
leschenaulti, Rousettus
leschenaultiana, Cassia
leschenaultii, Dipsacus

, Pentapanax
—_____—_——., Vaccinium
lessingianus, Senecio

TN DEM OR SPECLES

Page
502, 606

379, 5 502-504

A Oley

743559

414, 421, 423
159, 161, 160

185
os 260
pan 93
... 462
. 614
398

433, 434, 438, 439

LTO

. 435
171, 174

348, 462, 488

es XVII

Page

leucanthemum, Chrysanthemum... 613, 613
leucocephala, Mycteria 453, 454
leucocephalus, Ibis 453, 454
leucopalpis, Pardosa 219
leucoptera, Chlidonias OS
leucorodia, Platalea .. 454
leucoryphus, Haliaeetus pu8330
leucostigma, Lycosa MOD,
leuphotes, Aviceda Shean ie)
andamanica, Aviceda i138
——_-—— leuphotes, Aviceda me 138
— syama, Aviceda ... liad
——__——., Baza : sae OS
limbata, Spirillina ... 270, 212,213
limbatum, Loxostoma 269, 272, 273
limniace, Danais st . 349
Limnoria 440
limonella, Zanthoxylum w487
limosa limosa, Limosa ; ee
melanuroides, Limosa ike
limpidus, Stigmothrips . 488
Lindernia 3 611-613
lindleyana, Carex 7.391
linifolia, Fissendocarpa . 126
, Jussiaea ... . 126
linneanum, Ecbolium 362, 362
lisarda, Penthema ... .. 186
livia, Columba Es ss ne) |
—— domestica, Columba w. 421
lividus, Andropogon 929,532
lobata, Urena Bers Is:
lobatus, Phalaropus : 285
lobelioides, Andrographis | 523
longicaudus, Paxillothrips.. Bi 492, 495
longicornu, Dendrobium ... 140, 145, 146
———_—— y. hirsuta, Dendrobium seo 4S
longiflora, Anotis ane Benge AS,
, Laurentia ue 29S
longiflorus, Loranthus : 360, 361
longifolia, Agrostistachys ... 303-305
———_——— genuina, Agrostistachys 301, 302
———-— , Asteracantha 362, 362
—-—_-—-—., Physalis cen, Oe
———-—., Pinus... .. 437
——-——, Polyalthia .. 488
—- —., Sarcoclinium .. 299
longifolium, Sarcoclinium 303-305
——— , Xylosma reel Ns
longimanus, Taphozous 171-175
longipes, Brachydeutera 345
lorenziana v. subtilis, Nitzschia “448, 450, 448
loriformis, Murdannia is £ OL7
loundesi, Hippasa ... PACD
Loxostoma ... 269
Loyolaia : 488, 491
lucidum, Trachelospermum . 185
lucidus, Ropalocarpus P34
lucifugus lucifugus, Myotis sabe al:
Luciola te : Sain 29
Ludwigia Se a AS
lunata, Unciolella ... OES
lunu-ankenda, Evodia LO
lutea, Striga tree Doll
= Viola... . 393

XViil INDEX. OF AS PPECTES

Lycosa Bae
lycosina, Hippasa ...
Lygaeus

lyra lyra, Megaderma
Machatothrips

mackenzieiil, Lycosa

macraei Callista

————., Dendrobium

————., Ephemerantha
macrantha, Machilus
macrocarpa, Asteriastigma
—, Hydnocarpus
—, Taraktogenos
macrocephalus, Argyrosomus
, Pennahia

—, Pseudosciaena
macrolepis, Liza
macrostachys, Daedalacanthus
—_—_—__—_—_—., Eranthemum
macrura, Sterna

maculatus, Pinnotheres
maculosum, Aerides
madagascariensis, Cryptostegia
madani, Lycosa ae
maderaspatana, Mukia
madrasana, Caprella
madraspatana, Hippasa

magnirostris magnirostris, Esacus

———_—— recurvirostris, Esacus
mahagoni, Swietenia :
mahensis, Acanthochitona...
major, Pinnularia
malabarica, Salmalia
malabaricum, Bombax
——_—__—-——, Dysoxylum
, Jasminum
malabaricus, Sturnus

—_—__—_—_—-, Vanellus
Malacothrips
Malaxis 3
malayensis, Chthamalus
malsara, Mycalesis
Malus
Maranta
marathaus, Oecobius
marginalis, Orbitolites

, sorites
marginata, Bulimina
, Lagena

Margosa te
marsupium, Pterocarpus dee
martensii, Talorchestia —
Martes

Martesia

masteri, Lycosa

mauritiana v. fruticosa, Zizyphus

maxima, Callianassa
maximus, Elephas .

mays, Zea

media, Capella

medica, Citrus

medicaginea, Crotalaria
meeboldii, Agrostistachys ...

ye aoe

‘447, 450, 448
94, 178, 459

. 436

220

265, 272, 273
265, 272, 273
266, 272, 273
261, 272, 273

627

~ 40, 117, 123

109, 280
oie eo
+ £80
303, 304

Page
meeboldii vy. coriacea, Agrostistachys 300, 301,
305

vy. meeboldii, Agrostistachys 300, 301

304, 305

————., Cynoglossum ... a: Per tos)
megala, Capella... aN seo ¥LOBSHZEO
megnae, Grandidierella_... ee mre 25 4
Meiothrips ... fs as ae ... 486
melanippus, Danais _ : be we B49
melanocephala, Threskiornis bias ... 454
melanolophus, Gorsachius aie sr tOT
melanopogon, Taphozous seth ATL TS
melanoxylon, Diospyros ... ie ... 436
meloagrestis, Cucumis As ve Mee fo)
melongena, Solanum a Bisa ... 601
Melosira _... 4 ae ae 55 OSL
menoni, Meiothrips. a Bs ... 488
merkusii, Pinus ae ee a nisin SOAS
merula maximus, Turdus ... se nel
mesophylla, Arundinella ... Bi aotoge
mexicana, Rotala ... as ei: eat}
micrantha, Saxifraga sah ie sal LOD
Microcystis ... a a. en) nt IDOL
Micropera ... : ane ... 66
microphthalma, Cymadusa dees (pp LoS OD
microphylla, Symplocos _... oh 1. 324
mimus mimus, Pipistrellus marmite Wal ei 17/S)
Mimusops ... a a ... 437, 462
minima, Capella... Bas aR: eel
— v. indica, Physalis ... ise nce VSO
minimifolia, Chiloschista ... Ba sea OO
minimifolius, Sarcochilus ... bs 66
minor, Pergularia : 362, 362
minutiflora, Aglaia A Se OM.
minutus, Calidris ... sae Ae eee.
, Larus ae Es te 2 293
mitella, Mitella ie: be ave Beane |
, Pollicipes ... aa Ne Re)

mitis, Brassaiopsis ... RRS lie Psa 0 8)
, Euaraliopsis ... wee aM erage; ()
modesta, Acacia... tt ne S29
modestus, Entrichocheles ... 235
mollissima, Cayratia 362, 363, 362
monbeigii, Sorbus ... me 59
monbeigil, Pyrus_... Re bbe aN |
mongholica, Stipa ... ee a MP O22
mongolus, Charadrius eh fe i 90
monnieri, Bacopa ... i ty A)
monococcum, Triticum ... is ... 479
monophylla, Eleiotis Le Ws DT
—__—____—, Glycine wr ory Bh al Wea
monosperma, Butea es su Ch bB2
Monostyla ... MN a ae 12 DOL
montana, Diospyros _ ae . ad LOS
—,Hemichoriste ... ar 358

—., Justicia ... 358, 359
montanum, Daedalacanthus ie sh t63
, Syzygium _.... sail se 24
montezumae, Pinus Bie eu se 398
monticola, Anplectrum ... ... 87, 89, 90
, Eisocreochiton ... 87-89, 89

moorei, Amsacta ... ae ane 40-44
Morinda ... ba ue bn ... 462
morinda, Picea ah ‘a. ath aya 7)

INVDEX OR SPECIES

Moringa
Morus

mosal mahanadicus, | Barbus (Tor) |

moschatum, Dendrobium ..

moschatus tetraphyllus v. pungens,

Abelmoschus
motorium, Desmodium
mucosus, Ptyas oe
mucroratus, Elaphrothrips
muelleri, Lysimachia
multiceps, Senecio ...
multiflorum, Jasminum
mungo, Phaseolus ...
munja, Saccharum ...
Murdannia .. ae
muricata, Ipomaea
Musa a
muscicola, Eria
Muscitrea
musculi, Steatonyssus ‘
mussuallah, Barbus (Tor) ...
mutica, Garnotia
Mycalesis
Mychenia
Mycteria
mysorense, Hypericum
Mystrothrips
Nacaduba
nais, Euthalia
nasturtium- aquaticum, Rorippa ..
nasutus, Dryophis ... ,

, Eptesicus

Natrix
nebularia, Tringa

neelgherrensis v. clarkei, Dendrophthoe ..
523, 529, 532

neelgherryana, Anaphalis sas
neglecta, Uraria
neilgherrense, Daphniphyllum
neilgherrensis, Strobilanthes
nellygherya, Argyreia
nemoricola, Capella

neo- barnesii, Impatiens
Neochrysocharis

Nepa *

neriifolia, Euphorbia
Nervilia

nervosa, Brachylepis.

, Justicia ...
nervosum, Eranthemum
——, Viburnum :
nervosus, Daedalacanthus
Nesothrips ...

Neurothrips

niger niger, Chlidonias ,
-——., Phalacrocorax
nigra Ciconia i,
nigroglandulifer, Saxifraga
nigro- punctata, Perinereis
nigrotibialis, Lycosa
nigrum, Solanum

nilagirica, Artemisia
——_—____—-, Michelia
nilagiricum, Rhododendron

Page

iva. 350
... 462
an OO
141, 145

A738
1
114

482: 484, 493, 496 |
6

pe nOe
ordss
40, 478
117, 118

257

“148, 152, 151
Bet le

. 422 |

Lies Oull
529

xix

Page

nilagiricus, Pogostemon {8323
nilghiriensis, Berberis wpe 2
Nilgirianthus ~3> 605
nilgirica, Impatiens see S23
nilgiriensis, Hippasa Se
nilgirina, Heteropoda er ies
nilgirriensis, Yungia wimnoeo
nilotica affinis, Gelochelidon ... 295
nilotica, Gelochelidon ... 294

2 nimala, Erebia FS, . 188
nippon, Cervus . 563
nitellarum, Coleochaete 130
nitida, Bolivina 268, 272, 273
, Discorbis ... 212, 2712, 213
———, Rotalina ae ee Die
niveus, Rubus OD
nobile, Dendrobium .. 141, 145
nobilis, Bolivina ROT Zi2, 2795
noctivagans, Lasionycteris... ss ... 174
nocturnum, Cestrum . 186
Nodosaria . 259
Nonion i ~ 2Oz
nordmanni, Glareola 290

se LBS
559, 560
w. 454
sgool
... 486
2 al 9G
; 189
LTT

524

483, 488, 491, 493,
500

. 218

186, 602, 603

184
"526

531, 532

norvegicus, Rattus .

67, 70, Pa 74, 75) 573

Notonecta "i205
Notonia — 62
notoniana, Anaphalis 523
nucifera, Cocos 94
nudiflora, Murdannia ; . 617
—_—_———- y. compressa, Murdannia 617
, Letrameles an 435, 439
nummularia, Zizyphus 179, 274-278

_ nummiularius, Evolvulus se 362
nutans, Primula 63
—_——., Rubus . 58
v. nepalensis, Rubus i: 38

, Saxifraga ... Ee,
nutaniflorus, Rubus : a 22 58
—______—— y, nepalensis, Rubus 58
oakleyi, Pardosa ne . 220

| Oberonia 2.94
| oblongum, Acer... .. 180
obovata, Carolineila GOS

, Primula ... .. 63

obscura, Ipomoea ... .» 362
obtusa, Symplocos ... «« 326

| obtusatus, Senecio ... 2 162
| occidentalis, Cassia.. so 182
S PINUS... . 398

—-- : Stephanothrips . 489
ocellatum, Geranium ol
ochropus, Tringa 54, 55
Ocyale 219
ocymoides, Borreria | ae 183, 531
odoratissima, Albizzia 433, 436, 438
—____—__—_ y. angustitolla, Coelogyne 525
odoratus, Lathyrus 2 ey £928)
Oecobius : . 220
oedicnemus harterti, ‘Burhinus . 288
indicus, “Burhinus . 288

— saharae, Burhinus. 288
Oedogonium ae 507- 509, 508
officinalis, Scindapsus 250, 258, 251
oleosa, Schleichera 435, 438, 439

XX INDEX VOL MSP BEES
Page Page
Oocarpon ... 125 | parviflora, Lagerstroemia 434, 439
oojeinensis, Ougeinia . 437 -—, Sageretia fi WS
ootacamundse, Piper . 524 | ———_-—, Vitis . 180
opaca, Carissa . 185 | parviflorus, Rhamnus US
Operculina ... . 264 | parvifolia, Mitragyna . 457
Ophiomorus . 334 |) — —, Pyrus ne,
Opius 601 —, Sorbus ... 459.
oppositifolia, ‘Sageretia ... 58 | pashia, Pyrus . 182
orbicularis, Coleochaete . 130 | Passiflora (S28
orbiculatum, Viscum } 524 | patrinii, Viola vu SHSOG
orbignyana, Lagena 262, 272, 273 Paxillothrips : 488, 492
orbonalis, Leucinodes 601-603 pectenicrus, Elasmopus 165
/_ —_—_——, Impatiens : 523 | pectinalis v. ventralis, Eunotia 445, 449, 446
orientalis, Hoplothrips 484, 490, 495 | pectinatum, Eriocaulon . 529
—_——_——, Siegesbeckia 4 . 184 | pe2ctinatus, Strobilanthes ... i 903
, Stictothrips .. 484 | pectiniformis, Vernonia 527
—» Strepterothrips ee 488, 495, 498 pectoralis Erithacus “14-25, 18, 19
= , Vespa fe Pe: Y 221 — bailloni, Erithacus 19
ornata, -Microhyla ra . 589 | ______. Pachycephala 8
, Rivea . 186 | Pediastrum ... 582
‘griffithii, Rivea . 186 | pedicellatus, Lyrodus 431
Ornithonyssus pale Gedingulate Acronychia ... 179
Oscillatoria ... 582 | pedunculatus, Senecio 62
oscitans, Anastomus - 454, 455: “461, 454, 455 | Pellonyssus ... : 414, 418, ‘420- 422, 426
Osyris e ote . 523 | Peltophorum ; iy, °° B48. 462
ovalifolia, Microtropis , 523 | pennata, Acacia . 182
oxystoma, Culicoides 421, 424, 426 | pentaphylla, Glycosmis eet We
Pachycephala 113 | —_—__—_, Tabebuia peeads (cy
pacificum, Nonion . 263, 272, 273 | Percnothrips ... 49)
pactolus ceylonicus, Nacaduba_ . ... 189 | Perenethis . 220
palea, Nitzschia nA 448, 450, 448 Peristylus 25 94
paleacea, Nitzschia 450, 451, 448 | perpusillum, Dendrobium 766
pallide-fusca, Setaria 559, 560 perroteti, Xylophis i '336
palmata, Brassaiopsis 60 | perrottetii, Cinnamomum ... ... 524
, Euaraliopsis 60) == Mieusteum: . 2532
palmatum, Panax aE .. 60 | perseoides, Mycalesis . 188
palniensis, Acrocephalus ... .. 525 | persica, Felis eee
—_———., Garnotia ... 525 | persimilis, Diagora 89
palpebrosa, Zosterops “2 333 | =) Drosopmila 2
paludosus, Pogostemon .. 523 | peruviana, Thevetia J5A2
palustris, Crocodilus .. 574 | perversa, Nodosaria 260, 272, 273
panchganiensis, Habenaria ... 93 | pes-caprae, Ipomoea 362
paniculata, Eria 149, 152 | pes-tigridis, Ipomaea "186, 362, 362
— -—, Murraya .. 179 | Petaurista ns nso
——-——-, Sabia ... ... 180 | Petunia ... 348
==, lerminalia 434,439 | phaeopus phaeopus, “Numenius Sed |
paniculatus, Amaranthus . .. 619 | —— variegatus, Numenius ... a oe
, Celastrus . 179 | phaeothrix, Eulalia 327,551
pantherina, Hippasa . 215 | phaseoloides, Pueraria nae P82
papillosus, Nilgirianthus 523 | phasma, Heteropoda msi) Va
Paracaprella... . 163 | philippinus, Ploceus 414, 415, 417, 419, 420,
parasiticus, Stercorarius 291 422
Pardosa . 219 | phipsoni, Lycosa eS
pardus, Panthera 574 —, Thalassius ZO
pareira, Cissampelos AT Phlaeothrips .-» 486
parishii, Daedalacanthus ... 63 | phlogiflora, Verbena sae S,
, Eranthemum 63 | Phoenix : 0 OL
paronychyoides, Alternanthera . 93 | pholis, Blennius sil ez)
parsia, Mugil . see 204 | Phylloscopus ride te)
parviceps, Sophiothrips “484, 488, 490 piceus, Blaptostethus el
parviflora, Artemisia ... 184 | picta, Uraria se Wes
a= -, Butea ... ... 182 | pictula, Lycosa 218
, Hopea 433, 434, 439 | pierardi, Dendrobium esi 145, 147
ne, Txora ..: S SO). | Pieris: :: a iO io2y

ENDEXTOR SPECIES

re Page

pikarhense, Piper ... Be, Sh ae
pilimana, Tritella ... ae iz, 3 162163

pinnata, Garuga ee 179
pinnatifida, Cardanthera ... 65
—__—__—__——, Glossogyne 619
——_———, Nomaphila ... 65
pinnatifidum, Adenosma ... 65
—_——_———., Synnema a 65
pinnatum, Kingiodendron... 434, 438, 439
Pinus i be 101
Piper aM 101
pisaurina, Hippasa_ sist fio: be
piscator, Natrix el 4
Pithecellobium LOM
planifolia, Vanilla ... 411
planifrons, Acacia ... 81, 82, 85, 86, 82
plantaginifolium, Bupleurum 24
Plantago f oe 10]
Platanthera 94
platycarpa, Atylosia 619
Pleunosigma 582
Poa... 18
Poinsettia Ka 350
polyacantha, Euaraliopsis 60
, Hedera 4723/°60

polyandra, Cynometra 436, 438
polyantha, Aglaia ... pitt as
polycephala, Madaractis iy aOR
polycephalus, Senecio 6255239529
polygama, Grewia ... ae wel 9
—__—_—_-, Olea 527
polygonoides, Alternanthera 93
polymorpha, Medicago -r.- 180
Polyphemothrips 489, 490
polyphyllum, Biophytum .. Se 25
polystachya, eens 435
polytes, Papilio a , eo 49
Polytoca 559, 560
pomarinus, Stercorarius Lo 2o
pomona, Catopsila sic -.. 349
pompilioides, Nonion 263, 272, 273
a -—-, Nonionina ... e t2G3
Pongamia : 462
populnea, Bucklandia 437
, Exbucklandia 437

Poria , iy AO
porosus, Crocodilus 573, 574, 573
Porpax a teed.
postrata, Moghania 182
Potentilla sa 528
praelongipes, Evippa_ 214
———_—_-——, Lycosa t Brea Ue:
pratincola maldivarum, Glareola 9 290
pratincola, Glareola . 290
Prestwichia ... us ae -<94~-420
Priesneriana a 488, 491
primigenius, Mammuthus | era
primulinum, Dendrobium 140, 145
primuloides, Androsace Grea O2
prionitis, Barleria 362, 362
-priscus, Bison is : wild
procer dallatorensis, Elaphrothrips . 496
procerum, Dysoxylum - WSIS
procumbens, Tridax 184

XX1

Page

productus, Elaphrothrips ... 482-484,.493, 496
prolifica, Lycosa Ae the ‘se DLS
prompta, Heteropoda eae
prostrata, Crotalaria ... 180
, Eclipta 93, 184
Prunus ov LO]
prurita, Mucuna et 4
Pseudagrostistachys . 299
pseudo-aperta, Carex 525
pseudolunaris, Eunotia 444, 449, an
pseudomontana, Curcuma
pseudoobscura, DEceopnre ee ve -
Pseudosciaena Ete . 575
Psidium 101, 133
psoraloides, Cyamopsis ee 26)
pterocaulon, Saussurea 60, 61
Ptyas 4 eeeaieliee
pugmeum, Eurynorhynchus 284
pugnax, Philomachus is ve a 285
pulchellum, Dendrobium ... wae ASE, 147
——-———., Eranthemum ... rr i263
pulneyensis, Pimpinella 525
——____—., Vernonia 23 oak .» 5325
pulvinata, Coleochaete .... rane boOz 132
pumilum, Dendrobium 66
punctata, Bolivina ... 266, 272, 273
punctipes, Lycosa ... . 218
pungens, Alternanthera 94
pungitius, Pygosteus 583
Punica : ; ca sve) LOL
punjabensis, Sergentomyia ww. 421, 423
purpurea, Camarotis Rina nem OO
—, Cyathocline 184
—, Tephrosia 135
purpureus, Sarcochilus 66
purpuria, Puccinia ... 474
purus, Laetmatophilus 161
pusilla, Impatiens ... 532
———-, Lindernia 612
pusiola, Lycosa 220
—_——., Pardosa 220
putus, Oecobius 221
Pycnonotus ... 308
Pygmaeothrips 486
Pygothrips ... 483
pykarensis, Ophiorrhiza o o24
| pyranthe, Catopsila 2 349
Pyrus 58, 59, 101
quadrangularis, Cissus a? 361, 362
quadrata, Lagena 261, aps 273
quadrifer, Lycosa Se ee Ls
quadrimana, Maera vein OS
Quercus ae 1, 440
quinqueloba, Prenanthes ue vo Gl
quinquelobus, Senecio peer 6 |
radicula, Nodosaria ict, 2S aI 2
radiosa, Navicula 445, 450, 452, 447
| rafinesquei, Corynorhinus p . 174
rama, Mycalesis 188
ramentacea, Eulophia 66
ramentaceum, Limodorum - 66
ramiflora, Microtropis 525
rangacharii, Eriochrysis 325
Raphanus vs 101

XXil

raphidocarpa, Carex -
rattus, Rattus os
‘wroughtoni, Rattus
Rauvolfia i
Ravenala A
recurvalis, Hymenia
recurvus, Loranthus
religiosa, Ficus
remora, Remora
reniformis, Ranunculus
repressa, Sterna
reptans, Ipomoea
resupinatum, Trifolium
reticulatum, Doronicum
reticulatus, Nilgirianthus ...
, Rubus
, SENECIO: ...
retusa, Bridelia
retusum, Desmodium
rex, Tyrannosaurus...
rhamni nepalensis, Gonepterys
Rhododendron .
rhomboidalis, Bolivina
rhomboidea, Triumfetta
Rhynchobdella
rhynchops, Cerberus a
ridibundus ridibundus, Larus
rigens, Heracleum ... :
ritchieanum, Eriocaulon
rivularis, Anemone
robusta, Grevillea ...
-, Heteropoda
-, Shorea
robustum, Eriocaulon
robustus, Nesothrips
rochi, Bankia
rodiaei, Ocotea
roemeri, Nodosaria
rohituka, Amoora ...
rosacea, Discorbina
——-—, Discorbis ...
rosmarinifolia, Leucas
rostrata, Schefflera
rostratum, Aerides
, Micropera
rothii, Rhynchosia ..
rotundatum, Bulbophyllum
—, Dendrobium ..
Epigeneium si
, Katherinea
, Sarcopodium
rotundatus, Cimex ...
rotundifolia, Primula
——, Rotala
rotundus, Cyperus ... rr
roxburghiana, Sanseviera ...
roxburghii, Centaurium
: , Erythraea
v. Saxatilis, Erythraea .
, Pinus Bey
—— ’ Primula ...
, salacia ..
—__———, Typhonium
roylei, Cynoglossum

elgse

1 ge lgere ree ere

”” 483, 484, 493, 500
cree ag 431

T NUD BX

Page

525
67, Les a. 76
552, 554-556
: 101

191
bis 526, S27
268, 272, 273
Bs ane i)

vee, 209
114, 574
sees
wa ool
134, 134
sae ao
. 361

213 |

Ail, 436, 439
529

398, 440
260, 272

. 435

271

271, 272, 273
523, 529

5360: |

358, 619

357, 619

358

431, 437, 527 |
63

_ 358
. 130
63

O Fs SS Pir Ciges

Page
rubicundus v. hohenackeri, Onthesichens ~-§23
rubiginosa, Evippa ee adi
rubra, Cordyline 257
rudolfi, Thais 353

| rufescens, Impatiens 523
, Strobilanthes 503

——_——., Uraria 181
ruficollis, Calidris ... 282
———--, Tringa 282
rufulus, Thelcticopis 213

, Themeropis 213

rugosa, ’ Primula : 63
rugosus v. thwaitesii, Rubus 524

russeliana, Raconda e ae 585, 588

russellii, Vipera ; 337
rusticola rusticola, Scolopax ab SS t
rutidosperma, Cleome meg Ade 2829
| Saccarum e ... 308
sagittifolius, Ranunculus ... 529
sahyadrica, Cyanotis 616
salacioides, Johnia ... 358
— , Salacia 358
salicifolia, Lysimachia ae ae OD
sambac, Jasminum : «wii 9) 36223962
sandvicensis sandvicensis, Sterna 298

sanguineus, Ecacanthothrips 482-484, 490, 495

santapaui, Justicia ... : 358
sapiens, Homo Boo:
Sarchochilus A 66, 359
Sarcoclinium ~299- 301, 303
Sarcopodium 139.
sardenta, Cymadusa 153, 155, 154
——-—-, Grubia . 153
sarmentosa y. dubyii, Androsace .. 62
vy. primuloides, Androsace 62

sativa, Avena ; Ag Sich 117

, Medicago ... ae 65 sv 23

, Oryza ue sats wae OR EZS

sativum, Pisum ; 123
saularis, Copsychus- 414, 415, “417, 419, 420
saulierei, Christisonia ; 525
savil, Pipistrellus 319, 320
—-— austenianus, Pipistrellus . 319

| —-— cadornae, Pipistrellus 319
| —+— caucasicus, Pipistrellus . 319
| saxatilis, Stellaria 26-29
——-—--— y, Sikimensis, Stellularia 28
sayi, Bembix 545

scaber, Elephantopus a af 362, 362

scandens, Frutex . 88
scapiflora, Impatiens SS2
scapiflorum, Murdannia +993
scariosa, Vernonia . se LA hGnG2
scariosum, Centratherum ae sev 62

-—, Decaneuron Je 62
sceleratus, Ranunculus ony
schilleriana, Diadumene Ro ES Wo 4
scholaris, Aistronia 458, 459

schottii, Typhonium sonlitit,. = -IQORESO

schreibersii, Miniopterus ... 174
schubarti, Amphilochus 165
scintilla, Rapala . 190
scolopacea, Eudynamys..... . $73
scrobiculata, Strobilanthes . 606

INDEX OF SPECTES

Page
scutata, Coleochaete 130
seemannii, Schefflera 60

seenghala, Mystus 194- Oth, 196, 198, 200, 201,

204, 208, 209

semecarpifolia, Alseodaphne 94
semialata, Moghania _ 182
semipalmatus, Limnodromus mat 56
——_-__—-——., Macrorhamphus ... 56
semiteres, Murdannia 617
Senecio a fd tun 62
senegalensis, Ephippiorhynchus .. 457, 458
Sepiaria, Ipomoea .. or 5 ... 362
Sergentomyia 5 418
sericea, Crotalaria .. 180
serpens, Viola 526
serpentina, Rauvolfia : 185
serratibranchis, LO heat 352
Sertularia 4 $352
sesban, Sesbania . 181
sessilifiora, Crotalaria . 180
sessilis, Alternanthera on 362362
, Pleocanthus BS ipa 1929 O29

, strobilanthes 503
Setaria_ Le 560
sexpunctata, Heteropoda a8 213
shallada, Erebia 188
shillongensis, Ischnothyreus 221
sikkimensis, Malus.. 58
, Pyrus.... 58

, otellaria 26-29

silenus, Macaca 541
simplex, Kleothrips 483
simplicifolia, Brassaiopsis ... 60
, Euaraliopsis... 60

sinensis, Pelopidas ... 192
sinhala, Nacaduba .. 189
Sirembo 2a a5 115
sisaparensis, Oldenlandia ... 524
sisparense, Pygeum ue se SDA
sissoo, Dalbergia 182, 435, 559
skua, antarctica, Catharacta sles e290
oo "lonnbergi, ‘Catharacta f40291
—— maccormicki, Catharacta in 291
Smilax a .. 488
smithiana, Picea ... 437
smyrnensis, Halcyon ee 818,
smythiesi, Heteropoda See 23
solanacea, Ardisia ... cS
—-———-, Vallaris .. ABS
Solanum ... 610
. Solitaria solitaria, Capella .. A299
soluta, Coleochaete e380
Sophiothrips ES 488, 490
sorghi, Sclerospora ne AGA
—-—-, Sphacelia . 474
—--—-, Sphacelotheca 474
sorghicola, Contarinia 474
Sorghum 474
Sorites 265
sororia, Eleiotis 127
speciosus, Costus . 02
spectabilis, Bougainvillaea | . 361
——— , Cheilosporum » 352
speltoides, ‘Aegilops . 479

XXil

Page

speoris, Hipposideros = As 171-175
sphaerophorum, Gomphonema “445, 449, 452
446

sphaerostachyus, Neuracanthus .. 92,93
Sphex av 545
spicata, Polycarpaea_ » S30
spinicarpa, Leucothoe . 165
spirata, Murdannia 617
Spirillina 270
spirocarpa, Acacia .. 82
Spirogyra ; 1a 582
splendens, Corvus taht “414, 415, 417, 419,
420- 422
spontaneum, Saccharum segs LAT TES
squamosa, Virgulina 266, 272, 273
squarrosa, Aegilops , .. 479
Sorbus ee . 39
Stagnatilis, Tringa ... ee
stauntoni, Dendrolycosa . 214
Steatonyssus . 422
| Stellaria Tee
Stellaris, Urticularia — . 355
stellato- pilosa, Stellaria 27, 28
stellulata, Andrographis 523
stenura, Capella 108, 279, 280
Steriospermum is ; )
stictocarpum, Carum se on 355-357
— v. hebecarpa, Carum 355-357
— , Trachyspermum 356, 357
stictophylla, Tricholepis ... 184
stictopyga, Lycosa ... lee 1S
| —_____——, Tarentula 218
Stictothrips .. 489
stigma, Barbus ie 205
Stigmothrips Gp i 486
stipulata, Albizzia ... ser 437
y. smithiana, Albizzia ... 182
stirpicola, Carbro .. ae . 546
stolidus pileatus, Anous 298
Strepterothrips ae 488, 489
striata, Lagena 261, 272, 273
—-——, Martesia 431, 433, 438
striatulus, Modiolus » ooo
strictus, Mimulus ... 177.
Strobilanthes 92. 94, 504- 506, 608
strumarium, Xanthium . 184
struthersii, Ibidorhyncha ... 287
stylosus, Senecio 62
suavis, Trichosma ... 150
subadnata, Navicula _ 445, 450, 452, 447
subflavus, Pipistrellus . 174
subminutus, Calidris . 283
subperversa, Nodosaria_ .. 260, 272, 273
subramanii, Tiarothrips 481, 484, 488, 492
495, 496, 500
subruficollis, Tryngites 488 . 285
subulata, Commelina ze 617
sudetica v. bidens, Eunotia 445, 449, 446
suffruticosa, Leucas a O82
sulcata, Festuca 18

sumatraensis, Capricornis .. 104, 384
sumatrana, Lycosa j

mathewsi, Sterna

a sumatrana, Sterna

XXIV

Page |

sumatrensis, Dinothrips 482, 484, See 495,

485

superba, Gloriosa ... 2
superciliosus, Tephrodornis: a2
Surirell : : : “382
sutherlandi, Lycosa - 219
sylvarum, Ornithonyssus oy: ri2a
synaptochir, Platophium ... aa lB is
—_—___—_———., Podocerus se og
Synedra ae x 582
Synnema _... 64, 65
tabularis, Chukrasia .. 437
tade, Mugil .. 588
talehsapensis, Nereis ; 352
tamu tamu, Heliophorus ... 190
tatarica, Saiga 31
tatensis, Lycosa 219
Tectona : 83
temminckii, Calidris 283
tenella, Impatiens fa : 523
tenellum, Bothriospermum 185
tenera, Sonerila = 182
tenuiflora, Galactia.. 127
tenuirostris, Calidris. 202
_______.—. worcesteri, Anous 298
tenuistriata, Uvigerina 269, 272, 273
Tephrosia ... Gli a 135
Teredo att, te ey: ais 398, 440
terek, Tringa ee i Re, ae)
testaceus, Calidris ... i 284
tetraspermum, Pittosporum 526
teucrioides, Verbena 393
Thais... : eo 353
Thalassina ... : 242
Thalassius ... %.. ime ae ... 220
thalictroidus, Ceratopteris... et Ba 355
Thalictrum ... ‘ ae: a hehe SYA
thebaica, Hyphaene 82
Themeropis .. 213
Thespesia 462
thomsoni, Argyreia... 186
Thrixspermum . 66
thymus, Adenosma Lipo. 5)
Tiarothrips ... 488, 492
tigris, Panthera pe 234, 374, 551
tilaefolia, Grewia . 437

tinctoria, Berberis : i 1420p ALS

—-, Indigofera ; 135
tintinnabulum, Balanus 352 353, 590, 591
tomentosa, Impatiens Seal OSG oe
—_—-—--—, Pavetta > SS
——-—--—, Rhodomyrtus B26
— -—, Terminalia 436, 440
tomentosum, CaN en 435, 439
tor, Tor Bs Pet 510, 511
tora, Cassia .. 33, 182
torvum, Solanum ee . 186
totanus eurhinus, Tringa ... 53

— totanus, Tringa 53
Trachispermum 356
Trachyspermum._.. nes 350
tragocamelus, Boselaphus : 563
transparens, Dendrobium... __ 140, 147, 146

ENDEX OF SP E CIES

Page

transvaalensis, Hoplothrips 483, 484, 488
490, 495, 487

Triaeris fa 22k
trianae, Sonerila_... na bite ie oe
triandra, Themeda . -o.) 1 S20ega2
triangulare Vv, congestum, Desmodium 181
Tribonema ... te . 3509
trichotoma, Swertia — 524
tricolor, Viola 393
tridactylus, Ophiomorus . 334
tridens, Laematophilus 161
trifida, Sopubia 531
triflora, Adenosma 65
————., Cardanthera 65
, Ruellia 65
triflorum, Desmodium 181
——, Synnema 65
trijuga, Schleichera 435, 438, 439
triquetra, Trianthema 614, 615
triquetrum, Desmodium ST
trispinosus, Batrachus 339-341
-—-,Halophryne ... 342

tristis, Acridotheres 414, 415, ‘417, 419- 422
Tritella : eG 2
tropicalis, Pinus... . 398
truncatula, Lymnaea (Galba) 0) 588
tuba, Ipomoea ake 614, 615
tuberculatum, Arisaema i) 524
tuberosa, Cyanotis .. ..- 616
turbinatus, Dipterocarpus . 435
—, Percnothrips . 491
turcicum, Helminthosporium 474

turgida, Cymbella ie . 447, 450, 452, 448

tylophorum, Arisaema . 524
typhoideum, Pennisetum ... 40
Typhonium .. 129
typus, Dispholidus .. 113
, Rhineodon.. 337
uliginosa, Adenosma 65
, Cardanthera 65

, Ruellia es 5 RHOS.
uliginosum, Synnema : ah iS
ulna subaequalis, Synedra_ “444, 449, 452, 446
umbellata, Androsace a} ie ee 8S
umbellatum, Bulbophyllum 66
uncinatum, Cynoglossum ... : wag 63
, Paracaryum ... isi S08) OZ
undulaefolia, Crossandra ... 362CS, 646, 362

undulata, Commelina A ets (GAT.

macqueenil, Chlamydotis . 330
undulatum, Pittosporum ... i e525
unguipes, Diaphorothrips ots 491
unicolor, Cervus in 374
unicornis, Rhinoceros 558
uniflora, Primula 63

, Saussurea is 61

~'y, conica, Saussurea 61
uniflorum, Bulbophyllum as 66
—___——., Sarcopodium ... 66
Ure dothrips a 488
urticaefolia, Leucas . 619
Uvigerina : 269
vadescens, Bolivina.. ; 268, 272, 273
vaginalis, ’Alysicarpus ooRE ; . 181

DND ER OR OS PEO ES. XXV

Page Page
vaginata, Arundinella spe 529 | vulgaris, Phaseolus aa AA nen 2
valida, Eunotia ee ... 444, 449, 452, 446 | walkeri, Gynura __... Bei oe bears atl 282
Vandellia ne iy : >; Olt -, Notonia ... a Be, sre 02
Varanus ues se: ae ... 34 | ———-,Senecio... es an EeKcOe
varia soccata, Atherigona ont ae ... 474 -, Sphaeroma ae 352, 353
variabilis, Buddleja ii ae ... 359 | wallaceana, Cymbella ee 447, 450, 448
vasica, Adhatoda ... ae ... 362,362 | wallichi, Amoora ... oe 2 43)
velutina, Chukrasia a Re, ... 437 | wallichii, Cirsium ... aa a ... 184
,Dalechampia __... due ... 524 | ——--—-, Strobilanthes _... oy as pO
venatoria, Heteropoda ___... 213 -, Wedelia ... ae ich Dera his!
veneta, Amphora ... a 447, 450, 448 | wardii, Daedalacanthus_... an wavhgos
Venonia a : ve . 220 | ———--, Eranthemum uN gi om
venulosa, Schefflera oe a . 183 | warscwiczii, Canna “is 391, 393, 390 .
veronicaefolia, Bonnaya ... ee ... 619 | wightiana, Anaphalis ae ihe ac Oe
verticillaris, Oldenlandia ... .. 527,529 | —————— ». hispida, Arundinaria Ae Peo)
verticillata, Adenosma ___... oH ... 65 | ——_——-—, Tlex weit i Aer in Le
——-—--—, Cardanthera ... a ... 65 | ————-—, Rapanea ie a ee eyo)
verticillatum, Synnema __... oe ee OS) -—, Scutellaria a a Ree 27
vestalis, Colotis .... ae: es ... 190 wightianus, Nilgirianthus ... oe ae 5
vestita, Stellaria ... ne 26-29 | ——-—-, Strobilanthes ar radae
vialis, Macroglossa Ws ee ... 349 | wightii, Dendrobium oe “fe sea 100
viarum, Solanum ... ih AP ts, OLO , Helichrysum ae ee cogeeo
viator, Pellonyssus ... us i ... 422 | ————, Meliosma ae a) 94020
——-—-, Steatonyssus ie a: fs IL] , Feucrium ae wee DEO Oe
vilardeboana, Discorbina ... 271 | wittrokiana, Viola ... Ede ; 393
—.___—__—., Discorbis.... Dns 272: 273 | wodier, Odina Le 433, 435, 439
villosa, Sterculina ... Pa 178 | wroughtoni, Lycosa te ahs . 219
Viola : at! Pe . 528 —_—_————,, Scotophilus ... ‘ 174
violacea, Mackenziea Une He ... 523 | X generalis, Canna ee 390- 393, 395
, Petunia ... ate Me ... 393 | X orchioides, Canna iter 390, 392, 393
virescens, Thelcticopis mi nt ... 213 | X hybrida, Petunia Lee Ses ... 393
—__——., Themeropis ae at ... 213 | ———_—_——,, Verbena oe a 2 393
virgata, Rhamnus ... a she ... 179 | X wittrokiana, Viola len a ine 2398
Virgulina... iy au) ... 266 | Xenophthalmus _... iN an Bn O92
viridiflora, Micropera Bu ne ... 359 | Xenorhynchus ne De ... 454, 458
viridiflorum, Aerides te sed ... 399 | xylocarpa, Xylia_... ie .. 434, 439
-——.,, Saccolabium ne . 359 | zamboange, Ampelisca _.... ee ... 164
viridiflorus, Gastrochilus ... 359 | zeylanica, Capparis f re ales
viridis v. turgidus, Pinnularia “447, 450, 447 | ——_———_ v. paludosa, Emilia ee a).
viscidula, Conyza ... ane 184 | —_——_—_, Nepenthes Pes oa sue OD
viscosa, Indigofera .. ae wid. eo , Plumbago : ee sss Oo
viscosum y. elata, Adenostemma . . 184 zeylanicum, Rhododendron A 526
vitta, Hasora aD wet 191 | zeylanicus, Fisseponen a 528, 529, 531
vivipara, Spirillina ... ae 270) D2: 273 \ Zingiber |... : me : EDOM,
vulgare, Hordeum ... a 117 | Zinnia ve ae bee ; 348
———-, Sorghum ... ee ~ 40, 118, 474 | Zizyphus _... ae aes 93, 276, 277
—, Triticum... We ae ... 117 | zonellus, Chilo Ane re . 474

vulgaris, Linaria_... .e a, eeeotl wyenema ..... we re ne < 131

Journal of the fe

Bombay Natural History Society

pede Vol. 67, No. 1

Editors

ZAFAR FUTEHALLY,
J. C. DANIEL & P. V. BOLE

APRIL 1970

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or Dimeria blatteri.

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EDITORS,
Hornbill House, Journal of the Bombay Natural
Shahid Bhagat History Society.

Singh Road,
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VOLUME 67, No. 1—APRIL 1970

Date of Publication: 30-6-1970

CONTENTS

TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES BELOW THE LEVEL OF GENUS: THEORETICAL AND
PRACTICAL AsPEcTS. By Dean Amadon roe si eu Ge ae 1

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE HIMALAYAN RUBYTHROAT, Erithacus pectoralis
(GOULD) IN THE TIEN SHAN. ra E. I. Gavrilov and A. F. Kovshar. a With
two plates) : ‘ 14

Notes oN Stellaria saxatilis BucH.-Ham. ex D. Don, Stellaria vestita KURZ
AND Stellaria sikkimensis Hook. f. By N. C. Majumdar ia 26

10TH GENERAL ASSEMBLY AND 11TH TECHNICAL MEETING OF THE INTERNATIONAL
UNION FOR CONSERVATION OF NATURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES. By Zafar
Futehally 4 cite sf ei ae he oie aa ai 30

GROWTH POTENTIAL OF RED HAIRY CATERPILLAR, Amsacta mooreit BUTLER,
IN RELATION TO CERTAIN FOoD PLANTs. By N. D. peneey, neve Ram

Yadava and T. P. S. Teotia .. eh ame ao af 40
CAUSE AND EFFECTS OF A HEAVY RAINFALL IN DARJEELING AND IN THE SIKKIM

HIMALAYAS. By Leszek Starkel. (With two text-figures) ie ee cs 45
A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL

History Society-6. By Humayun Abdulali ris 52 Aa Me 51
NOMENCLATURAL NOTES ON SOME FLOWERING PLANTS—II. By N.P. Balakrishnan 57

THE BEHAVIOUR OF THE LESSER BANDICOOT RAT, Bandicota bengalensis (GRAY
AND HARDWICKE). By Dwain W. Parrack and Jacob Thomas. (With eleven

text-figures) sie ae ae aw s% ae ae ie, ae 67
NOTES ON SOME PECULIAR CASES OF PHYTOGEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTIONS. BY V. M.
Meher-Homji. (With two plates) om ae ae sue ? ; $1
A SYNOPSIS OF THE GENUS Elsocreochiton QUISUMB. AND MERR. “eh M. P. Nayar.
(With two plates) an De he ak it ees ee 87
OBITUARY:
Fr. H. Santapau,s.J... ae as Bs «i e ~ ae 91
REVIEWS:
1. The Twilight of India’s Wild Life. (G.S.R.) Be ss 96
2. The Malayan Nature Journal. Rain Forest Issue. vol. 22 (D. E. R. ee 97
3. The Clue Books: Insects and other small Animals without Bony
Skeletons. (S.F.) ae ee ae me a 98
4. The World of the Polar Bear. G. S. RY an ate 98
5. The Wealth of India: A Dictionary of Indian Raw Niateriale ae
Industrial Products. vol. VIIL (D.E.R.) .. : 100

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES:

Mammals: 1. Wild Dog’s Courage Rating. By E. R. C. Davidar (p. 102);
2. Habitat of the Himalayan Tahr, Hemitragus jemlahicus (H. Smith). By Graeme
Caughley (p. 103); 3. Himalayan Tahr, Hemitragus jemlahicus (H. Smith, 1826)
in Bhutan. By J. R. 5. Holmes (p. 106); 4. Blackbuck, Antilope cervicapra (Linnaeus)
swimming. By S. A. Hussain (p. 106).

Birds: 5. A Record of the Tiger Bittern, Gorsachius melanolophus (Raffles)
from Karaikudi, Ramanathapuram District, Tamil Nadu. By S. T. Satyamurti (p. 107);
6. On the occurrence of Swinhoe’s Snipe, Capella megala (Swinhoe) near Bombay,

and a note on its identification. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 108); 7. Occurrence of
the Great Snipe, Capella media (Latham), in Burma and India. By Humayun Abdulali
and Shanta Nair (p. 109); 8. Notes on Indian Birds-11. On the Distribution of
Sterna fuscata Linnaeus in Indian limits—A correction. By Humayun Adbulali
(p. 110); 9. The flight speed of the House Crow, Corvus splendens Vieillot. By K.
N. Panicker (p. 111); 10. The correct name of the Mangrove Whistler: Pachycephala
cinerea (Blyth) or Pachycephala grisola (Blyth)? By Ajit Kumar Mukherjee (p. 112)

Reptiles: 11. Slight reaction from bites of the Rear-Fanged Snakes, Boiga
ceylonensis (Gunther) and Dryophis nasutus (Lacépéde). By Romulus Whitaker
(p. 113); 12. Cannibalism in the Indian’ Rat Snake, Ptyas mucosus (Linnaeus). By
Romulus Whitaker (p. 114).

Fishes: 13. A redescription of Sirembo jerdoni (Day): (Pisces: Brotulidae).
(With a text-figure). By V. Visweswara Rao. (p. 114).

Insecta: 14. Johnson Grass, Sorghum halepense—A new host of Sugarcane
Green Borer, Raphimetopus ablutellus Zeller (Physitidae: Lepidoptera). By J. P.
Chaudhary (p. 117); 15. Peculiar accident to the Butterfly, Delias eucharis Drury.
By Zafar Futehally (p. 118); 16. The feeding behaviour of the Lemon Butterfly,
Papilio demoleus L. By Vidyadhar G. Vaidya (p. 1184; 17. On a Hymenopterous Egg-
Parasite of Aquatic Bugs injurious to Pisciculture. By J. M. Juika (p. 120); 18. Honey
Bees and Wasps as pests of Grape. By D. K. Saxena (p. 121); 19. Anemotactic
response in the Firefly, Luciola sp. (Coleoptera: Lampyridae). By A. B. Soans and
Joyce S. Soans (p. 122); 20. The Red Pumpkin Beetle Raphidopalpa foveicollis (Lucas),
as a pest of the Japanese Mint. By J. P. Singh and Rajendra Gupta (p. 123).

Botany: 21. The Taxonomic Status of the Section Fissendocarpa (Haines)
Raven of the Onagraceous Genus Ludwigia L. By S. S. R. Bennet (p. 125); 22.
Interesting Plants from Maharashtra State. By R. D. Pataskar and (Miss) K. K. Ahuja
(p. 126); 23. A new locality record of Cordia crenata Del. in Piram Island off South
Saurashtra Coast. By T. Ananda Rao (p. i28); 24. Cleome rutidosperma DC.
(Capparaceae)—A new record for Assam. By R. B. Ghosh and R. Prasad (p. 128);
25. Two new records of Araceae from the Upper Gangetic Plain. By B. Venkatareddi
(p. 129); 26. On Chaetosphaeridium globosum (Nordst.) Klebahn from India. (With
a text-figure). By R. J. Patel (p. 130); 27. A new record for Crotalaria incana Linn.
from south India. By N. Ravi (p. 132); 28. An abnormal Psidium mutation. By S.
Percy-Lancaster (p. 133); 29. Tubers in Eriocaulon ritchieanum Ruhl. (With eight
text-figures). By A. R. Kulkarni and M. H. Desai (p. 134); 30. Field identification
of Tephrosia Pers. By P. K. Mukherjee and Rita Gupta (p. 135).

JOURNAL
| | OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL
HISTORY SOCIETY

1970 APRIL Vol. 67 No. |

Taxonomic categories below the
level of Genus: Theoretical and
Practical Aspects

BY
) DEAN AMADON
The American Museum of Natural History

Below the genus, only three systematic categories are in general
use and provided for in the International Rules of Zoological Nomen-
clature. These are the subgenus, the species, and the subspecies. The first
of these, the subgenus, is not regarded as very important by most syste-
matists. Furthermore, it is best discussed in connection with the genus.
Hence I shall give it no further mention here.

This leaves the species and the subspecies. I also wish to include a
category known as the superspecies, although it does not yet have the
usage it deserves (Amadon 1966b).

The species is the only taxonomic category that can be defined in
precise restrictive terms, rather than in general relative ones. The defini-
tion reads about as follows: ‘‘ A species is a freely interbreeding popu-
lation whose members do not interbreed with those of other populations”.
In other words, it is an intrinsically reproductively isolated population.
The few individuals of the Whooping Crane and the several hundred
orang-utans are examples of species. They don’t interbreed with other
cranes or apes, and if they did, would probably produce no offspring, or
only sterile hybrids.

The so-called higher categories, genus and above, are, on the other
hand, subjective and must be defined in relative terms. It is a fact that
there is a group of trees known as oaks, whose relationship is evident
and which may conveniently be grouped in a genus Quercus. Hence we

Z JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

may define the genus as a group of related species. But some species,
e.g., the ghinko tree, seem to have no close living relatives. We have to
leave this species in a genus of its own, a monotypic genus, and even in a
monotypic family and perhaps order. There are many such monotypic
genera; scores or even hundreds are recognized among birds alone, and
there are only 9000+ species of birds. Furthermore, there is great diff-
erence of opinion as to how closely a group of species must be related
if they are to be included in the same genus. Linnaeus used more inclusive
genera than is customary today. On the other hand, some “‘ genus split-
ters’ approach the point of having a genus for every species, which des-
troys the value of this category.

This subjective quality applies to all higher categories. There is as
much or more difference of opinion as regards the limits of families,
orders, and classes.

To return to the species, in most cases there is no difficulty about
recognizing one, at least as long as we stay in one place and consider
only the present time. To be sure, we do find some puzzlers. This is some-
times due to the fact that two perfectly good species are difficult to tell
apart by comparing them. Species thus similar are infrequent among
birds, though they occur, but are commoner in insects. A classic case is
Drosophila pseudoobscura and D. persimilis, two inter-sterile species, so
similar they can be separated morphologically only by slight statistical
differences in measurements. Such extremely similar sympatric species are
known as “ sibling species.” This is not a very good name because it
implies that, like human siblings, they are more closely related to each
ather than they are to other species. This is not necessarily the case. Two
sibling species may be less closely related genetically, or phylogenetically,
than are ones superficially less alike. Conversely, genetic differences
much below the species level may be as visible as day and night, for
example, colour phases or other morphs.

We encounter other difficulties in discriminating between species.
They stem from the fact, first convincingly demonstrated by Darwin, that
species are not fixed, immutable creations, but rather dynamic, evolving
populations that inevitably change with time and which often split into
two or more daughter species in somewhat the same way that an amoeba
divides into two. Even when a species does not subdivide, it changes with
the passage of millennia. If we could follow any species back far enough
in time, eventually the gap between ancestor and descendant would be
greater than that existing within the limits of any species today. Just how
long ‘“‘ back far enough”? may be varies tremendously. Many species
have evolved, we believe, in less than one million years, yet, judging from
fossils, some types have changed little in tens or hundreds of millions of

TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES 3

years. Just where to draw the species lines in fossil genealogies is an
arbitrary decision. In most instances the geological record is so inter-
rupted and fragmentary that the question is an academic one; in fact,
the paleontologist often must work with genera more than with species.
It is hardly necessary to add that many species became extinct, leaving no
close relatives.

Taxonomy seems to be somewhat like theoretical physics—there are
a few constants and many relatives. We may mention one other constant.
If we could reconstruct every living individual organism all the way back
to the primordial ooze, we would have a complete history of life and its
evolution on earth. But this will never be done. G. G. Simpson (1953:
109) estimates that there were 15,000,000 generations in the ancestry of
the horse back to the Eocene “‘ dawn-horse,”’ and 500,000 or 1,000,000
individuals per generation might be a modest estimate. It is worthwhile
bearing in mind, however, that phyletic taxonomy does represent the
attempt to trace an evolutionary genealogy that has been enacted down
to the last species, subspecies, and individual.

Viewed in this chronological or geological way, the species as a
category may seem to disappear—it merges imperceptibly with what went
before. Perhaps, however, this is to look at matters the wrong way. A
species, as we have seen, is a population of interbreeding living organisms.
From this point of view there are at any moment of time a certain num-
ber of species. But of Tyrannosaurus rex or the extinct Passenger Pigeon
we should assert not that they are but that they were species. We may
then conclude that of the species occurring 100 years ago or 100,000
years ago, such and such were ancestors of (or identical with) such and
such species of the present moment. Further, we need not go.

The taxonomist who works with present-day forms must often infer
species status from morphology. The paleontologist must always do so,
and usually from very fragmentary material. So fragmentary, in fact, that
he frequently cannot be sure whether he has before him remains of a
single species or of several allied ones. But since the paleontologist
presents the only direct evidence that we have of the course of evolution
during 99.99 per cent of its duration, he is heard with respect, however
scanty his evidence. And if he is obliged often to speak in terms of genera
rather than species, we may be sure that it was individual organisms
grouped into species that enacted the history he relates to us.

Species not only change in time, they may subdivide into one or
more daughter species. This process, which usually involves space as well
as time, is responsible for the existing proliferation of species, and is
best studied in contemporary forms. As noted above, we have little
difficulty with most species so long as we restrict ourselves to one locality

4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

here and now. If we begin to trace species spatially, we sometimes run
into problems. The common Song Sparrow is a rather different looking
bird by the time we reach the coast of Alaska. The population on the
Aleutians is made up of birds perhaps three times the weight of the eastern
Song Sparrows, and of a duskier hue of plumage. Are they the same species?
In general, the answer is “‘yes” if a more or less continuous series of inter-
mediate interbreeding populations exist, as they do in this case. Gene
interchange can then occur, and a favourable mutation arising in one
area can spread throughout the range of the species. In a few cases it has
been shown in the laboratory that the geographical extremes in such
complexes are genetically incompatible. This is one criterion of the
species, but if gene interchange throughout a continuous intervening
population is possible, it is customary, though in some respects arbitrary,
to say that only one species is involved. So long as such genetic communi-
cation exists it is even possible that the extremes might again become
genetically compatible. If the range were cut in the middle, as so often
happens because of geological or climatological changes, the two terminal
populations would soon, no doubt, become completely self-contained
species incapable of exchanging genes with any others.

With such rare exceptions, however, if individuals of two populations
fail to produce hybrids or produce only sterile ones, we may be sure that
they belong to different species. The horse and the donkey are species;
they will mate but a sterile mule is the result. In nature, we may be sure,
there would be strong selection for horses that prefer horses and donkeys
that prefer donkeys! Those that could not tell kith and kin would leave no
fertile offspring and, further, would produce strong, healthy, long-lived
mules to compete with their parents for food.

But though sterility (almost) always proves specific status, the
reverse is not true. Many perfectly good species are interfertile. The
answer to this conundrum is that if two populations do not interbreed
under normal conditions in nature, they are separate species. They have
reached the level of distinctness that insures that each will go its own
separate evolutionary way from that time forth, forever, or until ex-
tinction. One oft-mentioned case is that of the Mallard and Pintail Duck.
They are species because they occur together in hundreds of thousands
over the entire northern hemisphere and hybrids are almost unknown in—
nature. But if we place a mixed pair of these ducks in a zoo, they will
mate, produce young, and the young are more or less fertile. In the wild’
these two species, and many others like them, are kept apart by certain
isolating mechanisms peculiar to each, in this case certain calls and court-
ship patterns. In the absence of a mate of the same species in captivity
these isolating mechanisms sometimes break down. The isolating mech-
anisms themselves in many cases, however, reflect selection resulting

TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES 5

from partial (or complete) sterility of the sort suggested above for the
horse and mule.

The kinds of isolating mechanisms that evolve are attuned to the
sensory equipment of the species concerned. A moth, for example, may
recognize its mate by odor; a mosquito by a precise response to the hum
produced by the wings, not merely of its own species, but of the opposite
sex of its species. In other cases, isolating mechanisms may be at least
in part more mechanical, one species of salmon spawning in the spring,
another in the fall, and so forth. In plants isolating mechanisms must all
be of this nature rather than behavioral. Either plants are cross-sterile
or they flower at different seasons; or the pollination is so achieved that
there is little or no chance for cross-pollination between related species.

It is easy to see how isolating mechanisms can be improved by
selection between interacting species, as suggested above for the donkey
and the horse. But it is very difficult to see how isolated populations can
arise within a freely interbreeding population, for their incipient dif-
ferences will be swamped out. One concludes that species in sexually
reproducing organisms must usually evolve in physical isolation. I men-
tioned the orang-utan above as an unquestionable example of a species.
In one sense it is a poor example, for there are two completely isolated
populations; one on Borneo, the other on Sumatra. These populations
have been kept apart for as long as these two islands have been apart
from each other and from the mainland, where the orang once occurred
also, as known from sub-fossil remains.

Although the orangs of Borneo and Sumatra are very similar, we
may be sure that if they could be bred in captivity as readily and rapidly
as fruit flies, it would be possible todemonstrate various genetic differ-
ences between the two populations. We may go further and say that if
these two populations are isolated long enough, they will become speci-
fically and eventually generically distinct.

The rate at which such isolated populations differentiate reflects the
selective milieu, and this in turn the constancy or inconstancy of the
environment: both the physical and the biotic environment. So far as we
can tell from fossil remains, some prolific insects have remained almost
the same for millions of years. On the other hand, the proboscideans—the
elephants and their allies—evolved rapidly, notwithstanding their long
generations and low birth rates.

A species may be broken up into isolated populations in two ways:
(1) either the physical environment “* moves,”’ as in the case of the orang-
utan, because of changes in sea-level, spread of deserts, etc., (2) or in-
dividuals of the species itself move; they straggle, fly, swim, walk, or

6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

are blown to isolated habitats. Such events may be rare, but there is an
eternity of time.

Once isolated, the rate at which a population diverges depends on
many factors. Perhaps most important, as noted above, is the extent to
which the new environment is unlike the old, just so long as it is not so
strange that the species cannot live there at all. Size of population, genetic
constitution of the first colonists, especially when few in number, and
other factors also play a part.

As a result of this process of geographical speciation, many isolated
populations that appear to have formerly belonged to the same species
are now so distinct as to be, beyond much doubt, species. Such assem-
blages of once conspecific allopatric species were called superspecies by
Mayr and by Rensch, and the species that comprise them may be called
allospecies. The concept is a very useful one in evolutionary and bio-
geographical studies. I have suggested (Amadon 19665) the use of brackets
to designate such superspecies in nomenclature.

The frequent occurrence in the same area, that is, sympatrically, of
related species shows that even if, as we believe, species evolve as geo-
graphical isolates, they later do in hundreds of cases acquire overlapping
ranges. So far as the mechanics of this are concerned, it is the reverse of
the original isolating process. Either the environment changes, for
example, Sumatra and Borneo again become joined, or the creatures
themselves cross distributional barriers. Once two closely related former
isolates do come together, two things are necessary if they are to survive
and become sympatric species:

1. They must, while separated, have acquired isolating mechanisms
which keep them from interbreeding, at least to an extent that will im-
mediately swamp out their differences.

2. They must have acquired sufficiently different life requirements
to enable them to live together. As Gause argued and demonstrated, two
species with identical requirements cannot coexist. This is true in practice
even though one might quibble about it philosophically. Actually two
species will never be identical in requirements and in reproductive po-
tential (as would, for example, two colour phases of a single species).
Nevertheless, if two species are too similar in their requirements, one will
exclude or eliminate the other.

An isolated population cannot, of course, acquire isolating mecha-
nisms or ecological requirements that are directly adapted to enable
it to coexist later with species with which it is not then in contact. Hence
speciation occurs in vacuo and is, to that extent, an “‘ accidental ’”’ pro-

TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES 7

cess; but, as we Have seen, such accidents are inevitable in populations
isolated for a sufficient time.

When two forms do come together for the first time, they may still
compete to an extent that threatens their survival or interbreed to an
extent that weakens their genetic integrity. Strong selection will then be
set up, tending to increase the gap in their requirements and to make
their isolating mechanisms more effective. To emphasize the radically
different conditions that exist before and after two isolated populations
become sympatric, one might offer the following tabulation:

I. Allopatric (Isolated) Populations: Chance Evolution of
A. Potential Isolating Mechanisms

B. Potential Ecological Distinctions

II. Sympatric (Overlapping) Species: Selective Perfection of
A. Operative Isolating Mechanisms (Reinforcement)

B. Operative Ecological Distinctions (Morphological diver-

66

gence or “‘ character displacement ’’)

One may add the following points:

1. Some populations will have been isolated so long that even when
the resultant species first come together, they will be completely isolated
reproductively and so distinct ecologically as not to compete seriously.

2. While we are here concerned with the type of adaptive differ-
entiation that enables closely allied species to become sympatric, it must
be remembered that distantly allied forms may also compete, e.g., rabbits
and antelopes.

3. The opposite side of the coin “isolating mechanisms’”’ is “‘species
recognition mechanisms.’’ Even in a species living among distantly related
ones, there will be very precise adaptations to insure reproduction, which
in animals involves recognition of other individuals of the same species
by one sensory mechanism or another.

These questions of how isolated populations acquire differences and
how they interact following overlap of range are at the very root not only
of a speciation but also of efforts to understand the dynamics of the
ecological community. Such problems must be studied in the field, though
with assistance from the cages of the population geneticist.

The Subspecies question—About the turn of the century it began to
be evident to students of the better known groups of animals that hundreds
of taxa which were described as species have not really achieved that
status. For many of them it was shown that where their ranges meet, free

8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

interbreeding and intergradation take place. Such form$ are not reproduc-
tively isolated, and even with the essentially morphological definition of the
species then in vogue, it was obvious to biologically oriented systematists
that they could not be species. In other cases, taxa not in contact were
nevertheless so similar that it was all but certain that they are not species,
even though many of them had been described as such in the early enthu-
siasm of naming and classifying. For example, the lions inhabiting India
have, in isolation, become a little different from those of Africa. But are
they a different species ? Surely most would agree in saying “‘no.”’

A solution to this dilemma that embodied both practical and theore-
tical advantages was to formalize the category known as the subspecies.
Taxa which have acquired recognizable characters, but which nevertheless
can be demonstrated or are assumed to be below specific status are called
subspecies, and names are applied to them under provisions introduced
into the International Code of Nomenclature. For example, the Indian
lion might first have been described as a species Felis persica, then later
regarded as a subspecies of the African lion, Felis leo, and thereafter called
Felis leo persica.

In subsequent years this concept of polytypic species as comprised
of subspecies gained wide acceptance, and is now almost universally used
in the better known groups, such as birds and mammals. In others,
such as insects, knowledge is just reaching the point where this concept
can be usefully applied. This polytypic species concept represented an
immense step forward. For example, one highly variable South Pacific
bird, Pachycephala pectoralis, which occurs on many islands, is now
treated as having eighty-odd subspecies. Only after we had associated all
of them in a single species, could we study this assemblage properly,
especially in relation to other true, genetically isolated, species of the same
genus.

The polytypic species concept also had a very salutary influence on
the genus concept. There is far less excuse for undue genus-splitting after
we have reduced our taxa, so far as possible, to bona fide units fitting
a “‘biological”’ species concept. Furthermore, the polytypic species concept,
as Mayr expounded in his 1942 book SYSTEMATICS AND THE ORIGIN OF
SPECIES, presented us with a variety of demonstrations that speciation
in sexually reproducing organisms ordinarily if not invariably takes
place as a result of spatial (—geographical) isolation of subpopulations
of a former species.

It is often true in science that concepts of great value are later modified
or even discarded. At the present time there is considerable criticism of
the subspecies concept. With a practical aspect of this criticism one must
express a certain amount of sympathy. The purely nomenclatorial aspect

TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES 9

of classification have never achieved the acceptance and stability once
hoped for. This is partly because nomenclature to some extent “got off
on the wrong foot,” particularly as regards the so-called Law of Priority.
We are certainly all willing and indeed eager to give due credit to pioneers
in our science. But I think the day is past when we should change a well
known name bestowed on a species or subspecies by John Doe in 1810,
merely because someone shows that Fred Doe described the same species
under a different name a few days earlier. I have suggested (1966a), as
have others before me, that all names of valid species and even subspecies
should be determined by committees of specialists and then listed as
Nomina Conservanda, thenceforth to be exempt from the vagaries of
purely nomenclatorial change. Of course, there would still be occasional
changes, e.g., if somone proves that the Luna Moth is only a morph of
the Cecropia Moth, we would lose one species. Further, there is no
reason why subspecies names should continue to have nomenclatorial
equality with species names. That they should not was first proposed by
I. Moore (1954) and later by me (op. cit.). By such a step a vast amount
of name changing could at once be eliminated.

Why there is so much opposition to such measures is puzzling.
I wonder whether those in opposition to the Fifty Year Rule which
implements Nomina Conservanda have really considered the fact that
other biologists may in desperation adopt really retrogressive alternatives,
e.g., by using common or vernacular names for species, as some plant
ecologists and amateur or semi-amateur ornithologists are already
doing.

There are, unfortunately, scientific as well as practical aspects to
the problem of achieving stability in the names of genera, species, and
subspecies. Genera, which I have discussed elsewhere (op. cit.) are not
within the scope of this discussion. As regards species and subspecies,
it is, in literally hundreds and thousands of cases, impossible to know
whether a particular taxon is a species or a subspecies. The Indian lion
may, after all, be a species. Even if we find that it interbreeds with the
African lion in a zoo, this does not prove that the two taxa are conspecific.
We need to know if there are isolating mechanisms in nature and that we
shall never know in this or thousands of other cases involving more or less
completely isolated taxa. Even dumping out a few African lions in the
range of the Indian one would not do, it would be an artificial situation,
in some ways analogous to that in a zoo. The only effective answer
would be a change in climate and a halting of human abuse of the land
in the Middle East that would enable the two populations to meet again
naturally. Then we could see what happens. Fortunately there are easier
cases to study.

10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

Hence itis necessary to be arbitrary. It would not do to treat all com-
pletely isolated taxa as species. This was tried long ago and failed. Even
with forms whose ranges do meet, there is every stage of interaction from
smooth clines in one character (e.g., Bald Eagles gradually get a little
larger as one goes north from the southern United States to Alaska) to
ones that hybridize only rarely and are almost surely past the point of
no return on the path to becoming separate species.

Also, we now realize that almost all isolated or semi-isolated popula-
tions are different. Usually if we examine them carefully enough, we can
find at least slight average morphological distinctions; or if not, in those
amenable to laboratory analysis one can demonstrate genetic and cyto-
logical differences (see, e.g., Dobzhansky’s work on various western
U.S. populations of Drosophila).

Surely one cannot name every such slight population as a subspecies;
attempts to do just that have led to a reaction and to suggestions that the
entire subspecies concept in the formal sense of naming them be aban-
doned. Some have suggested that variation should simply be described in
geographical terms without employing subspecific names. However, in a
species with great variation, especially on many islands, to describe the
variation each time is out of the question; merely to list the subspecies
and their ranges does call attention to its extent. Further, under an
informal system we lose the international currency represented by Lati-
nized scientific names.

I am not enough of a prophet to know the ultimate fate of subspecies
and their terminology. I suspect, however, that the advantages outweigh
the disadvantages, but that only well differentiated populations will be
admitted, that is, ones so distinct that they must be recognized in one
way or another—either as races or as species. As Selander & Giller
(1963 : 234) have stated, to list such forms as subspecies (or species)
represents a considered taxonomic opinion as to their rank, and as such
is useful. It may or may not in the long run prove useful to indicate in
some other manner less well differentiated populations, as done by
Vaurie (1959, 1965), for example, by the use of symbols.

So long, however, as we continue to name geographical isolates of
very uneven degrees of distinctness, it is of some value to indicate ones
that seem to be approaching specific status. One way of doing this is by
the use of parentheses. For example, Circus (cyaneus) hudsonius would
mean that we think the form hudsonius (which happens to be the American
Marsh Hawk) to be a race of cyaneus (a related Eurasian hawk), but wish
to indicate that the two seem to be approaching the specific level of
distinctness.

TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES : 11

When a form is judged to be a species, though still capable of some
hybridization, it may be called a “‘semispecies”’; the latter is one kind of
allospecies or unit of a superspecies. Short (1969) has clarified the signi-
ficance and taxonomic treatment of the various kinds and degrees of
hybridization.

Quantitative Methods—From the above it is evident that species are
biological and (in animals) behavioral entities—self-contained, interbreed-
ing populations that do not cross significantly with other populations
(species). Furthermore, that there is little correlation between attainment
of species status and degree of morphological distinctness. Some perfectly
good species are virtually identical morphologically; other very distinct
populations are not species. One may also call attention tc the tremendous
morphological differences that are often found between different sex and
age stages of the same species, e.g., the larva and the imago of a butterfly.

It follows that there is no such thing as a “species character” in any
general sense of the term. In this respect species are like the abstractions
we know as “‘higher categories.’ After we have concluded that a popula-
tion is a species, we can then tell how it differs from other species, but
with no assurance that similar characters will define other species, though
ofcourse related species will be to varying degrees comparable.

These properties of the “‘biological species’? as Mayr called it are
worth emphasizing, even though in practice the taxonomist often must
work with morphological characters. He often knows nothing about the
reproductive potential of the organisms he is studying except what can
be inferred but concludes that if, after eliminating characters seemingly
associated with sex, age, season, etc., a series of specimens appear to be
like one another and unlike others, they probably comprise a species
(or, in some cases, subspecies). The “‘art’’ of the taxonomist consists in
his skill in using what he has learned about some species to help evaluate
less well known or new species.

To do this he uses, so far as possible, quantitative methods. As with
so many other fields of science, decisions are a matter of probability.
Probability involves statistics. One of the new aids of the statistician is
the computer. Some taxonomists, enamored of this new tool, have con-
cluded that they are ushering in a new era of “‘numerical taxonomy.”

But the only species we can be sure of are living species that we can
demonstrate to be self-contained genetic entities. From this point on
everything is inference. The computer can help us make inferences, but
no more than that. We have to learn by some other means that cater-
pillars are young moths, that a lioness is a female lion, or that fish are
ancestors of men. The taxonomist at all levels, but especially the species

12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

level, must evaluate the significance of similarities and differences. Key
features do exist, and perhaps only one or two points in a series of
behaviour patterns will be critical in determining whether or not two taxa
interbreed. Others, even some aspects of reproductive behaviour, may
be less important.

The Species in relation to the total Biological Spectrum—Great and
spectacular advances have been made in biolagy in the past ten or fifteen
years. The genetic code has been cracked ; the nature and function of DNA
and RNA discovered. Molecular biology is quite understandably the
order of the day, and it does not much matter whether the molecules come
from a horse or a horse chestnut, for one triumph of molecular biology
is the demonstration that the genetic code is pretty much the same in all
living things.

This does not mean, as some would seem to conclude, that activity
should slow down or halt in all other branches of biology. The complexity
of the protein molecule is so great as to permit endless variation and
evolution. Not only do species differ but even individuals, as made familiar
by the problems involved in tissue and organ transplants, blood trans-
fusions, and so forth.

The structure, behaviour, and ecology of the hundreds of thousands
of species now living represent the end products of millions of years of
interaction and adaptation. The molecular biologist can tell us what
makes this possible, but he could never predict from his laboratory that
the biochemical processes he has discovered would, after a couple of
billion years, produce a man, a redwood tree, or a seventeen-year cicada.

** At the species level, more than any other, the general systematist
need not leave the final decision to either numerical (computer) taxo-.
nomists or molecular biologists. Specialists in these fields may be able
to corroborate but never to either refute or to precisely predict popula-
tion interactions as observed in nature’. (L. L. Short).

A comparison with the physical sciences is possibly worthwhile.
Today perhaps the most active branch of research is nuclear physics and
particularly investigation of the kinds and properties of ultimate particles.
States from coast to coast vie for the privilege of having a new half billion
dollar particle accelerator. But could a nuclear physicist reared in isolation
and neither shown nor told about the “‘starry firmament’ predict the
actual universe as known to the astronomer and cosmologist, even in
roughest outline, from his knowledge of nuclear physics ? Assuredly not.
It is doubtful, in fact, if he could predict that particles united in a certain.
way will produce a gas known as oxygen, in another way as hydrogen;

TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES 13

and that when combined in a certain manner, these two gases will form a
liquid that is good to drink !

I think we may conclude that those concerned with the evolution,
activities, and significance of species, including Homo sapiens, need have
no inferiority complex. They may turn to the molecular biologist to learn
what makes their subjects tick, and hope that he will turn to them to learn
what wonders DNA has wrought after two and a half billion years of

natural selection in a changing world.

I am indebted to Dr. Lester L. Short for numerous, valuable sugges-

tions.

This paper is based on a lecture given at the Summer Institute in
Systematics at the Smithsonian Institution, 1967.

REFERENCES

AMADON, DEAN (1966a.) : Another
suggestion for stabilizing nomenclature.
Syst. Zool. 15 : 54-58.

(1966b.) : The superspecies
concept. Syst. Zool. 15 : 245-249.

(1968) : Further remarks
on the superspecies concept. Syst. Zool.
17 : 345-346.

Mayr, Ernst (1942) : Systematics and
the origin of species. New York, Columbia
Univ. Press.

(1963) : Animal species and
evolution. Cambridge, Mass., Belknap
Press (Harvard Univ.).

Moore, IAN M. (1954); Nomenclatorial
treatment of specific and infraspecific
categories. Syst. Zool. 3 : 90-91.

SELANDER, ROBERT K., & DONALD
R. GILLER (1963) Species limits in the
woodpecker genus Centurus (Aves). Bull.
Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 124 : 213-274.

SHORT, LESTER L. (1969) : Taxonomic
aspects of avian hybridization. Auk 86:
84-105.

SIMPSON, GEORGE G. (1951) : Horses.
New York, Oxford Univ. Press.

VAURIE CHARLES (1959) : Birds of the
Palearctic fauna. London, Witherby,
2 vols. 1959, 1965.

Breeding Biology of the Himalayan
Rubythroat, Lrithacus pectoralts
(Gould) in the Tien Shan’

BY
E. I. GAVRILOV AND A. F. KOvVSHAR
Institute of Zoology, Alma-Ata, U.S.S.R.
(Communicated by Dr. Sélim Ali)
(With two plates)

The Himalayan Rubythroat [Erithacus pectoralis (Gould)] is a
characteristic species of the subalpine belt of the Tien Shan. Its biology
has not been satisfactorily studied hitherto. The section on the Rubythroat
ecology in BIRDS OF THE SOVIET UNION (Gladkov 1954) contains the laconic
phrase ‘‘ Information is wanting ’’ and the first nests were found only in
1957 (Vinokurov 1961). Fragmentary data on the Himalayan Rubythroat
biology can be found in some faunistic works (Yanushevich et al. 1960;
Leonovich 1962; Kovshar 1964, 1966). For this reason we consider it
useful to publish some information on the mode of life of this bird based
on observations made in Tien Shan (Zailyisky, Talassky and Kungay
Alatau ranges), and available published data.

The Himalayan Rubythroat is widespread in the Tien Shan, being
absent only in the western ranges of the Tien Shan—in Pskem and Ugam
ranges (Korelov 1956a). It is scarce in Talassky Alatau where it occurs
very sporadically, though in individual localities it is quite common :
five nests being found and nests of two or three pairs could not be located
in an area of 20 hectares in the upper course of the Kshi Aksu River.
Rubythroat may occur in Chatkal range (Yanushevich et al. 1960). In
Kirgizsky Alatau it is rare, seen approximately once in 10 days (Kuznetsov
1962a). It is uncommon in Sonkul, Moldotoo, Atbushi, Narym, Sary

1 These observations refer in particular to the subspecies bailloni (Severtzov) of
Russian and Chinese Turkestan, and northern Afghanistan. The race bailloni differs
from our nominate West-Himalayan pectoralis (Gould) clinally only in colour
saturation—the male averaging paler and less slaty above, the female more olive, less
brown. But the species is migratory and the winter quarters of bailloni imperfectly
known; it may well enter Indian limits. The breeding biology of the Rubythroat as
a species is also imperfectly known, and this paper makes a useful contribution
to the subject.—SA.

2 See also Baker, E.C.S., 1933. NIDIFICATION OF BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE,
2 :81-2. Eds.

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE HIMALAYAN RUBYTHROAT 15

Dzhaz, Terskay and Kungay Alatoo ranges, however, in individual
regions there are quite a few. In the Burgan-Su ravine (Narym range)
for example seven males were seen during one day in end June, 1954
(Yanushevich et al. 1960), and in the ravines of the Chon-kysyl-Su
(Terskay Alatoo) at least five or six birds (mainly males) during a day
trip (Stepanyan 1959). In Zailyisky Alatau, the Himalayan Rubythroat
is not more numerous than one to two pairs per kilometre. In individual
regions it is common and in some cases it can even be considered numerous
taking into account the general scarcity of birds in the mountains. In the
ravine of the Bolshaya Almatinka River, for instance, four pairs of the
Rubythroat were found living in an area of about 10 hectares in 1967;
this apparently being the maximum density in these regions. The species
is not numerous in the upper course of the Tekes River (Vinokurov 1961)
and very rare in Ketmen range : during two months only one singing
male was seen in this locality (Korelov 1956b). It has been found in a
number of places in Dzungarsky Alatau : on the southern slopes of the
central part of the Altyn-Emel range and in the upper part of the Usek
basin where it is common; also in the upper part of the Kok-Su and
Bolshoi Baskan basins and in the northern part of the Myn-Chukur
range. The Bolshoi Baskan basin is the most northern nesting place
of this species hitherto known (Koreyev & Zarudny 1906; Kuzmina,
in press). Thus the Himalayan Rubythroat is found in the western half
of Tien Shan everywhere; lack of information on its nesting in individual
ranges can be explained by the fact that the regions have not been explored
properly.

In Tien Shan the Rubythroat lives mainly in thickets of Juniper-elfin-
In Talassky Alatau range it lives at altitudes of 2500-2700 m. in the
luxuriant thickets of creeping juniper with admixture of honeysuckle
shrubs on comparatively gentle slopes covered with meadow herbage,
most frequently in the upper courses of rivers. In Kirgizsky Alatau
individual pairs nest even in mixed spruce forest in thick shrubs of bar-
berry, dog rose, honeysuckle and juniper, at an altitude of 2100 m. and
higher (Kuznetsov 1962b). In other ranges of Kirghizia it nests at altstudes
of 3000-3500 m. in intermittent thick brushwood of creeping juniper and
glades of subalpine meadows, leafy shrubs and individual spruce trees
(Stepanyan 1959; Yanushevich ef al. 1960). In Zailyisky Alatau, on the
northern slopes of the range, the Rubythroat nests at altitudes of 2500-
3000 m., sometimes even up to 3100 m. It lives here chiefly on the inter-
mittent juniper stands and subalpine meadows or steppe-like grass-
covered plots. Near the lower boundary of the nesting range (2500-2700 m.)
it affects juniper and spruce open woodland where individual spruce
groups alternate with luxuriant juniper thickets. In the central Tien Shan
the species chiefly inhabits the thickets of creeping juniper and caragana,

16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

but in valleys having rock outcrops and covered with brushwood the
birds can be found as low as the upper! boundary of the spruce forest;
nests have been found here at altitudes of 2900-3300 m. (Vinokurov
1961). In Dzungarsky Alatau range the birds live in the thickets of creeping
juniper at altitudes of 1800-2400 m. (Koreyev & Zarudny 1906).

Thus in the Tien Shan the Himalayan Rubythroat lives chiefly in
the thickets of high-mountain brushwoods, mainly of juniper, and is
found only in small numbers in the upper part of the forest belt. It never
nests beyond the upper boundary of the juniper stand. Its altitude range
is 1800-3500 m., but in each discrete locality its vertical distribution
is not wider than 500 m. The wide vertical range in the Tien Shan in
general (1700 m.) is conditioned by climatic and floristic peculiarities of
the individual mountain ranges and depends mainly on their geographic
position and their exposure relative to the four cardinal points. To the
south in the Pamiro-Alai the Rubythroat also lives above the upper
boundary of the juniper-elfin wood, on luxuriant shrubless alpine meadows
and is not found in the forest belt (Ivanov 1940; Leonovich 1962; Popov
1959).

The Himalayan Rubythroat is a migratory bird. It appears in the
nesting sites after the snow has already melted on a substantial part of
the slopes. It ascends the mountains and is then very rarely met with in
the submontane regions and the plains. Only one occurrence of this
kind is known: a male found in the young strip of forest near the Chokpar
village of the Dzambul region on May 10, 1960. The birds do not con-
centrate during migration and are likely to fly by night.

Information on spring migration of the Himalayan Rubythroat is
lacking because of the bird’s unobtrusive behaviour during this period.

In the Kirgizsky Alatau range the species appears in late April or
early May (Kuznetsov 1962b). The first birds were observed in the Zail-
yisky Alatau on May 17, 1964, and on May 6, 1965. No further infor-
mation is available on the time of arrival of the Rubythroat on its breeding
grounds.

Immediately on arrival the males begin singing, choosing for this
the tops of juniper shrubs, the apices of small and big fir-trees, more
rarely stones or roofs of buildings; sometimes the male sings on the
wing. The song is loud and clear and cannot be drowned even by the
sound of mountain streams. When singing he drops his wings slightly,
raises (sometimes almost vertically) and spreads his tail or keeps it folded.
The bird turns his head in different directions resulting in the observer

1 There must be a misprint in the work cited; for ‘‘ the lower boundary of the

spruce forest ” read “‘ the upper boundary...”’’. One can hardly believe that Hima-
layan Rubythroat populate :the whole spruce forest belt.

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE HIMALAYAN RUBYTHROAT 17

hearing sounds of varying intensities. The biological significance of the
song lies not only in informing the female that the male is ready to breed,
but in “marking” individual territory as well. Usually the male chooses
some favourite situation at which he appears from time to time and
sings, proclaiming his ownership of the territory. One of the males whose
female was already laying eggs was observed singing during two hours
(from 10 to 12 a.m.) from 19 points, and moving irregularly over this
territory (an area of about one hectare). Most often he was singing from
one point at a distance of 50-60 m. from the nest. If any other male
entered the occupied site, the owner drove away the rival immediately.
One day when we were inspecting a nest containing nestlings, the male
drove off at once a neighbouring male that had come to investigate the
anxious cries of the owners though the birds themselves were greatly
excited by our intrusion.

Duration of singing from one point and its intensity vary, depending
apparently on a number of factors. At the beginning of the nesting cycle
(before hatching the young), in good weather, the males sing for as long
as 10 minutes from one place, and at short intervals. When feeding the
young, the males sing more seldom and the duration of the songs gets
shorter (one to three minutes). During rain or snowfall the singing ceases
but is resumed when the precipitation stops. Sometimes they sing when
it is drizzling. The duration of the song is shorter in the middle of the
day. The Rubythroat sings from early in the morning till dark ; on June 29,
1967, the last song was heard at 21.05 hours in the twilight. No singing
was heard at night. The calendar duration of the singing period is also
long : in the Zailyisky Alatau the latest singing was heard on July 12,
1965, and on July 13, 1967 (apparently it was not the last song), and in
the Talassky Alatau on August 4, 1960. This means that the vocal activity
of the males continues for 2.5-3 months.

The Himalayan Rubythroat begins nesting soon after arrival on its
breeding grounds. The participation of the sexes in nest-building is not
clear; apparently the nest is built by the female alone since we never saw
males fetching building material in their bills though we often saw them
during this period.

The nests are located on the ground in small hollows. Of the 28 nests
known at present in the Tien Shan, none was placed on a juniper shrub.
The Himalayan Rubythroat is undoubtedly a ground-nesting species,
therefore we consider the information of I. A. Abdusalyamov (1964) of
the bird nesting on shrub-branches to be erroneous’.

1 Not only the location but the shape of the nest as well as the description of
eggs have nothing in common with the nest and eggs of the species in question.
One can clearly see from the photo there given that the nest belongs not to Eritha
cus pectoralis but rather to some warbler (Sylvia sp. ?). t

18 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

More frequently the nests are located on the steppe-like slopes
near juniper-elfin wood or on small subalpine grass plots in thin juniper
stands. They are placed under the cover of tussocks of Festuca sulcata,
Carex, Cobresia or other plants, more rarely under the shelter of a stone.
Sometimes the Rubythroat nests under thin juniper shrubs growing
near thick juniper stands. The nests are placed both in the middle of a
juniper shrub and under its outlying branches. We never found nests in
large tracts of juniper stands. In the Talassky Alatau one nest was found
inside a “‘ hut ’’ made of rough last years stalks of Polygonum hissaricum,
and another was located on flat (practically horizontal) ground in high,
thick, Agropyrum sp.; it was fixed to vertical stalks of the grass. Out of
22 nests found in the Talassky, Zailyisky and Kungay Alatau and along
the upper course of the Tekes River, six nests were located under juniper
shrubs; one under a honeysuckle shrub; three under stones; five under
tussocks of Festuca sp.; four under tussocks of Carex, Cobresia, Poa
and Geranium; three under the cover of other grasses. The nests located
under the juniper shrubs cannot be seen, and the nests built under the
cover of grass are screened by hanging leaves and are not visible. Only
one nest (in the Talassky Alatau) could be seen well from above by a
horseman riding by at a distance of some metres.

The nests are of two types. The more typical is the covered ball-like
nest with the entrance on one side, very similar to a Phylloscopus nest.
The other type is a normal cup-like nest open at the top. There are many
variants intermediate between these two types: some nests have thin
covers, covers of others are only half-built; sometimes the back part of
the wall facing the slope is somewhat higher than others. Usually the
open nests are built in juniper shrubs and under stones, i.e. when an
effective roof is available, and the covered nests are built on the terrace
slopes under the shelter of grass. There are many exceptions and data
are still meagre to establish any correlation between the type of nest
and the factors determining it. It is possible that the height above sea-
level, the exposure of the slope and the time of building (beginning or
middle of the summer) play a definite part in this respect.

The nest is built completely of last year’s plants : for the outside
part of nest rather rough stalks and leaves are used, sometimes with
admixture of moss; the inner part is composed of finer and thinner
material. The transition from the outer layer to the inner one is gradual
and it is not always possible to separate them. A. A. Ivashchenko, who
at our request identified the building materials of seven nests, reported
that the birds had used 25 species of plants, the majority of the plants
were used as admixtures, Gramineae being the most numerous.

The nest is rather massive and loosely built. It is 110-190 mm. in
diameter (average of 9 nests 140 mm.), usually somewhat flattened on

J. BomBAy NAT. Hist. Soc. 67 (1)

Gavrilov: Himalayan Rubythroat PLATE I

Nesting site of the Himalayan Rubythroat

Above: Creeping Juniper, 2500 m. Talassky Alatau; Below: Upper
boundary of Fir wood with Juniper bushes, 2700 m. Kungay Alatau.

(Photos: A. Kovshar)

J. BomBAy NAT. Hist. Soc. 67 (1)

Gavrilov: Himalayan Rubythroat PLATE II

4

(1) Nest on steppe slope; (2) Nest with clutch under Juniper Bush;
(3) Male, and (4) Female with food for nestlings.

(Photos: E. Gavriloy)

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE HIMALAYAN RUBYTHROAT 19

both sides and with an oval cross-section; it is 66-140 mm. high (average
of 7 nests 113 mm.); diameter of nest-cup 55-90 mm. (average of 11 nests
72 mm.); depth 37-59 mm. (average of 7 nests 48 mm.). The entrance is
40-70 mm. wide and 35-60 mm. high.

The eggs are laid everyday. The full clutch consists of 4-6 eggs; of
12 full clutches nine comprised of four eggs, two of five, and one of six
eggs. The egg shell is smooth, slightly glossy, of greenish-blue colour.
The eggs are unicoloured or have small light rusty dots which form a
slightly visible ring on the blunt end. Of seven clutches two contained
unicoloured eggs and five of dotted eggs. 34 eggs measured 19.3-22.8 x
14.5-16.3 mm. (average 21.1 15.3 mm.). 16 slightly incubated eggs
weighed 2.0-2.85 g. (average 2.4 g.); hard set eggs weighed 2.3 gm. on
the average.

The eggs are incubated apparently only by the female. There are
records (Yanushevich et al. 1960) of the male also taking part in incubation
and possessing a brood patch, but we only observed females incubating
when we inspected the nests. The incubation period was not determined.

The hatchlings are blind, covered with light-grey almost white
down! about 2 mm. long growing in paired bunches on the back ulnar
bend, nape (nearly on neck) and on the vertex; the corners of the mouth
are white outside and yellow inside; mouth orange inside. Legs and bill
flesh-coloured, claws white. On the day of hatching they weigh 2.3 gm.
(three nestlings from one nest). The relationship between their growth
and other development is similar to that in the majority of song birds :
at first rapid increase in weight is observed, then the differentiation of
plumage with simultaneous stopping of growth of the body. First the
fine plumage of the abdominal part of the body appears, then the rusty
ends of the head feathers develop, and after that the tips of the wing and
tail quills appear. In nestlings weighing 15, 16.6 and 19.1 gm. the remiges
began unfolding only on the second day when they weighed 16.2, 17.3
and 20.1 gm. respectively and had wings 24-30 mm. long. The next three
days they did not increase in weight. Five nestlings in another nest weighing
approximately the same (18.0, 18.7, 18.9, 19.4 and 21.0 gm.) had
considerably larger wings (48-52 mm.) and were almost entirely covered
with feathers; when disturbed they jumped out of the nest and scattered
about hiding under stones and in thick grass.

The nestlings are fed by both parents. In the mornings on the first
few days the female broods them and then brings food equally with the
male. The degree of participation of male and female varies in different
pairs; thus in one nest (the Talassky Alatau) the male visited the nest

1 Information of A. A. Vinokurov (1961) that the nestlings of Erithacus pectoralis
bailloni Sev. are naked is erroneous. ;

20 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

much more frequently than the female (65 times against 40 of 105 total
fetchings). In another nest (the Zailyisky Alatau) the food was brought
entirely by the female (the male never came to the nest during three
hours of observation); ina third nest (Kungay Alatau) out of 37 food
trips the male made 21.

The frequency of feeding is as follows. In 18 hours of observation
during two days, the parents brought food 105 times to the nest containing
three half-feathered nestlings (the Talassky Alatau), during the same
period they carried off faecal sacs 30 times. The maximum number of
feeding per hour was twelve; the minimum two (average six). The
“‘ working ”’ day of this pair was about 16 hours, from dawn till 21.00
hours. During this time the birds brought to the nest about 100 portions of
food weighing aggregately about 30 gm. Each of three nestlings weighing,
16-20 gm. thus received about 10 gm. of food a day, i.e. somewhat more
than half their weight. In the Kungay Alatau the parents of four feathered
nestlings made 37 visits with food in four hours (from 12.00 till 16.00 hrs.)
and in the same time they removed seven faecal sacs.

In the Zailyisky Alatau E. V. Gvosdev observed a female fetching
food for four one-week old nestlings every three to five minutes (three
hours of observation), and in the Kirgizsky Alatau, according to the
data of A. A. Kuznetsov (1962b), a pair brought food to the nest every
two to five minutes.

They usually brought a single food item at a time, seldom two, and
only on one occasion four items were extracted from a nestling’s throat;
a looping caterpillar, a spider and two little molluscs.

The birds collect the food mostly on the ground, on stones or under
shrubs. They look for food within a radius of 150 m. from the nest, but
very often much nearer—within three to five metres. They are very
vigilant near the nest, especially the female. The arriving bird first alights
on top of a neighbouring shrub for a while, peeping anxiously around
and then jumps down to the ground and hops to the nest. If there is no
danger the male flies directly to the nest without stopping anywhere. When
carrying off a faecal sac the bird flies swiftly and without a stop, with
short rapid wing strokes it takes the capsule rather far away, not less
than 50 m., from the nest. When carrying no faecal sac the bird flies out
of the nest and alights on one of the neighbouring bushes or other pro-
truding object, and after looking about flies away as usual. The Ruby-
throat feeds its young mainly upon caterpillars, often pilose ones. In the
Talassky Alatau out of 81 food objects studied visually and according to
the method of A. S. Malchevsky and N. P. Kadochnikov! (1953) 48

1 Neck ligature and subsequent removal of food from the gullet.

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE HIMALAYAN RUBYTHROAT 21

represented Liparidae, Noctuidae, Geometridae and other caterpillars
(including 30 pilose ones), the remaining items being locusts (15), beetles
(6, including 4 Cerambycidae), lizards (Ablepharus alaicus, 6), Dermaptera,
white butterfly, ants and Diptera (Muscidae and Asilidae : nymphs,
pupae and imagines). Small and middle-sized Ablepharus lizards were
fed entire, like insects, but of the bigger ones only the tails were used.

In the Zailyisky Alatau 35 food objects represented caterpillars (15),
butterfly, beetles (5, including a small Tenebrionid), a spider, and the
lizard (Ablepharus alaicus). In the Kirgizsky Alatau range mostly cater-
pillars were brought to the nest, once a pilose one (Kuznetsov 1962b).
Thus in the different parts of its range in the Tien Shan, the Himalayan
Rubythroat feeds its young mainly on large caterpillars, including pilose
ones, and on a number of other invertebrates. Among vertebrates only
Ablepharus lizards are used. After leaving the nest the young birds some-
times eat honeysuckle berries (August, Talassky Alatau).

The food of adult birds during the breeding period differs markedly
from that intended for nestlings. In six stomachs examined in the Zailyisky
Alatau between May and July were found remains of at least 45 inverte-
brates including 26 imago beetles (in all stomachs), one beetle larva, three
noctuid caterpillars (in one stomach), two bugs of Lygaeus sp. (in one
stomach), six ants (in three stomachs), one representative of other Hyme-
noptera, four Asilidae (in one stomach), one spider. The beetles were
represented by Bruchidae, Jpidae, four Aphodius, six Elateridae, two
Tenebrionidae, two Curculionidae and Chrysomelidae. The contents of
14 stomachs of adult Himalayan Rubythroats from the kirgizsky part
of the Tien Shan (Peck & Fedyanina 1961) have been analysed. Most
frequently they contained ants (64%%) and remains of Curculionidae (57%).
Less frequently were found remains of other beetles (Tenebrionidae,
Lucanidae, Carabidae, Elateridae, Scarabaeidae, Coccinellidae), Heterop-
tera, Acrididae, caterpillars and molluscs. Seeds of Cruciferae and Poly-
gonaceae were found only in one of the stomachs.

Thus the nestlings are fed mainly on large soft objects, the adult
birds themselves living on smaller and coarse objects like beetles, ants
and their food is generally more diverse.

How long the nestlings stay in the nest is not definite. On June 16
a nest contained nestlings about two-days old which left on June 30, 1.e.
when more than 14 days old. Another nest on June 16, contained nestlings
with pinfeathers, which left the nest on June 27. Thus the young evi-
dently stay in a nest not less than 15 days. After leaving the nest the
young remain for some days in the immediate vicinity, but they do not
spend the night in the nest (two broods observed in the Talassky and
Zailyisky Alatau). They practically do not change in weight but their

22 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

plumage develops intensively especially the rectrices and wing-quills.
When they leave the nest they can only flop about, but in two-three days
they begin flying quite well. Thus one of the young weighing 19.4 gm.
on the day of leaving the nest was caught two days later with difficulty
at a distance of 20 m. from the nest; it could already fly 20-30 m.

Most probably the broods disperse very soon since we never saw a
strongly flying young being fed by its parents. This supposition is con-
firmed by the observation of a pair of birds in two nests which 14 days
after the young had fledged, had laid a fresh clutch of three eggs in a
new nest.

There is no information concerning the life of this species after the
breeding season is over because of the unobtrusive behaviour of the birds
at that time. There is little information on their departure. In the Zailyisky
Alatau, in the ravine of the Malaya Almatinka River, Himalayan
Rubythroats were met with in a thick aspen forest at an altitude of 1500 m.
at the end of August (Shulpin 1939). In the Talassky Alatau the birds
were still seen in the nesting sites on September 8 and 9, 1935 (Shulpin
1965). V. V. Shevchenko (1948) recorded that at the end of August,
just after the first snowfall, the Himalayan Rubythroat migrated down-
hill and could be met with in swamp thickets and in juniper stands in
ravines. Later, in September and October, especially in foul weather,
they could be seen in the submontane orchards. This record, however,
had not been confirmed by subsequent observations: during seven years’
work in this region one of the present authors has never met with this
species below the breeding range. In the Pamir, where the Himalayan
Rubythroats do not breed, they are occasionally met with in August
(Potapov 1966). Apparently the birds migrate in August, the last of
them leaving early in September. In winter the species is not found in
Tien Shan. The supposition of V. V. Shevchenko (1948) of their hiber-
nation in warm winters in the Talassky Alatau has not been confirmed
by facts.

The studies in the Tien Shan! have shown that the great majority of
females begin egg-laying in the last third of May. The breeding period of
the species is very long: fresh clutches can be found from the middle of
May till the middle of July, i.e. during two whole months. This is partly
due to the fact that the females do not start breeding simultaneously or
synchronously but the chief reason is the repeat clutches, caused by
destruction of nests and even second clutches. In 1967 a nest with slightly
incubated clutch found on June 25 was destroyed the next day; in 12 days
(on July 8) the same pair already had three fresh eggs (including one

1 The following term were taken into consideration: hatching—12 days, fledgling—
15 days. Cases where the fledglings were taken care of by their parents are
accounted as the nest (7 cases),

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE HIMALAYAN RUBYTHROAT 23

cuckoo egg) in a new nest at a distance of about 70 m. from the old one.
On June 16 another nest was found containing nestlings covered with
pinfeathers. On June 20 the female and the male were trapped and banded.
On June 27 the young left the nest and thereafter we often met the banded
male singing intensively in the neighbourhood. On July 11 we found
that the banded female had laid three eggs in a new nest built at a dis-
tance of 45 to 50 m. from the first one. Thus, there is no doubt that the
Himalayan Rubythroat breeds twice a year (i.e. it is double-brooded).
In our case the female began the second laying 44 days after the beginning
of the first oviposition (on May 26 and July 9). Of course not all pairs
bring up the first brood successfully and start breeding again. The des-
truction of nests results in repeat-nesting and accounts for the fact that
some birds bring up only one brood.

Number ooef
ne) Wi

—

1 Be ee Oa no |e
Me acy dc Oi ne COR hy

The breeding success of the Himalayan Rubythroat is shown by the
following data. In the Zailyisky Alatau an average clutch consisted of
4.3 eggs (7 nests) of which 3.7 hatched (4 nests). For the Tien Shan as
a whole these data are as follows: a clutch consists of 4.2 eggs (11 nests)
of which 4.1 hatched (10 nests) and 3.8 young fledged. Addled eggs and
eggs with dead embryos are found very seldom; addled eggs were

24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

observed only twice in clutches of four (one addled egg in each nest).
Mortality among nestlings is not high; usually all the hatched nestlings
leave the nest and only occasionally does one die (the youngest ?).

The nests suffer destruction only rarely. Of nine nests under obser-
vation only two were destroyed; one containing strongly incubated eggs
was abandoned, while the eggs disappeared from the other. Apparently
it was a cuckoo’s doing in both cases. The first nest was abandoned by
the birds after the cuckoo (Cuculus canorus L.) had put its egg into their
nest removing one of Rubythroat’s. The other nest was found by us when
we observed a cuckoo thoroughly inspecting the slope near the nest; it
flew over from place to place and rested stopping every metre or so to
look around. The cuckoo was not searching for food, and the male
Rubythroat flew about it crying agitatedly. When the cuckoo flew away
we found a nest containing four eggs in this spot, but three of them dis-
appeared the next day. The owners naturally deserted the nest and
built a new one at a distance of about 70 m. from it. When we found the
second nest it contained two Rubythroat’s and one cuckoo’s eggs. In
the Zailyisky Alatau the cuckoo apparently lays its eggs in the nests of
the Himalayan Rubythroat quite often; of 14 nests of this species we
found the cuckoo’s eggs in three (21%). A nest containing a cuckoo
nestling has not yet been found.

The potential enemy of the Himalayan Rubythroat is the musteline
family: the marten and the stoat; however, we did not observe any nests
destroyed by these animals. One of the Rubythroat nests containing two
half-fledged nestlings was highly infected by Ornithonyssus sylvarum
mites.' The next day one of the nestlings was found dead while the other
seemed likely to share the same fate.

Thus the rate of destruction of the nests of this species is not high
which makes it possible for a part of the population to raise two broods
in a year.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors express their thanks to Dr. Salim Ali for correcting and
editing the manuscript and assisting in its publication. We are grateful
to Miss A. N. Terichova for translating the manuscript into English.

1 Identified by V. N. Senotrusova.

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE HIMALAYAN RUBYTHROAT 25

REFERENCES

ABDUSALYAMOV, I. A. (1964): Ptitsy
gornogo Zeravshana.

GLaDKov, N. A. (1954): Semeistvo
qropdarykh Vv knige “ Ptitsy Sovetskogo
Soyuza ”’, t. 6.

IvANov, A. I. (1940): Ptitsy Tadjikis-
tana.

KorREEV, B. P. & ZARUDNY, N. A.
(1906): Ornithologicheskaya fauna Semi-
rechenskogo Kraya. Mat. k_ pozn.
fauny i flory Ross. Imperii, otd. zoolo-
gich., vyp. YII.

KoreLov, M. N. (1956 a): Fauna
pozvonochnykh zhyvotnykh Bostandyka.
V_ knige ‘‘Priroda i khozyajstvennye
usloviya gornoi chasti Bostandyka.”
a ha 1 ..7(1,956, b)<,. Materialy-. k
avifaune khrebta Ketmenj (Tien-Shan).
Tr. instituta zoologii AN KazSSR, t. YI.

KovsHar, A. F. (1964): Ptitsy vysoko-
gorja zapadnoj chasti Talasskogo Alatau.
V knige ‘ Okhotnichi ptitsy Kazakhs-

tana’.
(1966): Ptitsy Talasskogo
Alatau.

KuzmIna, M. A. (in press): v_ pechati.
Rod solovej-krasnoshejka. V knige “‘Ptitsy
Kazakhstana’’, t. 3.

Kuznetsov, A. A. (1962): K_ biologii
ptits vysokogorja Kirgizskogo khrebta.
* Ornithologiya’’, vyp. 5S.

LEONOVICH, Vv. V. (1962) K_biologii
maloizuchennykh ptits Tadyjikistana.
Byull. MOIP, otd. biologich., t. XYII,
fee.

MALCHEVSKY, A. S. & KADOCHNIKOV,

N. P. (1953):. Metodica prizhiznennogo
izucheniya pitaniya gnezdovykh ptenzov
nasekomoyadnykh ptits. “ Zool. zhur-
nal’st. 32;vyp. 2.

Pek, L. V. & FEDYANINA, I. F. (1961):
Pishcha ptits Kirgizii. V knige ‘‘ Ptitsy
Kirgizii ’’, t. 3.

Popov, A. V. (1951): Ptitsy Gissaro-
Karategina.

PoTapov, R. L. (1966): Ptitsy Pamira.
V Knige “ Biologiya ptits”’.

SHEVCHENKO, V. VY. (1948): Ptitsy
gosudarstvennogo zapovednika Aksu-
Dzhabagly. Tr. zapov. Aksu-Dzhabagly,
vyp. 1.

SHULPIN, L. M. (1939): Ecologicheski
ocherk ornithofauny Alma-Atinskogo
zapovednika. Tr. Alma-Atinskogo zapov.,

vyp. 1.

aw eee east ( 1965): aMiatenialy 0
faune ptits zapovednika Aksu-Dzhabagly
(Talassky Alatau). Tr. zapovedn. Aksu-
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STEPANJYAN, L. S. (1959): Ptitsy
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sapiski Mosk. obl. pedagogich. instituta
im N. A. Krupskoj, t. 71, vyp. 4.

Vinokurov, A. A. (1961): K_ biologii
nekotorykh vorobjinykh ptits Zentrainogo
Tien Shanya. V sb. “ Materially po
nazemnym pozvonochnym Kazakhsta-
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YANUSHEVICH, A. I., Tyurin, P. S.,
YAKOVLEVA, L. D., KYDYRALIEV, A. &
SEMENOVA, N. I. (1960): Ptitsy Kirgisii,
{2%

Notes on Stellaria saxatilis Buch.-
Ham. ex D.Don, Stellaria vestita
Kurz and Stellaria sikkimensis

Hook.f.

BY
N. C. MAJUMDAR
Central National Herbarium, Botanical Survey of India, Howrah

__ Stellaria saxatilis Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don and S. vestita Kurz are
considered as conspecific. S. vestita Kurz is adopted as the correct name for

the resulting taxon. S. sikkimensis Hook. f. is re-established as a distinct

species.

D. Don (1825) established Stellaria saxatilis on the basis of Hamil-
ton’s collection from Nepal Himalaya. Later, Kurz (1873) recognised
S. vestita from China, and indicated its close affinity to the former
species. Hooker f. (1874) described S. sikkimensis from the Sikkim
Himalaya during the treatment of the family Caryophyllaceae for British
India and stated its affinity to S. saxatilis in the following words—“ Nearly
allied to S. saxatilis but less perigynous, more laxly hairy and cymes
much shorter peduncled and terminal.”

Very recently Mizushima (1963), while working on the Caryophyl-
laceae of the Eastern Himalaya collected by the Indo-Japanese Botanical
expedition of 1960, considered both S. saxatilis and S. vestita as conspe-
cific and rightly adopted Kurz’s binomial S. vestita as the correct name
for the resulting taxon, since S. saxatilis Buch.-Ham. ex Don must be
rejected because of the presence of the earlier homonym S. saxatilis
Scop. (1772). A little later, the present author, in his paper “ On the
Indian Alsinoideae—some new names and new combinations ”’ published
in 1965, reduced S. vestita Kurz to a variety under the new name S.
hamiltoniana Majumdar, which he proposed to replace the nomencla-
turally illegitimate name S. saxatilis Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don.

A critical study of the types of S. saxatilis and S. vestita revealed that
the two species are very similar except that the former has shortly petioled
leaves with acutely mucronate apex while the latter is characterised by
sessile leaves with acuminately mucronate apex (distinctly narrowed
upwards). However, the specimens of S. saxatilis from Bhutan show both
the above characters and form a connecting link between the two species.
Therefore the author quite agrees with Mizushima who united the two
species and adopted S. vestita Kurz as the correct name for this S. E.
Asiatic plant.

NOTES ON STELLARIA 27

Following Kuntze (1891), Majumdar (1965) reduced S. sikkimensis
Hook.f. to a variety of S. hamiltoniana Maj. However, a careful study of
the types of both S. vestita and S. sikkimensis reveals that it seems justi-
fied to maintain S. sikkimensis as a distinct species instead of maintaining
it as a variety of S. vestita. The distinguishing characters of the two are
as follows:

S. vestita

. Plants densely tomentose to
wooly with stellate hairs. Often
glabrescent.

. Leaves not ciliate.

. Flowers in axillary and terminal,
long-peduncled cymes.

. Bracts scarious.

. Sepals usually connate at base
into obconic tube. Fruiting
sepals 0.50 — 0.55 cm. long.

. Capsule 0.4 — 0.5 cm. long;
shorter or equalling the sepals.

. seeds tuberculate, 1.0 mm.
across.

S. sikkimensis

. Plants pubescent to villous with

simple, long, rigid hairs.

. Leaves ciliate with tubercle-

based hairs.

. Flowers solitary at each node of

the flowering branches forming
terminal, leafy, cymose panicle.

. Bracts foliaceous.

. Sepals quite free to the base,

Fruiting sepals 0.40 —0.45 cm.
long.

. Capsule 0.5 — 0.6 cm. long;

exceeding the sepals.

. Seeds nearly smooth, minutely

granulate, 0.6 -——- 0.7 mm.

across.

Stellaria vestita Kurz, in Journ. Bot. 11: 194, 1873; Mizushima in
Journ. Jap. Bot. 38: 153, 1963.

S. saxatilis Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don, Prodr. Fl. Nep. 215, 1825 (non
Scop. 1772); Wall. Cat. 634; Edgew. & Hook.f. in FI. Brit. Ind. 1:232,
1874; Gamble, Fl. Presid. Madras 1:62, 1915; Fyson, Fl. South Ind.
Hill-Stat. 41, 1932; Mizushima in Faun. Fl. Nep. Himal. 122, 1952.

S. laxa Merr. in Philipp. Govt. Lab. Bur. Bull. 29: 12, 1905 (non
S. laxa F. Behm. 1887).

S. stellato-pilosa Hayata, Fl. Mont. Formos. 58, pl. 2, 1908; Mater.
Fl. Formosa 37 (1911).

S. hamiltoniana Majumdar in Journ. Ind. Bot. Soc. 53: 142, 1965,

28 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

S. hamiltoniana Maj. var. vestita (Kurz) Majumdar Joc. cit. 142,
1965.

Type: D. J. Anderson, s.n. (Acc. no. 41131, CAL). Specimens
examined : (Herb. Cal.)

INDIA: Assam: Shillong, 1494 m., May 1911, J. H. Burkill &
S. C. Banerjee 15; Shillong, 1768 m., April 1886, C. B. Clarke 43447 A
(as S. saxatilis); Shillong, Jowai Road, March 1892, D. Prain, s.n. Acc.
no. 41134; Khasi hills 1220-1520 m., May-June, 1876 Kurz no. 192;
Shillong hill, 1828 m., May 1886, C. B. Clarke 43918 B (as S. saxatilis) ;
Khasi hills, West gorge at Dum pep, 1828 m., June 1911, 7. H. Burkill
& S. C. Banerjee 35186; Khasi hills, Simons, s.n., Acc. no. 41130;
Khasi hills, April 1894, G. A. Gammie 340.

BHUTAN: Ta Wollaokar, 1828—2134 m., without collector’s
name, 1770; Nanga valley, G. Sen Gupta 744.

NEPAL: Hamilton, Wall. Cat. 634 (as S. saxatilis) holotype (K).

CHINA: Yunnan: Momyen, D. J. Anderson, s.n., Acc. no. 41131, type
(CAL).

Distribution: India, China, Java, Indochina, Philippines.
N.B. Types of S. laxa Merr. and S. stellato-pilosa Hayata are not seen
by the author, but the synonyms are cited on the authority of Mizushima
(1963).

Stellaria sikkimensis Hook.f. in Fl. Brit. Ind. 1:230, 1874.

Stellularia saxatilis (Ham.) O. Kuntze var. sikkimensis (Hook.f.)
O. Kuntze, Revis. Gen. Pl. 1:55, 1891; Majumdar in J. Ind. Bot.
Soc. 44:142, 1965, pro syn.

Stellaria hamiltoniana Majumdar var. sikkimensis (Hook. f.) Majum-
dar, loc. cit. 1965.

Type : Herb. Griffith s.n. (K)
Specimens examined : (Herb. Cal.)

INDIA : West Bengal : Darjeeling, Herb. Griffith, s.n. holotype (K);
Kurseong, 1828 m., Oct. 1884, C. B. Clarke 36499 C; Sinchul, northern
face, S. Kurz, s.n., Acc. no. 40979; North of Sinchul, 2194 m.,
Aug. 1862, T. Anderson 961 ; Darjeeling 2133 m., Sept. 1872, J. S. Gamble
3810 A; Darjeeling 2133 m., July 1875, C. B. Clarke 26755 D; Phulloot,
3350 m., Oct. 1875, C. B. Clarke 25724 A;

BHUTAN : Do chu la, 3175 m., Sept. 1964, P. K. Hazra 446;

NOTES ON STELLARIA 29

SIKKIM : Without precise locality, S. Kurz, s.n., Acc. no. 40981,
40982 and 40983; without precise locality, G. King 930; without precise
locality, JT. Thomson, s.n. Acc. no. 40975 (two specimens on the same
sheet are S. vestita); G. King, s.n., Acc. no. 40985; Top of Tonglu, Oct.
1857, T. Thomson, s.n., Acc. no. 40973 and 40976 ; without precise locality,
Oct. 1871, G. King. 35; above Gangtok, 1980 m., July 1910, W. W. Smith
2960; E. Himalayas without precise locality, G. H. Cave 6745; without
precise locality, G. King 2008; La Chung, 2590 m., Aug. 1892, G. A.
Gammie, s.n., Acc. no. 40878, 40879 and 40880; Padmchen, 2438 m.,
Aug. 1910, W. W. Smith 4490.

Distribution : Eastern Himalaya : West Bengal, Sikkim and Bhutan.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author expresses his deep gratitude to the Director, Royal Botanic
Garden, Kew, for kindly sending on loan the types of two species of
Stellaria, without which this study would not have been possible.

10th General Assembly and 11th
Technical Meeting of the Inter-
national Union for Conservation
of Nature and Natural Resources

BY

ZAFAR FUTEHALLY

The 10th General Assembly and 11th Technical Meeting of the
International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
took place at New Delhi from 24th November to Ist December 1969. It
was a memorable Assembly in many ways, particularly for India because
it was the first time that the IUCN Conference has been convened in Asia.
Between 1948 and 1966, General Assemblies were held in France, Bel-
gium, Venezuela, Denmark, Scotland, Greece, Poland, Kenya and
Switzerland.

India’s first physical contact with the IUCN was in November 1965,
when a strong delegation was on its way to Bangkok for a Regional
Conference to study conservation problems of South-east Asia. Information
about this is available in IUCN Booklet New Series No. 11. Taking
advantage of this occasion Mr. E. P. Gee, India’s tireless ambassador of
conservation, induced the Government of India to hold a Special Meeting
of the Indian Board for Wild Life at New Delhi on 24th November 1965.
The Proceedings of this meeting were published in Supplementary Paper
No. 17 of the IUCN Publications New Series. After this one-day meeting
at New Delhi, the delegates went to Bharatpur, and the always resource-
ful Peter Scott drew up a short practical plan to enable the full potential
of Bharatpur to be realised from the angle of tourism. Peter Scott’s
paper and the accompanying illustrations were published in this Journal
(63: 206-209). Unfortunately these suggestions have yet to be imple-
mented.

Every General Assembly centres around a principal theme. For
instance, the theme of the Lucerne Assembly in June 1966 was “‘ Towards
A New Relationship of Man and Nature in Temperate Lands’. The
discussions in the Technical Sessions were mainly concerned with the
damage caused by recreation and tourism in general to natural areas, the
ecological effects of introduced plant species and the ecological effects of
introduced animal species. The Proceedings of this Assembly are avail-
able in IUCN Publications No. 7, 8 and 9, New Series.

10TH GENERAL ASSEMBLY I.U.C.N. 31

The theme of the 10th General Assembly at New Delhi, appropriate-
ly, was ““The Environmental and Economic Values of the Conservation of
Nature’. The four Key-Note Addresses were given by Dr. Frank Fraser
Darling, Dr. C. D. Deshmukh, Prof. Roger Revelle and Prof. V. A.
Kovda. Dr. Fraser Darling, whose Reith Lectures over the BBC in
England in December 1969, made such an impression b »th in that country
and abroad, has been a close student of Indian ecology. On an earlier
occasion, when the Society was drawing up its Memorandum for sub-
mission to the Cow Protection Committee of the Government of India,
Dr. Darling had said, “‘ We should realise the wholly justifiable attitude
of considering the cow sacred in a situation which India must have re-
presented 2,000-3,000 years ago. She provided milk and dung, made
paths and consumed much obtrusive green growth. She was an animal
new to India and would need the greatest care in a period of adaptation.
Now, populations of men and cows are in totally different relation to the
deteriorated environment, and we know to our constant cost that atti-
tudes, rituals and conventions persist far beyond the biological and
social situations which brought them forth as erstwhile necessities of
living. There is here not so much a cultural lag in time, but a cultural
over-run’’. The Cow Committee of the Government of India unfortu-
nately disintegrated after a few acrimonious meetings, and one does not
know whether the views expressed by Dr. Darling will have any impact
on its thinking in future years. In his Key-Note Address to the Assembly,
Dr. Darling spoke about the ecological implications of nomadism, and
pointed to the damage done to the environment by a settled population
of human beings and cattle, and the need for constructive conservation
measures.

Prof. Kovda was concerned by new technological developments
which now have global implications. ‘“‘ Geochemical activity of man has
become universal throughout the planet, and technogenesis—a specific
peculiarity of the modern face of the earth’. He went on to say that
** Modern industry not only enriches substantially the biosphere with a
number of chemical elements, but transforms the natural geochemical
ratios of elements which cannot but tell on the biosphere....”

It was encouraging to learn from him, however, that in the USSR
wild life conservation has been making steady progress. As an example
he mentioned the Saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica). The species was at
one stage on the verge of extinction, due to intensive hunting, and in
1920 a few hundreds only were left in remote regions of Kalmikia and
Kazakhstan. Today, there are over a million animals and thousands of
animals can be safely shot every year for food and sport on a sustained
yield basis.

a2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

Dr. C. D. Deshmukh gave a forthright account of the failure of the
Government of India to protect its forests and vegetation, and to give
due importance to conservation policies in general. He said that “‘ the
failure to conserve may be partly due to ignorance. In this politician-
ridden society of ours (all over the world) it is, however, largely due to
the triumph of the short-term over the long-term. The politician pacifies
his more ignorant voter at the cost of all the unborn’,

Dr. Deshmukh felt that measures necessary for economic develop-
ment could be reconciled with conservation in developing countries,
provided we try to solve our problems in an intelligent and creative way
without copying the attitudes of the West blindly. Starting, for instance,
with the premise that within the tropics where there is abundant sun-
shine, and where human labour is plentiful and cheap, large-scale planta-
tion of trees is a logical way of meeting our fuel and other construction
requirements, “‘the labour component of housing can be increased
considerably (i) by using bricks instead of cement concrete for both
floor and roof; (ii) by deferred payment of wages to the labour in respect
of the difference between rates for skilled and unskilled labour, 1.e., by
borrowing part of the value of the labour directly from the worker;
(iii) by supporting a large-scale housing programme for urban areas by
the systematic growing of fuel for brick-making (as well as for domestic
use), on waste and unproductive land.” I quote from Stein: ‘‘ Assuming
that trees grow 24 times faster in the tropics than in northern Europe
and that fossil fuel costs say 25 per cent more and labour costs only
1/5 as much (the figure is more likely 1/10), then the advantages are of an
order of 2.51.25 x4=15 times!” By linking housing construction—
brick-making and the growing of fuel for brick-burning into a mutually
supporting economic arrangement it becomes possible to envision a
profitable basis for both urban housing and large-scale reforestation on a
commercial basis. Moreover, the ready availability of alternative domestic
fuel will release animal manure for our fertilizer-hungry land. Leaves
could also be harvested as fodder. Thus, under tropical conditions, a
tree would be a cheap and efficient device for converting solar energy
into fuel”. The trouble in India, of course, has been that we have been
living not on our income but on our capital as far as trees are concerned.

The papers presented in the Technical Meetings of the Assembly
were divided into the following headings :

(1) ‘* Conservation of habitats, soil and water resources with
special reference to Montane regions and Nature Conservation as a
supplementary objective of productive and protective forestry”. In this
group of papers, two struck the writer as particularly important. Dr. K. P.
Mirinian of the USSR pointed out that once a forested region was denuded

10TH GENERAL ASSEMBLY I.U.C.N. 33

to a level below about 60 per cent, its capacity to prevent soil erosion
was almost negligible. In other words, we in India must recognise that
many of our areas which are included in the category of ‘forest’ are
not really performing their protective functions because their density is
not good enough. Another paper by R. S. Ambasht of Banaras Hindu
University provided valuable guidelines on the way erosion damage
can be measured, and suggested the importance of local vegetation for

protective purposes.

The second set of papers dealt with the effects of ‘‘ Pollution on
Natural Ecosystems ” and the third on “‘ Management and Breeding of
Wild Life Species, the Role of Zoos, and the Role of Birds in an Agricul-
ture economy’’. In his paper on Birds in India’s Agriculture Economy,
Dr. Salim Ali pointed out that although weaver birds, house sparrows,
etc. consumed substantial amounts of rice crops and cereals, this aspect
has been over-emphasised in the Indian scientific world, and it is forgotten
that they feed their young entirely on insects and worms, thus destroying
a great number of pests. Other beneficial roles are also ignored, e.g. their
pollinating, to a large degree, the Red Silk Cotton (which mainly provides
the wood for our safety matches). His remedy, in order to determine the
true status of birds in national economy, is ‘‘ Comprehensive life-history
studies of the individual species involved—their ecology, food . . . habits,
migrations. Analysis of stomach contents by itself is not enough’’.

The Second Session of the Technical Meetings was concerned with
Conservation of Terrestrial Communities under the International Biological
Programme. Two papers of great practical importance were the ‘ Ecological
impact of domestic stock on the Gir Forest’ by K.T.B. Hodd, and ‘A
Preliminary report on the ecology of domestic cattle in rural West Bengal’
by Dr. S. Odend’hal. Hodd, who stayed in the Gir Forest for nearly a
year for his doctorate thesis, established a number of exclosures in the
Gir to find out how soon and how well the vegetation revived if it was
saved from damage for a specific period of time. He found that after
only one year, the exclosure showed a high ratio of perennial grasses
such as Dichanthium annulatum, some recovery of soil porosity and
80 to 100 per cent land cover as compared with only 30 per cent in the
grazed areas. At the end of the growing season less than 300 kilos of dry
matter per hectare remained. As far as the regeneration of trees were
concerned, Hodd found that in the open areas only Acacia arabica was
able to survive, and, understandably, unpalatable herbs such as Cassia
tora were particularly abundant.

Everything that Hodd says points to the need for greatly reducing
the pressure of buffaloes and cattle from the Gir Sanctuary if it is to

34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

become a satisfactory home for wild life, and regain its normal pro-
ductivity.

Odend’hal studied an area of 5.75 sq. miles in rural West Bengal to
determine the position of the cattle within the economy. In this small
area there were a total of 16,126 human and 3,759 heads of cattle, which
is a high ratio even for India. But the significant point seems to be that
there is enough straw produced from the paddy field to feed this large
cattle population. What is important of course is to be told what the
optimum ratios between humans and cattle and land should be, and
when the studies are completed, perhaps some definite information will
be available.

The Third Session was organised by the Survival Service Commission
and dealt with problems of threatened species. In a way this was the
most interesting part of the conference for the Indian audience for it
dealt with such live subjects as the future of the Asiatic Lion, the Indian
Tiger, the Great Indian Bustard, and other endangered species in India.
Dr. Salim Ali’s paper on the Great Indian Bustard suggests. ‘‘ In the
absence of a network of reliable local observers, most of this basic infor-
mation (on the Bustard) would have to be self-collected by mobile teams
of investigators. ... In spite of being totally protected by law, the Great
Indian Bustard continues to decline. To stay the rot there is a proposal
to create a Bustard sanctuary in the extensive grasslands of Gujarat
where a few birds still survive. But the practicability of this project will
need a thoroughgoing ecological investigation’.

Fr. H. Santapau, in his paper on “Endangered Plant Species and
their Habitats’ referred to the fact that forests near villages are constantly
being cut down, and many forests are threatened. Father Santapau made
a special plea for Indian orchids, which are exploited without any thought
being given to their perpetuation.

J. C. Daniel, submitted a review of the present status of endangered
species of Indian Reptiles. “‘ Lack of precise information makes the
assessment of the status of Indian reptiles difficult. However, on the
basis of data available on commercial exploitation of reptiles it appears
that the crocodiles, marine turtles, lizards of the genus Varanus and many
species of snakes need protection. Endemic reptiles restricted to certain
habitats are also in danger of extinction’.

The 4th Session of the General Assembly was conducted by the
International Commission on National Parks, and was concerned with
the National Park situation in South-east Asia with special reference to
the role, management and economic functions of National Parks in
densely populated non-industrial areas. One valuable Resolution which

10TH GENERAL ASSEMBLY I.U.C.N. 35

emerged from the discussions dealt with the definition of National Parks.
There have often been rather unconstructive debates at the meetings
of the Indian Board for Wild Life on this question, and it is to be hoped
that this Resolution of the IUCN will help in determining which areas
should be given National Park status and what should be the principles
underlying their management. The Resolution reads : ‘* Considering the
importance given by the United Nations to the national park concept,
as a sensible use of natural resources, and considering the increasing use
which has been made during these last few years in some countries of the
term “‘National Park” to designate areas with increasingly different status
and objectives, the 10th General Assembly of IUCN meeting in New Delhi
in November 1969 recommends that all governments agree to reserve
the term “‘National Park’’ to areas answering the following characteris-
tics and to ensure that their local authorities and private organisations
wishing to set aside nature reserves do the same:

A National Park isa relatively large area 1) where one or several ecosystems
are not materially altered by human exploitation and occupation, where
plant and animal species, geomorphological sites and habitats are of
special scientific, educative and recreative interest or which contains a
natural landscape of great beauty and 2) where the central authority of
the country has taken steps to prevent or to eliminate as soon as possible
exploitation or occupation in the whole area and to enforce effectively
the respect for ecological, geomorphological or aesthetical features which
have led to its establishment and 3) where visitors are allowed to enter
under special conditions, for inspirational, educative, cultural and recrea-
tive purposes.

Governments are accordingly requested not to designate as ‘“‘national park”’ ;
gly req p

1) a scientific reserve which can be entered only by special permission
(strict nature reserve)

2) anatural reserve managed by a private institution or a lower authority
(Provincial Park, etc.) without some type of recognition and control
by the central authority

3) a “‘special reserve” as defined in the Algiers Convention of 1968 —
(fauna or flora reserve, game reserve, bird sanctuary, geological o1
forest reserve, etc.)

4) an inhabited and exploited area where landscape planning and
measures taken for the development of tourism have led to the
setting up of “‘recreation areas’? where industrialization and urba-
nization are controlled and where public outdoor recreation takes
priority over the conservation of ecosystems (parc natural regional,
nature park, Naturpark, etc.). Areas of this description which have

36 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

been established as ‘‘ National Parks ’’ should be redesignated in
due course.”

The next Session of the Assembly, dealing with the reports and dis-
cussions of the Pre-Assembly Tours, was disappointing only for the
reason that the time devoted to it was so short. The Pre-Assembly Study
Tours related to the Periyar Wild Life Sanctuary, Sariska Wild Life
Sanctuary, Guindy National Park, Dachigam Sanctuary, the proposed
Bird Sanctuary-cum-Recreation area in the Salt Lake areas of Calcutta,
and the position of the Swamp Deer in the Kanha National Park. It is
to be hoped that all these reports will be quickly processed by the Centre
and the States, and that implementation will not be delayed, because in
these matters where the physical environment keeps changing so rapidly,
delay is often tantamount to rejection.

One Session of the Assembly was devoted to Conservation Education.
A Pre-Conference Working Party of the Education Commission of the
IUCN had met at Dehra Dun earlier, and the problems of Conservation
Education at school and college levels were discussed in a broad manner.
It is to be hoped that this will help in the production of suitable text-
books for use in our own country, for there is a serious shortcoming of
such material and without this conservation cannot become ‘popular,’
or be supported by the people at large.

The Tenth General Assembly passed as usual many resolutions. All
these are important, but we would like to draw attention to the following
ones, which deal with our specific problems. All of them are self-
explanatory, and are quoted without comment.

Periyar Wild Life Sanctuary: The resolution “urges the res-
ponsible authorities to integrate the various interests involved and place
them under the control of one senior administrator and to manage the
sanctuary on a planned basis’.

Grazing in Wild Life Reserves and National Parks: The Assembly
recognises that the penetration of domestic cattle into wild life reserves
is a major factor in the deterioration of wild life habitats. It resolved that
the Indian Government should take immediate steps to prohibit the

grazing of all domestic livestock within the boundaries of all wild life
reserves’.

The Asiatic Lion: It has been recognised that agricultural intrusion
and the general decline in the numbers of wild life is a major cause of the
reduction in the number of the Asiatic Lion, now restricted only to the
Gir. The General Assembly “requests the Government authorities con-
cerned to prevent any further encroachment into the sanctuary, and

10TH GENERAL ASSEMBLY I.U.C.N. ay

recommends that measures be taken to recover the land where cultiva-
tions have already intruded........ @

The Tiger: ‘The assembly was generally alarmed by the position
of the tiger in India, and generally in other countries. It decided quite
rightly that “‘in view of the grave threat to the tiger populations in the
countries where the animal occurs, due to direct and indirect methods of
destruction ... the Governments of these countries (declare) a
moratorium on killing of this animal until such time as censuses and
ecological studies ... reveal the correct position as regards population
trends ....”’ Only five States in India have completely banned the killing
of tigers, and others should follow suit immediately.

Calcutta Salt Lake Area: The assembly was greatly impressed
with the report of the study group on the Calcutta Salt Lake area, and
it strongly recommended to the Government of India “that early steps
should be taken to implement the conclusions of this report to establish
a bird sanctuary within a wider protected zone and to integrate it within
a regional plan’’.

Specialised Wild Life Department: In almost every meeting of the
Indian Board for Wild Life there has been discussion about the need for
a separate wild life department within the forest service to look after the
interests of wild animals and their habitats. This is a problem peculiar
not only to India but concerns almost every country of the world. The
assembly therefore passed an appropriate general resolution which said,
‘“‘having noticed that in many countries no specialised department exists
to conserve wild life...recommends to the various Governments

... (to) consider the possibility of organising separate departments of
wild life....”

The Final Session of the Assembly was organised by the Landscape
Planning Commission of the IUCN.

Looking back on the Conference in the light of the experience of those
held in other countries it must be acknowledged that the organisation by
and the hospitality of the Government of India left little to be desired.
The presence of the Prime Minister, Dr. Karan Singh, the Minister of
Tourism, and the Chairman of the Indian Board for Wild Life, and other
senior Ministers and Members of the Planning Commission at several
Sessions, both formal and informal, left the delegates with the quite justi-
fiable impression that conservation will in future form an important
item in the deliberations of the Government of India. It will, however,
be left to institutions like the Bombay Natural History Society, the Wild
Life Preservation Society of India, the World Wild Life Fund — Indian
National Appeal and others, to see to it that the resolutions which were

38 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

passed and which engaged the attention of the leading conservationists
of the world are implemented as quickly as possible. It has become
customary for the General Assembly to issue a Declaration or a Manifesto
on conservation, relevant for the time and for the occasion. At New Delhi
the following Declaration was passed on 29-11-1969.

Realising that the splendour of this earth derives from its sunlight,
its beautiful green cover, its inter-dependent fauna and flora, and from
the diversity of its landscapes and Realising that since the beginning of its
existence, the people of the earth, even when poor in material possessions,
have found life richly worth living because of these natural assets; and
Realising that man, himself a product of the evolutionary system, is
dependent on the stability and self-renewing properties of his environment;
Realising too, that the world’s population is growing at an alarming rate;
that economic development depends entirely on the utilization of natural
resources, that this utilization is carried out often with little attention to
the needs of renewal, that because of this, much of the earth, once well
watered and productive, 1s now impoverished and degraded ‘that once
abundant plant, animal and scenic resources, have been ravaged that
therefore the attainment of a high quality of living for all mankind now
depends upon the conservation and restoration of these dwindling re-
sources, and finally that the natural resources of the world are a heritage
on which the survival of future generations must depend.

We the members of the International Union for Conservation of Nature
and Natural Resources assembled at New Delhi in November 1969

Now declare again our fundamental purpose as an international
union of concerned States, Organization and individuals

To urge on all governments and people the adoption, as a basic
principle of development, the conservation and protection of long-term
values rather than exploitation for short-term gains

To foster sound environmental policies and to promote protection
of ecosystems, human environments and habitats of wild creatures from
abuse and damage

To encourage and assist in the making of co-ordinated legislation
and international conventions to govern the utilization and treatment of
soil, water, air, flora and fauna, to minimize pollution, and to protect the
landscape in general and ecosystems of special interest in particular and,
finally to urge upon all nations, action and support of those values which
make life possible and worthwhile.

An event which greatly pleased the Assembly, and the Bombay
Natural History Society in particular, was the award of the John C.
Phillips Medal to Dr, Salim Ali, The citation reads :

10TH GENERAL ASSEMBLY I.U.C.N. 39

‘Senior Statesman of conservation and distinguished scientist,
whose influence on conservation in his own continent has been great and
whose work and accomplishments are known and respected throughout
the world;

Most distinguished ornithologist and field naturalist in his own
country, whose published works have long been the basic and authorita-
tive references on the birds of his country and have established him in
the foreground of world ornithologists ;

Internationally recognized and respected leader in conservation,
whose efforts over the years have been a major factor in creating the
climate of acceptance in conservation matters and preservation of wild life
which exists in his own country today”’.

Growth Potential of Red Hairy
Caterpillar, Amsacta moore: Butler,
in relation to certain Food Plants

BY

N. D. PANDEY, DAYA RAM YADAVA AND T. P. S. TEOTIA

Government Agricultural College, Kanpur

The larve of A. moorei were reared on eight natural food plants and
the growth response of the insect recorded. On the basis of survival
percentage of larve, percentage of adult emergence, pupal weight, size and
fecundity of moths, bajra was the most preferred food for A. moorei,
closely followed by urd. Castor was found to have a distinct retarding
effect on the normal rate of growth of A. moorei, resulting in a prolonged
larval period and also a relatively longer pupal period than in the case of
the other food plants. The larve failed to survive when reared on paddy,
sannhemp and arhar.

INTRODUCTION

The red hairy caterpillar, Amsacta moorei Butler, is polyphagous.
Fletcher (1914) recorded it on jowar, bajra, groundnut, castor, cotton
and pulses. It is also reported to attack cow pea, soyabean, maize, sann-
hemp and sorghum by Pruthi (1938) and Bindra & Kittur (1958). In view
of the wide range of host plants of this pest, it is important to know how
far the growth and development of the insect are influenced by the vari-
ous food plants. This paper is a report on the relative food value of
some of the important food plants of A. moorei which is an important
and widely distributed pest of crops in Uttar Pradesh.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A gravid female moth of A. moorei was collected from the field on
27th July, 1964. It was kept in a glass jar and fed on 5 per cent sugar
solution soaked in cotton wool. The next day the moth laid eggs freely
on the glass jar. Four days after egg-laying the eggs hatched satisfactorily.
Immediately after hatching the tiny larve were carefully collected with
the help of a camel hair brush and 20 larvee were transferred to each
of the eight sets of 10.0 cm. petridishes containing clean and tender
leaves of the following food plants :

Maize (Zea mays), jowar (Sorghum vulgare), bajra (Pennisetum
typhoideum), castor (Ricinus communis), urd (Phaseolus mungo), arhar
(Cajanus cajan), paddy (Oryza sativa) and sannhemp (Crotalaria juncea).

GROWTH POTENTIAL OF AMSACTA MOOREI 41

The food was changed once in the morning every day. As the larve
grew older, they were transferred to bigger petridishes (15.0 cm. diameter).
The number of larvee becoming pup, the time taken to complete the
larval development and the larval weight at two intervals, viz., 6 and 12
days after hatching, were recorded.

After pupation, the pupz were transferred to separate glass jars
and their mouths covered with muslin cloth. Data on pupal period,
pupal weight after 4 days of pupation, percentage of adult emergence,
size and sex-ratio of the adults resulting from the larve reared on different
food plants were also recorded.

The emerging moths were separated into another set of glass jars
and fed on 5 per cent sugar solution. The data on the longevity and
fecundity of the moths and the incubation period of the eggs were recorded
for each set.

Twenty newly hatched larve of the same date of hatching were kept
in 10.0 cm. petridishes in identical sets, as before, and the leaves of the
same food plants were fed to them and the data recorded in the same
manner as described earlier. In this way the growth and development
of the insect on the different food plants were studied through two con-
secutive generations.

All tests were performed at room temperature prevailing at Kanpur
during July to September (Max. 86-102° F, Min. 83-88° F and Relative
humidity 50-92 per cent).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The effect of different food plants on the percentage survival of the
larve and the range of larval period is shown in Table 1. The growth
index figures obtained by dividing the percentage(n) of the larvee becoming
pupz by the average time (Av) taken to complete the development are
also given in the table.

TABLE 1

THE SURVIVAL PERCENTAGE, RANGE OF LARVAL PERIOD AND GROWTH INDEX OF A. moorei
IN RELATION TO THE TYPE OF FOOD SUPPLIED

Number | Number | Percentage) Range of | Average | Growth

1 of larve | of larve | of larve larval larval index
Food plant | kept for | pupated | pupated | period in | period n Av
obser- (n) days in days
vation (Av)
Maize 40 8 20.0 15-16 1525 1.29
Jowar 40 10 25.0 15 15 1.66
Bajra 40 20 50.0 16 16 312
Castor 40 9 22.5 23-30 26.5 0.84
Urd 40 16 40.0 17-19 18 2.22

42 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

The Chi-square test for association of the type of food given and the
number of larvee pupated showed that the value of chi-square(x), which
is 12.408, is significant at 5 per cent level. The results, therefore, suggest
that the type of food has differential response to the survival percentage
of A. moorei larve. Bajra is the most preferred and maize the least. On
the basis of the growth index values also the development of larvee was
best on bajra, followed by urd, jowar, maize and castor in the descending
order. It would be seen, however, that while the percentage of larve
pupated was lowest on maize, castor resulted in the lowest growth index
value apparently because the larval period was considerably prolonged
on this food plant. The results also showed that the larve completely
failed to survive when reared on paddy, sannhemp and arhar.

Table 2 shows the effect of different food plants in inducing variation
in the larval weights. It will be seen from the table that the larval weights
on the sixth day after hatching although slightly less in the case of urd
and maize are practically identical in the case of jowar, bajra and castor.
But differences are observable among them on the twelfth day after
hatching. The results, therefore, suggest that the type of food has differen-
tial response to the gain in weight of larvee from six days onwards. During
this period the gain in weight in the case of bajra is highest and significantly
different from all others except castor; while it is lowest with maize
and urd which do not differ significantly from each other. However, no
definite correlation can be established between the gain in weight of
larve on different food plants and their growth index values.

TABLE 2
VARIATION IN LARVAL WEIGHT IN RELATION TO TYPE OF FOOD

Mean larval weight in gm.
Gain in weight

Food plant between the two
6 days after 12 days after | intervals in gm.
hatching hatching
Maize .. a i so 0.0128 0.1360 0.1232
Jowar .. oe sy ane 0.0165 0.1685 0.1520
Bajra .. ae Ke ue 0.0160 0.1915 0.1755
Castor .. 8G os ei 0.0160 0.1785 0.1625
Urd.. rf Me zt 0.0140 0.1505 0.1365
f = highly significant. CoDvat 5% =0.015

Table 3 shows the duration of the pupal period and the variations
in the pupal weights when the larve were fed on different food plants.
It would be seen from the table that the duration of the pupal life, though
only slightly variable, was shortest with bajra and longest with castor,
while jowar, maize and urd are found intermediate. The pupal period

GROWTH POTENTIAL OF AMSACTA MOOREI 43

was thus affected in much the same way as the larval period by the respec-
tive food plants. Further, the highest pupal weight is obtained with larve
fed on bajra and next in order came urd, castor, jowar and maize. The
pupal weight is thus apparently correlated with the growth index value
of the plant except in the case of castor.

TABLE 3

DURATION OF PUPAL PERIOD AND PUPAL WEIGHTS OF A. moorei IN RELATION TO THE
TYPE OF LARVAL FOOD SUPPLIED

Average pupal

Range of pupal | Average pupal weight after 4

Food plant period (in days) | period (in days) days of pupation
in gm.
Maize .. e Pd a 5-7 6.25 0.089
Jowar .. : i ni 6.00 0.097
Bajra ol sy ai 5-6 Ser 0.172
Castor .. Be: re sus 6-8 7.00 0.010
O77 Ce ; ‘i ce 6-7 6.70 0.160

The effect of different foods in inducing variation in percentage
emergence, size and sex-ratio of the adult moths is given in Table 4.
This table shows that the percentage of adult emergence is highest when
the larve are reared on bajra and lowest on jowar, while the remaining
can be arranged in the following descending order : Urd > castor >
maize. The percentage of adult emergence is thus affected by the respective
food plants in much the same way as the survival percentage of larve.
It is also seen from the results that the largest size is obtained if reared
on bajra and urd, followed by those fed on castor, jowar and maize.
These results show that the size of the moths as well as the pupal weight
are affected by the different food plants in the same way and that the
heaviest pupz are the producers of large-sized moths. The females
outnumber the males in the case of jowar, bajra and maize, but are equal
in number if reared on castor and urd.

TABLE 4

PERCENTAGE EMERGENCE, SIZE AND SEX-RATIO OF ADULT MOTHS OF A. moorei IN RE-
LATION TO THE TYPE OF LARVAL FOOD SUPPLIED

Mean size of male Mean size of female
im cm. in cm.

Percentage Sex-ratio
Food plant of adult male:
emergence| Body Wing Body Wing female
length expanse length expanse

Maize .. 62.5 1.4 225 1.43 2.66 1:1.50
Jowar .. 60.0 1.0 2°25 eS PAS | 1: 2.00
Rajra ..... 80.0 1.5 2.3 1.6 228) 1: 1.66
Castor .. 66.6 12 2.5 3 207 1:1.00
Urd me 75.0 F.5 205 15 2:8) 1: 1.00
RN iS SS SSI SS SS SG IS i i i erp eS

44 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

Table 5 shows the longevity and fecundity of the moths bred from
larve reared on different food plants, as also the incubation period of
the eggs laid by them. It will be seen that the female moths, when fed
on 5 per cent sugar solution, lived slightly longer than the males in all
cases. They lived longest when bred from larve reared on bajra and
shortest on castor. Marked differences are seen in regard to the number
of eggs laid by the females, the largest numbers of eggs being laid by the
moths raised on bajra, followed by urd, maize, castor, and jowar in the
descending order. The incubation period of eggs varied only slightly,
being longest in the case of moths raised on urd and shortest on castor.

TABLE 5

LONGEVITY, FECUNDITY AND INCUBATION PERIOD RECORDS OF A, moorei IN RELATION TO
THE TYPE OF LARVAL FOOD SUPPLIED

Average longevity in days Average Average
Food plant number of | incubation
eggs laid period in
J 9 per female days
Maize 3 0 5.0 349 3.0
Jowar rape eas ron 4.0 5.0 250 3.0
Bara, eae eee 4.0 6.0 312 3.0
Castor SLT Nee 4.0 4.5 324 2.8
Urd 3.0 5.0 448 305

Finally with regard to time for completing the life cycle, i.e., the
period from egg-laying to the emergence of moths, it will be seen that
it was 24.75 days with maize and bajra, 24.0 days with jowar, 28.25
days with urd, and 36.3 days with castor.

REFERENCES

BinpRA, O. S., & Kitrur, S.U., Indian Insects and other animals of
(1958): On the biology and control of the importance. Supdt. Govt. Press Madras,
red hairy caterpillar, Amsacta moorei pp. 369.

Butler (Arctuide-Lepidoptera) in Ma- Prutul, H. S., (1938): Report of the
dhya Pradesh. Vikram (Sci.) 5:62-72. Imperial Entomologist. Sci. Rep. Agri.

FLETCHER, T. B., (1914): Some South Res. Inst. New Delhi. pp. 113-128.

Cause and effects of a heavy
rainfall in Darjeeling and in the
Sikkim Himalayas

BY

LESZEK STARKEL

Institute of Geography of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow
(Poland)

(With two text-figures)

During his stay in Darjeeling in November and December 1968 the
author collected data relating to the catastrophic rainfall, which occurred
in this region between the 2nd and 5th October 1968, and amounted to
1091 mm. (fig. 1) at Kurseong. The present report is chiefly concerned
with the causes of this rainfall. Its effects will be dealt with more fully
in a separate paper.

In the monsoon climate of India the rainy season covers 4 to 6 months,
and usually lasts from May to September. The heaviest precipitation
is noted on the southern slopes of mountains (the monthly rainfall in
the Assam hills amounts to 2800 mm.). On the border of the Sikkim
Himalayas and in the neighbouring parts of Nepal and Bhutan, not
screened by hills, the annual rainfall is also abundant—of the order
of 2500-5000 mm. In Darjeeling the summer half of the year
receives 2852 mm. and in the winter half only 241 mm. From June to
September it rains almost every day (each month with 20-27 rainy days)
and 5 to 20 days with a rainfall exceeding 50 mm. During the 2-3
winter months, there is rarely rain. According to data for the years
1949 - 1968, the rainfall ranged from 2100 to 3900 mm. in this period
(fig. 1). Precipitation of catastrophic type occurs rarely, the heaviest
rainfall ina day was noted in Darjeeling in 1899 (493 mm.) and 1950
(454 mm.). Every 20 - 30 years in the course of a continuous 3 - 5 day’s
precipitation the amount of rainfall goes up to 1000 mm.

Precipitation is differentiated spatially. In the monsoon climate a
rain shadow is distinctly marked, for example, in the Assam-uplands,
Cherapunji receives 10869 mm.; whereas Shillong lying immediately
behind the interfluve, only 2253 mm. On the border of the Himalayas

4

46 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

there occurs an inversion of precipitation. While the stations at the foot
of mountains record 2000 - 3500: mm., Kurseong at an altitude of 1400 m.-
4052 mm., and Darjeeling lying on the ridge at an altitude of 2150 m.,
only. 3092 mm. In deep valleys the contrasts are still greater. During the
showers which occurred in 1950 between the 9th and 14th June, the amount
of rainfall varied from 275 to 1150 mm. ©

Changes in the discharge of rivers are the result of differences in
the annual course of precipitation and of the occurrence of heavy rainfall.
G. N. Dutt reports that the discharges of the River Gish, south of Kalim-
pong, with a drainage area of 62 square miles wooded in 42 per cent,
varied in 1952 from 3 m.3/sec. to 22270 m.3/sec. the maximum specific
run-off amounting therefore to 133. m.3/sec./km.?2

The information obtained by the author concerns part of the terrain
stricken with flood. The main ridge of the Himalayas in this part is the
Sikkim Himalayas culminating in the mighty Kanchenjunga massif
(8586 m.). In front lie the Darjeeling Hills with ridges ranging from 2000
to 3000 m. above sea-level, cut by valleys 1000 to 2000 m. deep. The
largest River Tista with a catchment basin of about 7500 sq. km. drains
the whole of Sikkim and is a tributary of Brahmaputra (in the last century
it flowed to the Ganges).

The lower step of the Himalayas is chiefly built of strongly folded
gneisses and mica schists of the Darjeeling series of medium resistance.
Along the edges of the mountains and in deep valleys the underlying,
weak, shales of the Daling series as well as sandstones, quartzites, and
shales of the Gondwana series are exposed on the surface, whereas on
the border of the lowland poorly cemented sandstones and shales of the
Siwalik series occur. The structure of the substratum and the consider-
able unevened slopes of rivers deepening their channels cause the ridges
of the Lower Himalayas to be generally narrow and rounded, the slopes
steep, inclined at 20 - 50°, straight or convex (undercut at the foot),
less frequently convex-concaye. They are dissected by numerous steep-
walled ravines and shallow gullies with bottoms covered with debris
scree, and diversified by old and new landslide channels. Despite their
steepness there developed on the slopes a waste cover of sandy loam
on gneiss 0.5-5 m. thick, absorbing large quantities of water, not
readily subject to wash-out but susceptible to mass movements. This
area was covered in the past by the jungle. Up to the height of 500 m.
it was.a tropical forest, from 500 to 2000 m. — a subtropical forest com-
posed of many species of trees, and from 2000 to 3600 m. above sea-level
— various vertical zones of temperate forest, higher with Rhododendron.
In the past century the forests were largely destroyed and their species

\
\
4 3440 CH ON

—

oRINGTONG
NAGRI FARM (4 wor hi )

1. Peaks;
7. automatic recorders.

2. rivers;

e

~~ ALIMPONG _

1209m/

asta

DARJEELING ~

A2be5m
Sonada

ere

Le \ \

\ Qy | =

‘ ore

; YN Pe
SILIGURI “

Darjeeling District
3. main roads; 4. boundaries; 5. pass; 6. rainfall;

ho

NAGRi FARM

1158m q.s.l.
20
mm

KALIMPONG

(ca 1200m a.¢.)
620
r)

2" 1@ 20 2% & 8 1 6 20 me! @ wm 6 20 %» & 8
t]
2.¥.68 3 3. %.68 : 4 X.68 1 2%.68
Fig. 2—Rainfall between 2 and 5 October according to automatic recorders, Nagri
Farm (From Dr. F. Rahman), Kalimpong (from Meteorological Office)

CAUSE AND EFFECTS OF HEAVY RAINFALL 47

composition underwent changes. It is only above the altitude of 2200 m.
that dense forest complexes have been preserved. Below 1800 m. about
30 - 50 per cent of the area is occupied by tea gardens established in the
nineteenth century.

Similarly as in the three preceding years the summer monsoon in 1968
was poor in precipitation (fig. 1), amounting only to 2000 mm., and the
daily rainfall exceeded 50 mm. only 6 times. Towards the end of Septem-
ber a storm front developed over the Bay of Bengal and after becoming
transformed into a deep depression it reclined on the Himalayas. On the
2nd October 1968, after a local afternoon rainfall, an uninterrupted rain
began to fall at about 8 p.m. It covered eastern Nepal, Darjeeling Hills,
Sikkim, and western Bhutan. Its intensity increased during 3rd Octo-
ber, rising to 15 - 20 mm. per hour on the night from the 3rd to the 4th.
Then it weakened but became stronger again in the afternoon of the 4th
October. Between 8 and 12 p.m. it reached its peak, amounting to 40 - 60
mm./hr. on the average. At daybreak the rain stopped altogether. The
automatic rainfall stations (fig. 2) give a clear picture of the course of the
intensity of the rainfall, while the other stations show the spatial diffe-
rentiation of its amount (Table ). The largest amount of rainfall was noted

TABLE

RAINFALL BETWEEN 2—5 OCTOBER 1968 IN DARJEELING REGION

Station For year 68) 2.x.68 3.x.68 4.x.68 | 2-5.x.68
Jalpaiguri .. ws ae 120.0 113.0 as 233.0
Nagri Farm 91.4 260.1 382.8 734.3
Nagri Farm/automatic rec. her O76 241.6 368.9 698.1
Kurseong St. Mey S

College .. ; -. 4878.5 152.0 301.0 638.0 1091.0
Rangtong T. E. .. .. 3197.8 151.1 209.5 241.0 601.6
Poobong T. E. 3975.1 110.0 255.0 400.0 765.0
Darjeeling Planters Club... 2651.2 93 35 210.3 303.3 607.1
Darjeeling Meteorol. Obs. | 85.0 215.0 275.0 575.0
Bannockburn T. E. . 2689.6 83.3 207.0 356.1 646.4
Chongtong T. E. .. ae above |

650.0
Kalimpong Meteorol. Obs. 73.4 257.8 465.1 796.3
Kalimpong automatic rec. . 71.1 261.3 456.1 788.5

on slopes of mountains exposed to the south at an altitude of 1000 - 1500
m. Kurseong recorded 1091 mm., and Kalimpong 796 mm. A smaller
amount of rainfall was noted by stations in deep valleys on the southern
slope (Nagri Farm 734 mm., Poobong 765 mm.), the lowest being recorded
on ridges (Darjeeling 575 mm., and 607 mm.) and in valleys in the rain
shadow (Bannockburn 646 mm.). The 60 hours’ rainfall was the last of
the summer monsoon, when the soil was already saturated with moisture
[in contrast to the rainfall of June 1950 — cf. (fig. 1)]. However, the

48 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

immediate cause of the sudden run-off of waters was the last accent of
heavy rain, when within 4 hours there fell 200 mm., and locally probably
still more. This.occurred on 4th October and according to eye-wit-
ness accounts at about 11 p.m. slopes began to slide down, while the
swollen rivers carried away bridges.

First of all the equilibrium of the circulation of water on slopes was
disturbed. The water infiltrating into the sandy soil could not penetrate
deeper into the unweathered rock and began.to flow junder pressure
grooving channels in the soil and gushing in the form of springs, giving
rise to mud and rubble sliding tongues denuding whole patches of slopes
of the weathering crust: Where the water infiltrated deeper along joints,
large rock slides 1 km. long and 20-30 m. deep were formed, being also
encountered in forests. The waters flowing in the bottoms of overgrown
ravines began to deepen them with the boulders they were carrying and
to undercut valley sides.

The waters gathered in the stream beds, which often were deepened
up to 8 m. in solid rock, or else were filled up in sections with alluvia (the
author observed thickness amounting to 12 m.). These beds had fre-
quently become three to five times wider. The force of the water was
evidenced by its carrying heaps of boulders 2 - 5 m. in diameter, some of
them even exceeding 10 m. The violent rise of waters included also the
large rivers. The level of the Tista was up to 24 m. higher than the average
(at Tista Bazar the author noted a high water mark 18 m. above its level
at the end of November). The observed velocity of the flood water
amounting to 20 km./hr., the mean transversal cross-section of the river
channel being 5,000 m?., permitted the calculation that at Tista Bazar
there flowed about 27,500 m.?/sec., which equals a specific run-off of
3.6 m.3/sec./km.”. According to hydrological data published in the
Calcutta press (Statesman), the River Kosi, draining eastern Nepal,
carried in the morning of the 5th October 1968, 91, 300 m.?/sec., which
corresponds to a specific run-off of 14.7 m.*/sec./km.”. The waters of
rivers flowing out on to the plains flooded vast areas, bringing about the
formation of new river channels and submerging fields and settlements,
or covering them with gravel and sand. c

The result of these heavy rains were geomorphological changes of
slopes and valley bottoms, as well as economic loss.

In the region of Darjeeling about 20 per cent of deforested slopes
became transformed through the degradation of the upper soil layer and
often of the whole waste cover, e.g. in the Poobong tea gardens out of
the 200.5 ha. of tea fields 26 per cent were destroyed and out of the 520
ha. of the total area of the settlement—18.2 per cent. The damage in
the forests was 10 times lesser. Thus, one can estimate (the aforestation

CAUSE AND EFFECTS OF HEAVY RAINFALL 49

of the catchment basin amounting to 30 - 50 per cent) that on the average
a l-metre thick layer of substratum was removed from 10 per cent of the
area, which equals a lowering of the whole terrain by 10 cm. in the course
of the considered heavy rain (degradation of the order of 100,000 m.°
per 1 km.”). Only an insignificant part of the material held on at the
base of slopes, while most of it was carried away by the swollen rivers.
The high undercuttings and deepening in the solid rock indicate that the
transport power of the rivers exceeded the usual supply from the slopes.
This is a characteristic trait of rivers of humid regions with uneven slopes
and of young mountains lifted by. tectonic movements. The compa-
rison with other catastrophes, especially with those of the years
1899. and 1950, permits the assumption that the deepening of valleys
and retreating of mountain slopes takes place above all during periods of
catastrophic rainfall, occurring once in 20-30 years and being some-
times connected in this region with earthquakes. The periods dividing
them are phases of carrying down the material to channels during normal
monsoon precipitation, and of intense chemical weathering preparing
the waste material which will be removed from the slopes during the
subsequent catastrophic rainfall. Worthy of note is that landslides formed
in 1950 did not generally undergo rejuvenation by 1968. The period of
18 years was too short for the development of a new soil layer.

The catastrophic rainfall caused great damage to the economy.
Apart from the fact that about 1,500 people had been killed (excluding
Nepal and Bhutan), hundreds of houses were destroyed, settlements
buried (e.g. Pul Bazar), scores of bridges carried away, including the
main bridge on the Tista on the road leading to Tibet, and in about 200
sections the high road and railway line from Siliguri to Darjeeling was
cut. Agriculture suffered losses difficult to retrieve. In the mountains
20-30 per cent of cultivated land (chiefly tea gardens) was destroyed,
and in the lowland, apart from the buried fields, irrigation appliances
were ruined.

The catastrophic rains recurring roughly every 20 years require a
regulation of the water circulation, chiefly by means of a skilful draining
of the waste cover on mountain slopes, which would preclude the de-
velopment of newly formed landslides and prevent future catastrophes,
as well as the construction of storage reservoirs at the outlet of all the
Himalayan valleys.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to express his sincere thanks for the help in
collecting material for this study to the following offices and persons: the
Meteorological Dept. of the Government of India, the Director General

50 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

of Observatories, Dr. F. Rhaman from the Tea Research Association in
Darjeeling, the Rector of St. Mary’s College in Kurseong, the Managers
of the Tea Estates belonging to the Darjeeling Tea Company, the Direc-
tor of Soil Conservation and the Divisional Forest Officer, Darjeeling
Forest Division. These investigations could be carried out thanks to a
grant of the Government of India, Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research, obtained within the framework of an agreement with the
Polish Academy of Sciences.

Dr. N. R. Kar of the Government College of the West Bengal
University was kind enough to give me the first introduction to the
area in November 1968 at a symposium organised by the Int. Geo-
graphical Congress at Darjeeling.

A Catalogue of the Birds in the
Collection of the Bombay Natural
History Society-6

Scolopacinae (part)
BY

HUMAYUN ABDULALI
[Continued from Vol. 66(3) : 559]

This part deals with 218 specimens of 19 species and subspecies
up to No. 403 in IND. HANDBOOK (2: 297), up to Register No. 23299.
Miss Shanta Nair, Research Assistant, attended to measurements and
other routine work, and I am grateful for her assistance.

385 Numenius phaeopus phaeopus (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Whimbrel
6: 203

18: 107.9779 9 lo?

1 Bushire, Persian Gulf; 1 Baluchistan; 1 Kandla, Kutch; 1 Thana Creek,
1 Thana District, 1 Bhyander, 1 Versova, 1 Bombay, 2 Panvel, Kolaba;
1 Pulicat, Chingleput, Madras; 3 Long Island, Middle Andamans, 2 Car
Nicobar, 1 Camorta, 1 Great Nicobar.

Five of the seven from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are
females, while eight of the ten males are from the west coast down to
about Bombay.

With the literature available I have been unable to decide if any of
them is variegatus (Scopoli).

386 Numenius phaeopus’ variegatus (Scopoli) (Luzon) Eastern

Whimbrel 6: 204
nil.

387 Numenius arquata arquata (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Curlew 6: 200
nil.

388 Numenius arquata orientalis C.L.Brehm (East Indies) 6: 202

11: 397.4% 592 30?

1 Amara, Iraq; 2 Bharatpur, Rajasthan ; 3 Kutch; 3 Kolaba District, Maharashtra;
1 Peking, China; 1 col. C.M. Inglis (=Bihar?).

All the specimens have almost unmarked axillaries and from the
literature available appear to be of this race.
[113]

o2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

Wing Bill Tail
Jo 280, 295, 295 (280-297) 141, 142, 142 104-107
(137-139)
9 g 290-307 av. 300 135-190 av. 161 107-110
(300-314) (135-194)

The measurements include those of two females obtained near
Bombay in October (and not in the Society’s collection) which have
very short bills (135, 143).

389 Limosa limosa limosa (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Blacktailed Godwit

11:39719 39 9 5o?

3 Baghdad; 1 Rohtak, Persian Baluchistan; 1 Risalpur, N.W.F.P.; 1 Khara-
sheds Gujarat; 2 Nasik, 1 Panvel; 1 col. C.M. Inglis (=Bihar?); 1 Manipur,
ssam.

The females of this species are larger than the males, and this race
(wing 205-240; bill 88-126; tarsus 75-82) is accepted (FAUNA and IND.
HANDBOOK) as larger than melanuroides (wing 176-207, bill 77-95,
tarsus 66-73).

The five birds from Iraq and the north-west (1% 40?) are larger
than the four from the rest of India (lo 39 ?).

Wing 22131222, 224,230, 234 cf. 198, 211, 212, 215
Bill 102, 114, 116, 122, 127 cf. 103, 103, 104, 106
Tarsus 84, 85, 88, 90, 91 cf. 72, 75(2), 78

In the dry stage the former also have their bills more yellow, less
dusky.

The female from Nasik (No. 20147) measuring 198, 104, and 75
may well be of the next form. A larger series of correctly sexed specimens
from peninsular India is necessary!.

390 Limosa limosa melanuroides Gould (Port Essington, Australia)
Eastern Blacktailed Godwit 6: 207

2 0? Tientsin, China.
Wing 194, 209 (LaTouche in BIRDS OF EASTERN CHINA measures 3 females; 192,
211, and 228); bill (one only) 106 (LaTouche: 72.5, 78.5, 112); tarsus 62, 75.
391 Limosa lapponica lapponica (Linnaeus) (Lapland) Bartailed
Godwit 6: 252

4:1 97299 1o?
1 Kandla, Kutch; 1 Bhyander, 1 Thana, Bombay, 1* Rewas, Kolaba.

The female obtained on 8 December* is much greyer above than
the others (August-September).

1 After this was completed a 1 and a Q{shot out of a flock at Rewas, Kolaba
District, on 19 October 1969, were measured: wings 217 and 245, and bills 112 and
124 respectively.

[114]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—6 53

392 Tringa erythropus (Pallas) (Holland) Spotted or Dusky
Redshank 6: 223

10:2977 59 2 30? 3 in summer plumage)

1 Aliabad, 12 m. SE. of Shiraz, Iran; 1 Khushdil Lake, Quetta; 1 Dodi, Malwa
Plateau, Bhopal; 1 Bogna, Shahjehanpur, U.P.; 3 Darbhanga, Bihar; 2 no
data, col. F.J.R. Field; 1 Tientsin, China.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail
o'c' 166, 168 57, 58 57,57 66, 70
(158-168) (53-59) (53-59) (60-68)
9 9 164-169 av. 166.4 55, 56, 59 53-60 av. 56.6 63-68 av. 65.6
(166-177) (57-64) — el
393 Tringa totanus totanus (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Common Red-
shank 6: 221
394 Tringa totanus eurhinus (Oberholser) (Tso Moriri Lake’
15,000’, Ladakh) Eastern Redshank 6: 222

37: 10079 259 9 20?

2 Hawi Plain, 1 Samarrah, Iraq; 1 Turbat, 1 Shiraz, 1 Kuh-e-Khwaja, Hamun
Lake, Iran; 1 Rohtak R., near Sib, Persian Baluchistan; 1 Hajarganji, Balu-
chistan; 3 Bahawalpur, Punjab; 2 Kandla, Kutch; 1 Bassein, 2 Bhyander,
1 Hog Island, Bombay, 5 Belapur, Thana, 3 Panvel, 2 Rewas, Kolaba, 1 Rajapur,
Ratnagiri; 1 Karwar; 1 Point Calimere; 1 Chilka Lake; 3 Calcutta Market;
2 Andamans; 1 Car Nicobar.

There have been continued and considerable differences of opinion
regarding the races of the Redshank occuring in India. Oberholser
described eurhinus as larger than nominate totanus. Meinertzhagen said
that they were not separable, but described terrignotae from Koko Nor,
both races being said to winter in India. Stuart Baker (6: 220) accepted
this, but later authors synonymised terrignotae with eurhinus ! BIRDS OF
SOVIET UNION (3: 230) does not accept either eurhinus or terrignotae,
synonymising both with nominate totanus. In SYNOPSIS, both totanus
and eurhinus were said to occur all over India, but in IND. HANDBOOK
(2: 257) the occurrence of the nominate race in India is doubted.

The specimens available measure :—

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail
991 1153-166 av. 158 43-45 av. 44.2 47-52 av. 49.5 61-66 av. 64
(ex Vaurie 152- (from skull (49-51) (63-72)
165 av. 157.5) 45-51) :
259 9152-171 av. 160.4 42-50 av. 45 47-53 av. 49.9 59-71 av. 64.5
(2¢ 9 162,165) (from skull 51-54) — 7

All the specimens are in winter plumage and it is evident that the
grey sheen on freshly obtained specimens fades into the pale brown
of the older skins in a few years.

The measurements of the bill from feathers, 39-42, for Tringa

t. totanus aS in BR. HANDBOOK (4: 330) are sufficient to separate them
[115]

34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

from the present specimens, but as the measurements are not repeated
by subsequent authors I presume they are not correct. A male obtained
at Point Calimere on 18th October 1969 has its wing 150, bill 37 (tip
broken), tail 63, and tarsus 44. The upper parts are darker and many
of the feathers tipped with pale rufous indicating that this is a juvenile.

Without material from Europe, it is not possible to offer any remarks
except to reiterate that (1) the birds from Mesopotamia do not differ
from the others in size or colour, (2) the half-dozen specimens identified
by Whistler and/or Ticehurst are all marked eurhinus, and (3) the others
do not appear to be different.

395 Tringa stagnatilis (Bechstein) (Germany) Marsh Sandpiper or
Little Greenshank 6: 216
8: 51739 9

1 Kandla, Kutch; 2 Panvel, 1 Dharamtar Creek, Kolaba; 1 Balugaon, Chilka
Lake; 3 Calcutta Market.

Wing Bill
Je 145 (132-139) 40, 40, 41, 43 (37-40)
@ 9 137, 140, 142 (133-143) 39, 40 (40-50)

The measurements in IND. HANDBOOK (2: 261) are from BRITISH
HANDBOOK and show some differences from those available.

396 Tringa nebularia (Gunnerus) (District of Trondhjem, Norway)

Greenshank 6: 225
23: 12794 109 9 lo?

1 Samara, 1 Azuzali, R. Tigris, Iraq; 1 Hamun. Lake, Seistan, 1 Bampur R.,

near Pahran, Persian Baluchistan; 1 Jaipur; 2 Vaghjipur, Mehsana; 1 Ahmeda-

bad; 1 Ghoti, Nasik; 2 Thana; 3 Bhyander, Bombay; 1 Chilka Lake;

1 Baghowni, 1 Banhar, Darbhanga, Bihar; 1 Kheri, Oudh; 3 Calcutta Market;
1 Bhugwada, Nepal; 1 Meping R., Paknampo, Siam.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail
oc’ 177-205 av. 190 53-59 av. 55.6 58-67 av. 60 80-89 av. 82.3
(184-194) (50-56) (55-61) (68-80)
992. 183-201 av. 190.5 54-60 av. 56.7 59-63 av. 61.5 75-86 av. 79
(184-200) (53-59) — —

397 ‘Tringa ochropus Linnaeus (Sweden) Green Sandpiper 6: 215

39: 134919 219 9 So?

1 Sulaimaniyah, Iraq; 1 Duzdap, E. Persia; 1 Sib, 1 Geh, Persian Baluchistan;
2 Wana, Baluchistan; 2 Chitral; 1 Kalsi, 1 Muglib, Ladakh; 1 Banyar, Kashmir;
1 Kashmor, Upper Sind Frontier; 1 Punjab; 4 Delhi, 1 Keonthal; 1 Patan,
Jaipur; 3 Bombay; 1 Karwar; 1 Kumbum Valley, Kurnool Dist.; 1 Gondia,
Balaghat; 1 Baghowni, Tirhut ; 2 Cawnpore, 2 Meerut, 1 Kheri Dist.; 1 Karun-
prayog, Garhwal; 1 Calcutta Market; 1 Imphal, Manipur; 1 Prome, 1 Thayet-
myo, Burma; 3 Peking, China.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail
ao 136-152 av. 142.7 31-37 av. 34 31-39 av. 34-3 52-61 av. 57

(136-148) (33-35) (32-34) (52-61)
99. 138-148 av. 143 33-36 av. 34.7 33-37 av. 34 55-62 av. 58

(142-153) (33-36)
[116]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—6 35

398 Tringa glareola Linnaeus (Sweden) Spotted Sandpiper 6: 219

36: 139793 209 9 30?

2 Baghdad, Iraq; 1 Kajjarak near Shiraz, Iran; 2 Sib, Persian Baluchistan; 2 Harbuz,
c. 55 m. east of Panjgur, Kalat, Baluchistan; 1 Chitral, N.W.F.P.; 1 Ladak,
Kashmir; 1 Delhi; 1 Kutch; 1 Bardoli, Baroda, Gujarat; 1 Ghoti, Nasik,
4 Thana, 3 Kolaba; 2 Palnis; 2 Travancore; 1 Chilka, Orissa; 3 Calcutta
Market; 1 Meerut, 1 Nahrosa, Pilibhit, U.P.; 1 Margherita, Assam; 1 Anda-
mans; 3 Burma, 1 Peking, China.

SG) eg
Wing 122-134 av. 124.6 (iH 120-128) 122-132 av. 129 (tH 125-130)

Bill 28-32 (tH 25-29 ex BR. HANDBOOK) 27-31 (IH ex BR. HANDBOOK 25-31)
Sp. No. 19756 from Thana District, Bombay, is in abberrant plumage
being washed with greyish all over.

Two T. ochropus were listed under this species.

399 Tringa guttifer (Nordmann) (Okhotsk) Spotted Greenshank
io bil. 6; 226

400 Tringa terek (Latham) (Shores of the Caspian Sea about the
mouth of the Terek River) Terek or Avocet Sandpiper 6: 212

9:29 9739 9 40?

1 Kashgar, Chinese Turkestan; 1 Karachi; 1 Bhyander, Bombay ; 2 Rewas, Kolaba
Dist.; 1 Cannanore, Malabar; 1 Point Calimere; 1 Calcutta Bazar; 1 Betapur,
Middle Andamans.

The specimen from Cannanore is no doubt one of the two obtained
at this place on 12 December 1931, and noted in the Eastern Ghats
Survey (JBNHS 39: 255). It was later received on 6 December 1938 from
Major Phythian-Adams, then resident in the Nilgiris, and the entries on
the labels and in the Register were changed to read ‘‘ Cannanore,
Nilgiris, S.I., 6th Dec. 1938”.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail
125-135 av. 130 43-52 av. 47 26-28 av. 27 47-52 av. 50
(126-141) (1 7'43-49, 2 9 44-52) (25-28) (47-56)

401 Tringa hypoleucos Linnaeus (Sweden) Common Sandpiper
6: 217

28:1097 97 119 9 7o?

1 Feluja, R. Euphrates, Iraq; 2 Chaharbar (Chah Bahar ?), Persian Gulf, 1 Fao,
1 Karun River, Persia; 2 Ashni R., 1 Chitral; 2 Chini, Simla Hills; 1 Chandigarh,
Punjab; 1 Karachi; 1 Bodeli, Gujarat ; 1 Bhyander, 1 Kurla, 1 Andheri, 1 Ghod-
bunder, 2 Bombay, 1 Rewas, Kolaba; 1 Karwar; 1 Edanad, Kerala; 1 Ceylon;
1 Rajora, 1 Bastar; 1 Baghowni, Bihar; 1 Rangpo, Sikkim; 1 Katchal,

Nicobars.
ores oe)
Wing 104-113 av. 109 (106-114) 103-114 av. 108.4 (111-119)
Bill 23-27 av. 24.1 (23-25) 23-27 av. 25.2 (24-26)

Tail 51-60 av. 54.8 (50-59) 53-61 av. 55.7 (50-59)
[117]

56 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

402 Arenaria interpres interpres (Linnaeus) (Gotland, Sweden)
Turnstone 6: 154

19:69:97 89 2 So?

2 Tanb Island, Persian Gulf; 1 Karachi; 1 Mandvi, 1 Kandla, Kutch; 1 Bandra,
1 Gorai, Bombay; 1 Rewas, Kolaba; 2 Cape Comorin (1 missing); 2 Chilka
Lake, Orissa; 1 Manipur, Assam; 1 Choldhari, 2 S. Sentinel Island, Andamans;
1 Papun, Burma; 2 Tientsin, China.

Wing oo 144-163 av. 151.6 (7H ex BR.HANDBOOK 147-157)
@ Q 142-159 av. 150 (HH. ex BR. HANDBOOK 146-162)

403 Limnodromus semipalmatus (Blyth) (Calcutta Bazar) Snipe-
billed Godwit 6: 210

2 o? (1, head only) Chilka Lake, Orissa.
Wing 181 (177-181); bill 81, 84 (77-87)

The statement in IND. HANDBOOK (2: 276) that it can be separated
in the field from a godwit by its conspicuously slenderer, longer bill is
no doubt in error, for the bill is appreciably shorter than that of the
Blacktailed (102-127) and no longer than in the Bartailed (o'71, ? ? 91,
99, 1 unsexed 82).

I may also draw attention to the fact that I have changed the type
locality from “‘ Madras ”’ to “‘ Calcutta Bazar’’. Jerdon first obtained a
specimen in the Madras Market and sent it to Blyth at the Indian Museum
at Calcutta, and it is in the first place misleading to indicate the type
locality as Madras. Some time later (1848), Blyth described the species
Macrorhamphus semipalmatus with Jerdon’s name as author. At the
same time he stated that the description was based on a fresh specimen
from the Calcutta Bazar. The authorship is correctly attributed to Blyth,
and the bird which formed the basis of the description, i.e. the bird
from the Calcutta Bazar, would be the type.

( to be continued )

[118}

Nomenclatural Notes on some
Flowering Plants—II

BY
N. P. BALAKRISHNAN
Botanical Survey of India, Eastern Circle, Shillong

} During general studies on Indian flora, particularly of Bhutan
and Jowai areas in Assam, and also during his work at the Hartley Bota-
nical Laboratories, University of Liverpool (U.K.) in 1966-67, the author
noticed that names of many plants needed change if the rules in the
International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (1966) were strictly applied.
These notes mainly involve the rules of priority, invalid publication,
later homonyms and also the recent altered taxonomic concepts of some
genera.

BRASSICACEAE

Sisymbrium bhutanicum Balak. nom. nov. S. lasiocarpum Hook f.
& Thoms. in J. Linn. Soc. 5 : 163, 1861 (non F. Muell. 1858) et in
Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 1 : 148, 1872.

FLACOURTIACEAE

Taraktogenos macrocarpa (Bedd.) Balak. comb. nov. Asteriastigma
macrocarpa Bedd. Fl. Sylv. 2: t. 266, 1872 et Ic. t. 242, 1874; Gamble,
Fl. Pres. Madras 52, 1915. Hydnocarpus macrocarpa (Bedd.) Warb.
in Engler & Prantl, Pflanzenfam. 3. (6a) : 21, 1893; Gilg in Engler, Pflan-
zenfam. 21 : 409, 1925.

MELIACEAE

Aglaia exstipulata (Griff.) Balak. comb. nov. Euphora exstipulatis
Griff. Notul. 4 : 547, 1851. A. polyantha Bedd. Ic. Pl. Ind. Or. 1: 44,
1874. A. minutiflora Bedd. 1. c. t. 193, 1874; Hiern in Hook. f. FI. Brit.
Ind. 1 : 557, 1875.

Dysoxylum alliarum (Buch.-Ham.) Balak. comb. nov. Guarea
alliaria Buch.-Ham. in Edinb. Mem. Wern. Soc. 6 : 305, 1832. Hartighsea
alliaria (Buch.-Ham.) Voigt, Hort. Sub. calc. 136, 1845. D. hamiltonii
Hiern in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 1 : 548, 1875.

Dysoxylum gobara (Buch.-Ham.) Merr. in J. Arn. Arb. 23: 173,
1942, Guarea gobara Buch.-Ham. in Edinb. Mem. Wern. Soc. 6 : 306,
1832. Hartighsea gobara (Buch.-Ham.) Voigt, Hort. Sub. Calc. 136, 1845.

1 Part I in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 63: 327-331, 1967.

58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

Guarea disyphonia Griff. Notul. 4 : 503, 1851, D. procerum Hiern in
Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 1 : 547, 1875,

RHAMNACEAE.

Sageretia parviflora (Roem. & Schult.) G. Don, Gen. Syst. 2 : 29,
1832. Rhamnus parviflorus Roem. & Schult. Syst. 5 : 295, 1820. Rhamnus
filiformis Roth, Nov. Sp. Pl. 153, 1821. Sageretia oppositifolia Brogn.
in Ann. Nat. Sc. sér. 1, 10 : 360, 1827; Lawson in Hook. f. Fl. Brit.
Ind. 1 : 641, 1875. Sageretia filiformis (Roth) G. Don, Gen. Syst. 2: 29,
1832; Raizada in Indian For. 94 : 450, 1968.

Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk. var. fruticosa (Haines) Seb. & Balak.
in Indian For. 89 : 525, 1963. Z. jujuba Lamk. var. fruticosa Haines,
For. Fl. Chota Nagpur 270, 1910 et Bot. Bih. Oriss. 195, 1921. Z. mauritiana
Lamk. var. fruticosa (Haines) Raizada & Saxena in Indian For. 92 : 326,
1966, nom. illeg.

ROSACEAE

Malus sikkimensis (Wenzig) Balak. comb. nov. Sorbus sikkimensis
Wenzig in Linnaea 38 : 58, 1874. Pyrus sikkimensis Hook. f. Fl. Brit.
Ind.,.2.:,373, 1878.

As treated by Hutchinson (Gen. Fl. Pl. 1 : 210, 1964) Malus
differs from Pyrus in styles being connate at base and fruits globose,
without or with very few grit cells.

Rubus duthieanus Balak. nom. nov. R. fasciculatus Duthie in Ann.
R. Bot. Gard. Calc. 9 : 39, 1901 (non P. J. Mueller, 1858).

Rubus duthieanus Balak. var. tomentosus (Cardot) Balak. comb.
nov. R. fasciculatus Duthie var. tomentosus Cardot in Le Comte, Notul.
Syst. 3 : 314, 1917.

Rubus glandulifer Balak. nom. nov. R. /anatus Hook. f. Fl. Brit.
Ind. 2 : 331, 1878 (non Focke, 1867).

Rubus kumaonensis Balak. nom. nov. R. reticulatus Hook. f. FI.
Brit. Ind. 2 : 331, 1878 (non Kerner, 1870).

Rubus kurzii Balak. nom. nov. R. ferox Wall. ex Kurz. For. FI.
Brit. Burma 1 : 437, 1877; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2 : 329, 1878 (non
Boenn. 1824).

Rubus nutantiflorus Hara in J. Jap. Bot. 40 : 327, 1965. R. nutans
Wall. ex G. Don, Gen. Syst. 2 : 528, 1832 (non Vest 1824); Hook. f. FI.
Brit. Ind. 2 : 334, 1878. |

Rubus nutantiflorus Hara var. nepalensis (Hook. f.) Balak. comb.
nov. R. nutans G. Don var. nepalensis Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2 : 334, 1878.

NOMENCLATURAL NOTES ON SOME FLOWERING PLANTS 59

Sorbus bhutanica (W. W. Smith) Balak. comb. nov. Pyrus bhutanica
W. W. Smith in Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind. 4 : 265, 1911.

Sorbus differs from Pyrus in corymbose or paniculate flowers and
pinnate or ‘pinnately lobed leaves, as treated by Hutchinson (Gen. FI.
Pl. 1: 210, 1964).

Sorbus kachinensis (W. W. Smith) Balak. comb. nov. Pyrus kachi
nensis W. W. Smith in Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind. 6 : 100, 1914.

Sorbus monbeigii (Cardot) Balak. comb. nov. Pyrus monbeigil
Cardot in Le Comte, Notul. Syst. 3 : 352, 1918.

Sorbus parvifolia (Blatter) Balak. comb. nov. Pyrus parvifolia
Blatter in J. Indian Bot. Soc. 9 : 207, 1930.

SAXIFRAGACEAE

Saxifraga himalaica Balak. nom. nov. S. micrantha Edgew. in
Trans. Linn. Soc. 20 : 50, 1846 (non Fisch. ex DC. 1830); Clarke in
Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2 : 394, 1878.

Saxifraga nigroglandulifer Balak. nom. nov. S. nutans Hook. f.
& Thoms. in J. Linn. Soc. 2 : 69, 1857 (non D. Don 1822; nec Adams
1834); Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2 : 393, 1878.

CRASSULACEAE

Sedum hookeri Balak. nom. nov. S. elongatum Hook. f. & Thoms.
in J. Linn. Soc. 2 : 98, 1858 (non Ledebour 1834); Clarke in Hook. f.
Fl. Brit. Ind. 2 : 419, 1878.

MELASTOMACEAE

Sonerila amabilis Kurz in J. As. Soc. Beng. 40 (2) : 53, 1871.
S. kurzii Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 2 : 539, 1879.

Sonerila trianae Balak. nom. nov. S. amabilis Triana (in Trans.
Linn. Soc. 28: 76, 1871, nom. nud.) ex Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind.
2 : 533, 1879 (non Kurz 1871).

S. amabilis Kurz (1871) is the earlier name for S. kurzii described
‘by C. B. Clarke in 1879 and hence treated here as the correct name.
Clarke’s binomial S. amabilis published in 1879 is not legitimate being
a later homonym of S. amabilis Kurz (1871) and hence a new name
S. trianae is proposed here.
5

60 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

ARALIACEAE

Euaraliopsis Hutch. Gen. FI. Pl.2: 80, 1967. Araliopsis Kurz,
Andaman Rep. App. 39, 1870, nom. nud. Brassaiopsis Clarke in Hook.
f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2 : 735, 1879, p.p. (non Decne & Planch. 1854).

Hutchinson (1967) separated this genus from Brassaiopsis sensu
‘Clarke (1879) on the basis that the leaves of Euaraliopsis are digitately
lobed or partite and not compound as in Brassaiopsis Decne & Planch.
The following species also belong to this genus :— ,

Euaraliopsis alpina (Clarke) Balak. comb. nov. Brassaiopsis alpina
Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2 : 736, 1879.

Euaraliopsis griffithii (Clarke) Balak. comb. nov. Brassaiopsis
griffithii Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2 : 736, 1879.

Euaraliopsis mitis (Clarke) Balak. comb. nov. Brassaiopsis mitis
Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2 : 736, 1879.

Euaraliopsis polyacantha (Wall.) Balak. comb. nov. Hedera
polyacantha Wall. Pl. As. Rar. 2: t. 190, 1831. Panax palmatum
Roxb. (Hort. Beng. 21, 1814, nom. nud.) et Fl. Ind. ed. 2, 2 : 74, 1832.
Araliopsis andamanica Kurz in Andaman Rep. App. 39, 1870. Brassai-
opsis palmata (Roxb.) Kurz in J. As. Soc. Beng. 39 (2): 77, 1870; Clarke
in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2: 735, 1879. Euaraliopsis palmata(Roxb.) Hutch.
Gen. FI. Pl. 2 : 80, 1967.

This is the correct name for the lectotype species of this genus and
not E. palmata (Roxb.) Hutch.

Euaraliopsis simplicifolia (Clarke) Balak. comb. nov. Brassaiopsis
simplicifolia Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2 : 735, 1879.

Schefflera seemannii Balak. nom. nov. Agalma glaucum Seem. in
J. Bot. 4 : 25, 1866 (non S. glaucum Harms, 1894). Heptapleurum glaucum
(Seem.) Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2 : 728, 1879 (non Kurz 1877).

ASTERACEAE

Saussurea pterocaulon Decne in Jacquem. Voy. Bot. 95, t. 103,
1844. Aplotaxis candolleana DC. Prodr. 6 : 541, 1837. Jurinea adenocarpa
Ledeb. FI. Ross. 2 : 765, 1846. S. candolleana (DC.) Hook. f. Fl. Brit.
Ind. 3 : 372, 1881 (non Clarke 1876).

J. D. Hooker made the combination S. candolleana based on
Aplotaxis candolleana DC., the earliest name for this species. However,

NOMENCLATURAL NOTES ON SOME FLOWERING PLANTS 61

in 1876, C. B. Clarke had already described a species under the name
S. candolleana and hence Hooker’s name is a later homonym and not
legitimate. The next in priority is Saussurea pterocaulon Decne, which is
the correct name for this species.

Saussurea candolleana Clarke, Comp. Ind. 230, 1876 (non Hook.
f. 1881). S. clarkei Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 3 : 372, 1881.

J. D. Hooker (1881) described the species S. clarkei which happens
to be synonymous to the earliest published name, S. candolleana Clarke,
the latter being treated here as the correct name.

Saussurea conica Clarke, Comp. Ind. 224, 1876. S. uniflora Wall.
ex Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 3 : 366, 1881 (non Clarke 1876). S. uniflora
var. conica (Clarke) Hook. f. 1. c.

Saussurea conica Clarke var. conica, S. uniflora Hook. f. var.
conica (Clarke) Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 3 : 366, 1881.

Saussurea conica Clarke var. uniflora Balak. nom. nov. S. uniflora
Wall. ex Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 3: 366, 1881, excl. var. conica (non Clarke
1876).

S. uniflora Hook. f. (1881) is a later homonym and hence not
legitimate. S. uniflora Clarke (1876) is an entirely different species. How-
ever, S. conica Clarke is an earlier synonym of S. uniflora Hook. f. and
treated by J. D. Hooker as a variety of his species and here treated as the
correct name of S. uniflora Hook. f.

Saussurea edgeworthii Kitamura in Acta Phytotax. Geobot. 24:4,
1969. Aplotaxis foliosa Edgew. in Trans. Linn. Soc. 20 : 77, 1846. S.
foliosa (Edgew.) Hook f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 3 : 373, 1881 (non Ledeb. 1829).

Senecio bombayensis Balak. nom. nov. Doronicum reticulatum
Wight, Calc. J. nat. Hist. 7 : 156, 1847. S. reticulatus (Wight) Clarke,
Comp. Ind. 199, 1876 (non DC. 1837). S. grahamii Hook. f. Fl. Brit.
Ind. 3 : 347, 1881 (non Benth. 1857).

Senecio bhutanicus Balak. nom. nov. Prenanthes quinqueloba DC.
Prodr. 6 : 404, 1838. S. quinquelobus (DC.) Hook. f. & Thoms. in Clarke,
Comp. Ind. 209, 1876 (non DC. 1837) ; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 3 : 353, 1881.

Senecio connatus Balak. nom. nov. Ligularia arnicoides DC.
Prodr. 6 : 314, 1837. S. arnicoides (DC.) Clarke, Comp. Ind. 207, 1876
(non Hook. & Arn. 1841); Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 3 : 351, 1881.

Senecio flexuosus Balak. nom. nov. S. calthaefolius Hook. f. FI.
Brit. Ind. 3 : 350, 1881 (non Maximov 1871).

62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

Senecio kashmirianus Balak. nom. nov. S. pedunculatus Edgew.
in Trans. Linn. Soc. 21 : 74, 1846 (non Sch.-Bip. 1844); Hook f. FI.
Brit. Ind. 3 : 342, 1881.

Senecio khasianus Balak. nom. nov. S. obtusatus DC. Prodr. 6:
367, 1838 (non Pursh. 1814); Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 3 : 340, 1881.

Senecio multiceps Balak. nom. nov. Doronicum arnottii DC. in
Wight, Contr. Bot. 23, 1834; DC. Prodr. 6 : 322, 1838 (non S. arnottii
Hook. f. 1844). Madaractis polycephala DC. Prodr. 6: 440, 1838.
S. polycephalus (DC.) Clarke, Comp. Ind. 197, 1876 (non Ledeb. 1830);
Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 3 : 344, 1881.

Senecio stylosus Balak. nom. nov. Gynura walkeri Wight, Ic. PI.
Ind. Or. t. 1122, 1846. S. walkeri (Wight) Thwaites, Enum. Pl. Zeyl.
167, 1860 (non Arnott 1836). Notonia walkeri (Wight) Clarke, Comp.
Ind. 176, 1876; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 3 : 337, 1881.

Jacobsen (Handb. Sukkulent Pflanzen. 2: 1026, 1954) reduced
Notonia to Senecio on the basis that the succulent nature is common
to both genera and that the ovate style tips of Notonia as compared to
the truncate nature in Senecio can hardly be relied upon for generic
distinction.

Vernonia ceylanica Balak. nom. noy. V. scariosa Arn. in Nov.
Act. Nat. Cur. 18 : 346, 1836 (non Poiret 1808); Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 3:
236, 1881. Decaneuron scariosum DC. Prodr. 7 : 264, 1838. Centratherum
scariosum Clarke, Comp. Ind. 4, 1876.

PRIMULACEAE

Androsace dubyii (Dergnac) Balak. comb. nov. A. primuloides Duby
in DC. Prodr. 8 : 51, 1844 (non Moench. 1802; nec D. Don. 1825);
Pax & Knuth in Engler, Pflanzenr. 22 : 183, 1905. A. sarmentosa var.
primuloides (Duby) Hook. f. in Curtis, Bot. Mag. t. 6210, 1876 et in FI.
Brit. Ind. 3 : 498, 1882. A. sarmentosa var. dubyii Dergnac in Kneucker,
Allg. bot. Zeitsch. 10 : 110, 1904.

Lysimachia knuthiana Balak. nom. nov. L. glandulosa Knuth in
Engler, Pflanzenr. 22 : 264, 1905 (non Edgew. 1846).

Lysimachia muelleri Balak. nom. nov. L. salicifolia F. v. Muell.
ex Benth. Fl. Austral. 4 : 269, 1868 (non Miller 1772\: Pax & Knuth in
Engler, Pflanzenr. 22 : 305, 1905.

Primula asperulata Balak. nom. nov. P. incisa Franch. in Bull.
Soc. Bot. France 33 : 69, 1886 (non Lamk, 1778); Pax & Knuth, I.c. 66.

NOMENCLATURAL NOTES ON SOME FLOWERING PLANTS 63

Primula flaccida Balak. nom. nov. P. nutans Delavay ex Franch.
Bull. Soc. Bot. France 33: 69, 1886 (non Georgi 1797); Pax &
Knuth, I.c. 94.

Primula klattii Balak. nom. nov. P. uniflora Klatt in Linnaea 37: 500,
1872 (non Gmelin 1805); Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 3: 492, 1882.

Primula roxburghii Balak. nom. nov. P. rotundifolia Roxb. FI. Ind.
ed. 2, 2: 18, 1824 (non Pallas 1776); Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 3: 483, 1882.

Primula rugosa Balak. nom. nov. Carolinella obovata Hemsl. in
Hook. Icon. PI. t. 2775, 1903. P. obovata (Hemsl.) Pax in Engler, Pflanzenr.
24: 47, 1905 (non Duby 1844; nec Huter 1873).

BORAGINACEAE

Paracaryum uncinatum (Benth.) Balak. comb. nov. Cynoglossum
‘uncinatum Benth. in Royle, Illus. 305, 1836. C. laxum G. Don, Gen. Syst.
4:356, 1838. C. roylei Wall. ex DC. Prodr. 10: 155, 1846. Echinoglossum
glochidiatum DC. Prodr. 10: 136, 1846. Paracaryum glochidiatum (DC.)
Benth. in Benth. & Hook. f. Gen. Pl. 2: 850, 1876; Clarke in Hook. f.
Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 161, 1883.

ACANTHACEAE

Eranthemum L. Sp. Pl. 9, 1753. Daedalacanthus T. Anders. in Thw.
Enum. Pl. Zeyl. 229, 1864; Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 417, 1884.

Daedalacanthus T. Anders. is strictly synonymous to Eranthemum
L. as the type species of the former, D. montanum T. Anders. is synony-
mous to the type species of the latter, E. capense L.

Eranthemum burmanicum Balak. nom. nov. Daedalacanthus
parishii Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 421, 1884 (non E. parishii
Clarke 1884).

Eranthemum macrostachys (T. Anders.) Balak. comb. nov.
Daedalacanthus macrostachys T. Anders. in J. Linn. Soc. 9: 488, 1867;
Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 420, 1884.

Eranthemum pulchellum Andr. Bot. Repos. 2: t. 88, 1800 (non
Roxb. 1832). Justicia nervosa Vahl, Enum. 1: 164, 1804. E. nervosum
(Vahl) R. Br. Prodr. 1: 477, 1810; Santapau in Univ. Bombay, Bot.
Mem. 2:35, 1952. Daedalacanthus nervosus (Vahl) T. Anders. in J.
Linn. Soc. 9: 487, 1867; Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 418, 1884.

Eranthemum wardii (W. W. Smith) Balak. comb. nov.
Daedalacanthus wardii W. W. Smith in notes R. Bot. Gard. Edinh,
10: 174, 1918, . i

64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

Synnema Benth. in DC. Prodr. 10: 538, 1846. Cardanthera Buch.-
Ham. (ex Voigt, Hort. Sub. Calc. 482, 1845, nom. nud.) ex Nees in DC.
Prodr. 11: 67, 1847; Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 403, 1884. Ade-
nosma Wall. Pl. As. Rar. 3: 75, 1832 (non R. Br. 1810).

The generic name Cardanthera taken by Voigt from a manuscript
name of Buchanan-Hamilton was not validly published by Voigt in 1845
as such his note does not fulfil any of the conditions set by article 41 of
the Code. The genus was validated only in 1847 by Nees von Esenbeck.
However, by this time Cardanthera Buch.-Ham. ex Nees became antedated
by Synnema Benth. (1846) and the latter name should be adopted as the
correct name.

Recently Raizada (in Indian For. 94: 431, 1968) published notes on
this change in generic name. It seems necessary to point out that some
of the species names listed by him are in neuter gender, while others are in
feminine gender. Synnemais a Greek compound word (syn: with, together ;
-nema: thread) in the neuter gender and Bentham (1846) attributed the
same gender to his genus, as obvious from the ending of the specific
epithet of the type species, S. avanum. According to article 23, the specific
epithet when adjectival in form and not used as substantive should agree
gramatically with the generic name. Hence all adjectival specific epithets
belonging to Synnema should be in neuter gender, ending in-uwm. It may
also be pointed out that Greek adjectives used as specific epithets show a
disconcerting array of nominative endings and hence it is usual practice
to give them the Latin endings,—a (f.), — us (m.) and um—(n.).

The following are the correct names of Indian species of Synnema:

Synnema anomalum (Blatter) Raizada in Indian For. 94: 451, 1968.
Cardanthera anomala Blatter in J. As. Soc. Beng. 26: 350, 1930.

Cardanthera anomala Blatter described from Bombay differs from
all species of Synnema in having only one fertile stamen with one stami-
node and just 10—12 seeds supported on curved retinacula, whereas
Synnema is characterised by 4 fertile stamens and many seeds on straight
retinacula. The type specimens, Hallberg 9766 and 9767 were collected
from Vihar Lake, Salsette Island and Tardeo in Bombay. Santapau
(Univ. Bombay, Bot. Mem. 2: 14, 1951) states that none of these speci-
mens are present in Blatter Herbarium. As authentic material of this
species is not available, it is not possible to decide now, whether it belongs
to Synnema or another genus.

Synnema balsamicum (L. f.) O. Ktze in Rev. Gen. Pl. 2: 500, 1891.
Ruellia balsamica L. f. Suppl. 289, 1781. Adenosma balsamea Spreng.
Syst. 2: 829, 1825. Cardanthera balsamica (L. f.) Clarke in Hook. f. FI.
Brit. Ind. 4: 404, 1884. S. barbigera O. Ktze, |.c. 500; Raizada, I.c. 451.

NOMENCLATURAL NOTES ON SOME FLOWERING PLANTS 65

Synnema balsamicum (L. f.) O. Ktze var. thymus (Nees) Balak.
comb. nov. Adenosma thymus Nees in Wall. Pl. As. Rar. 3: 79, 1832.
Cardanthera balsamica (L. f.) Benth. var. thymus (Nees) Clarke in Hook.
f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 404, 1884.

Synnema biplicatum (Nees) Imlay in Kew Bull. 1939: 111, 1939.
Adenosma biplicata Nees in Wall. Pl. As. Rar. 3: 79, 1832, Pedicularis
avana Wall. ex Benth. Scroph. Ind. 52, 1835. Synnema avanum Benth.
in DC. Prodr. 10: 538, 1846; Raizada, I.c. 451. Cardanthera avana Benth.
ex Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 4: 405, 1884. Synnema avanum Benth.
var. biplicatum (Nees) O. Ktze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 2: 500, 1891.

Synnema griffithii (T. Anders.) O. Ktze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 2: 500, 1891.
Adenosma griffithii T. Anders in J. Linn. Soc. 11: 454, 1870. Cardanthera
griffithii Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 404, 1884.

Synnema pinnatifidum (Dalz.) O. Ktze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 2: 500, 1891.
Nomaphila pinnatifida Dalz. in Kew J. Bot. 3: 38, 1851. Adenosma pin-
natifidum (Dalz.) T. Anders. in J. Linn. Soc. 9: 455, 1867. Cardanthera
pinnatifida (Dalz.) Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 4: 405, 1884.

Synnema triflorum (Roxb.) O. Ktze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 2: 500, 1891.
Ruellia triflora Roxb. (Hort. Beng. 46, 1814, n.n.) Fl. Ind. 3:52, 1832.
Adenosma triflora Nees in Wall. Pl. As. Rar. 3: 79, 1832. Cardanthera
triflora (Roxb.) Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 4: 405, 1884.

The combination, Cardanthera difformis (L. f.) Druce in Rep. Bot.
Exch. Cl. Brit. Isles 1916, Suppl. 2: 612, 1917 based on Ruellia difformis
L. f., made for this species is not correct as it is not a Synnema at all. The
description and the synonym, ‘ Nir—Schulli’ Rheede (Hort. Malab.
2:89, t. 46, 1679) given by Linnaeus f. indicate this to be Hygrophila
erecta (Burm. f.) Hochr. and not Synnema triflorum.

Synnema uliginosum (L. f.) O. Ktze, Rev. Gen. PI. 2: 500, 1891.
Ruellia uliginosa L. f. Suppl. 290, 1781. Adenosma uliginosa (L. f.) R. Br.
in Verm. Schrift. 3:298 1867. Cardanthera uliginosa Clarke in Hook. f.
Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 403, 1884.

Synnema verticillatum (Nees) O. Ktze, Rev. Gen. PI. 2: 500, 1891.
Adenosma verticillata Nees in Wall. Pl. As. Rar. 3 : 79, 1832. Cardanthera
verticillata (Nees) Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 4: 404, 1884.

NEPENTHACEAE

Nepenthes chapmannii Balak. nom. nov. N. zeylanica Chapm. in
Ceylon J. Sci. Sect. A, Bot. 12: 221, 1947 (non Rafinesque 1836).

66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

ORCHIDACEAE

Bulbophyllum devangiriensis Balak. nom. nov. B. uniflorum Griff.
Notul. 3. 293, 1851 (non Hassk. 1844); Hook f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 5: 755,
1890. Sarcopodium uniflorum (Griff.) Lindl. Fol. Orch. 16, 1853.

Bulbophyllum guttulatum (Hook. f.) Balak. comb. nov. Cirrhopetalum
guttulatum Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind.5: 776, 1890. Bulbophyllum umbellatum
Lindl. in Edw. Bot. Reg. 30: t. 44, 1844 (non Lindley 1830).

Chiloschista Lindl. Fischer (in Gamble, Fl. Pres. Madras 1440,
1928) gives the spelling of this genus as Chilochista, but the original
spelling given by Lindley is Chiloschista.

Additional knowledge on the morphology of the genus Sarcochilus
(sensu Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 6: 33, 1890) indicates this genus to be hete-
rogenous composed of at least four distinct genera, Chiloschista, Micro-
pera, Thrixspermum and Sarcochilus (sensu stricto). Most recent authors
including Pfitzer (in Engler & Prantl, Pflanzenfam. 2(6): 216, 1889), J. J.
Smith (in Fl. Buitenz. 6: 533, 1905 et in Fedde, Repert. 32: 350, 1933)
and Santapau & Kapadia (Orch. Bombay 209, 1966) have accepted and
followed this division.

Chiloschista minimifolia (Hook. f.) Balak. comb. nov. Sarcochilus
minimifolius Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 6: 37, 1890.

Dendrobium perpusillum Balak. nom. nov. D. pumilum Roxb. FI.
Ind. 3: 479, 1832 (non Swartz 1805); Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 5: 713, 1890.

Dendrobium wightii Balak. nom. nov. D. graminifolium Wight, Ic.
Pl. Ind. Or. t. 1649, 1851 (non Willd. 1805); Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 5: 718,
1890.

Eulophia dabia (D. Don) Balak. comb. nov. Bletia dabia D. Don,
Prodr. Fl. Nep. 30, 1825. Limodorum ramentaceum Roxb. FI. Ind. 3:
467, 1832. E. campestris Lindl. Gen. Sp. Orch. 185, 1833; Hook. f. Fl.
Brit. Ind. 6: 4, 1890. E. ramentacea (Roxb.) Lindl. Gen. Sp. Orch. 185,
1833.

Micropera rostratum (Roxb.) Balak. comb. nov. Aerides rostratum
Roxb. Fl. Ind. 3: 474, 1832. Camarotis purpurea Lind]. Gen. Sp. Orch.
219, 1833. Sarcochilus purpureus (Lindl.) Benth. ex Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind.
6: 36, 1890.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I express my thanks to Dr. A. S. Rao, Regional Botanist, Botanical
Survey of India, Eastern Circle, Shillong for critically going through the
manuscript and suggesting valuable modifications,

The Behaviour of the Lesser

Bandicoot Rat, Bandicota bengalensis
(Gray & Hardwicke)

BY
DwaAIN W. PARRACK AND JACOB THOMAS

(With eleven text-figures)

A study of the behaviour of 4 adult Lesser Bandicoot Rats, Bandicota
bengalensis, was conducted by observing their activity for 50 minutes
per hour, 24 hours per day for 28 days. The animals were studied in a
pen in which they could burrow freely. The amount of food removed
from the food containers was measured and the amount of food hoarded
was calculated. Measurements were also made of the amount of time
spent above ground, the number of trips to the food platform, the timing
of activity, and the number and types of social interactions.

INTRODUCTION

The lesser bandicoot rat, Bandicota bengalensis, is distributed
throughout most of India, East Pakistan, and parts of Burma (Biswas
& Tiwari; in press) and occupies both rural and urban environments.
In rural areas it is an agricultural pest, burrowing into bunds separating
farm plots and attacking standing crops. In cities this animal destroys
large amounts of stored food and seems to be replacing Rattus rattus
as the main urban rat. Records from the Plague Control Laboratory in
Calcutta show that between 1936 and 1965, B. bengalensis increased from
about 27 per cent to about 90 per cent of the rats captured in Calcutta
and Howrah (Seal & Banerji; in press). This displacement of R. rattus
represents a potential health hazard, as B. bengalensis has been reported
to be more susceptible to the plague bacillus than R. rattus (Nimbkar
& Deoras ; in press).

The success of this species in replacing R. rattus is coupled with its
high reproductive capacity. Southwick (in press) has compared the
reproductive patterns of several murid rodents and using Spillett’s
study of the bandicoots of warehouses in Calcutta and Howrah, showed
an annual production of 69.6 young per year per female in B. bengalensis,
as compared with 35.7 for R. norvegicus and 31.3 for R. rattus. Spillett
(1968) in his warehouse studies found that the average population
density for all 12 months of the year was .77 rats/square metre of ware-
house floor space. However, the captures greatly decreased during the
rainy months of July and August and when these two months are
excluded, the average density jumps to 8.5 rats/square metre of floor
space (personal communication).

68 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

There are few estimates of the amount of food lost to this bandicoot ;
Deoras (1966) and Spillett (1968) reported on the daily consumption
of caged animals. Patnaik (in press) has reviewed the estimates of daily
consumptions for Indian rats in general and reports estimates of 20, 25,
30 and 60 g./day, but it is not possible to know if any of these figures
are for B. bengalensis, or if they represent hoarding as well as actual
consumption. Pingale et al. have gathered somewhat more detailed
information for several species of murid rodents.

Little is known of the behaviour of this species. Deoras (1967)
has gathered information about their burrows, and Parrack (1966)
reported on the activity cycle of animals in activity cages, but almost
nothing is known of other aspects of the behaviour of this animal.

As Kavanau (1967) and others have pointed out, the relatively
sterile environment to which captive animals are often submitted tends
to distort their behaviour. Zoo animals, for instance, often develop
highly stereotyped behaviour which is completely foreign to their
behaviour in the wild. To avoid the distortion of the behaviour of the
bandicoots used in these studies, we have used a pen which, because
of its dirt floor, allows for burrowing (apparently a strong psychological
**need ’’ in these animals) and which allows considerable freedom for
running about. Six groups of bandicoots, usually 4 adults (2 males and
2 females) have been studied. The number of periods of observation
(50 minutes) varied from 6 to 24 in a 24 hour period. The present study,
using 24 periods/day, is intended as a base-line for other studies.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Two adult males (No. 33, weighing 245.8 gm.; No. 34, 211.4 gm.)
and two adult females (No. 35, 190.0 gm.; No. 36, 165.5 gm.) were
used in this study. All 4 animals had been trapped in a grain warehouse
in Calcutta and housed in individual cages for 3 days before the study
began. The animals were individually marked by clipping the hair in
different parts of the body. All were apparently healthy and neither
of the females showed signs of pregnancy. The animals were introduced
into the study pen simultaneously in order to avoid the effects of prior
occupancy. Detailed recording of the behaviour was begun at 17.00
hours, a few hours after introduction.

The pen was constructed of bricks, mortar, and plaster and measured
4 by 6 m. (fig. 1). The walls were sunk 2 feet beneath the surface of the
surrounding ground and 3 feet of additional dirt was put into the pen,
thus reducing the chances of the animals digging out. The floor of the
pen was laid off in 24, 1-metre squares with rows of half-buried bricks.
and the squares were identified by combinations of letters and numbers,

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Fig. 2

BEHAVIOUR OF LESSER BANDICOOT RAT 69

The pen was roofed with wire mesh to prevent the entry of birds and
predators. At night the pen was lighted with 4, 60-watt, clear light bulbs.
A covered feeding platform was placed in square B-2 which had been
bricked-in to prevent holes being dug directly beneath the platform.
A large mirror was hung on the wall behind. the feeding platform so that
the observers could see the animals which were hidden by the platform.
A water dish was placed in square B-3 and in square B-4 there were
caged food dishes (inaccessible to the rats) which were used as controls
for changes in the weight of food due to relative humidity. Each burrow
was marked with a stake bearing a number.

Supplies of rice, wheat, and dal (Lens culinaris) were put into the
food dishes and weighed at 17.00 hours and at 06.00 hours each day.

The observational ‘‘ day ” began at 18.00 hours and ended 24 hours
later. In the present study observations were made 50 minutes/hour,
24 hours/day for 28 days. The study was conducted during the winter
(13 January to 10 February, 1968) during which time there was almost
no rain and the average daily maximum and minimum temperatures
were 78.8 F and 58.0°F respectively.

Observations were made from a shed at one end of the pen, one
observer recording the activity of one male and one female, a second
observer recording the behaviour of the other 2 animals. The observers
“traded” rats several times per day and the working hours of the
observers were shifted to prevent individual bias in recording.

Collective food consumption was recorded twice per day and the
following data were recorded for each rat: number of squares entered,
number of trips to food and water, number of entries into and exits
from each burrow, time above ground, time spent in digging and
grooming, and the number and type of social interactions. The data
were transferred to punched cards and tabulated on an IBM 407
tabulator.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Social Rank

In this study, as well as in others yet to be completely analysed, the
animals began a series of fights within 5 minutes after being introduced
into the pen. The fighting often was associated with the digging of holes.
One animal would begin digging only to have another attempt to displace
him, or her, from the hole. Within 15 or 20 minutes the dominant animal
was identifiable by the observers because of his aggressiveness and the
number of times the others moved away from him.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

The larger male, No. 33, very quickly established himself as the
dominant and the smaller male, No. 34, was clearly the subordinate.
Aspects of the dominance and subordinance of the males will be considered
later. It is difficult to assign a rank to the females, as they had much less
social interaction than male. The fact that 35 9 outweighed 36 2 by
almost 25 g. suggests that she had a physical advantage over the latter.
Further, she occupied the most favourable hole (under the food platform)
and visited the food more often than did 36 2. Also, she was much more
inclined to fight, initiating some 15 fights (as compared to 17 initiated
by 33% and 1 by 36 ). Her weight, the location of her burrow, the
number of her visits to food, and her aggressiveness might be indications
that she out-ranked the other female.

Barnett (1958) distinguished three ranks of males in laboratory
colonies of wild Rattus norvegicus : (1) ‘“‘alpha’’ males, which were larger
than the others, were aggressive, displayed no hesitation in moving in the
cage, and always gained weight; (2) “‘beta’’ males, which ranked below
the “‘alpha’’ but above the “‘omegas,”’ had been defeated by the “‘alphas’’
in combat but did not develop “shock’’ and always gained weight; (3)
‘‘omega’’” males, which were continuously persecuted, moved about
more slowly, had poor condition of the fur, lost weight, and often died
of “‘shock.”’

In the present study the two males showed mixtures of character-
istics of all three ranks. The dominant male (33) was like Barnett’s “‘alphas”
in that he was larger, more aggressive, and moved freely about the pen.
However, he lost weight (20.3 gm.). The subordinate male (34) resembled
Barnett’s “‘omegas’’ in being continuously harassed by the dominant,
moving more slowly (Table 2) and in losing weight (15.4 gm.). However,
the fact that he survived the 28 days of persecution would seem to classify
him as a “‘beta’’.

Food Consumption

The animals used in this study almost always emptied the food
dishes after each of the two daily fillings. The food supply, therefore, was
not unlimited, but it was more than adequate, since excavation of the
burrows at the end of the study revealed a considerable amount of rotting
food. During the 28 days of the study, a total of 4,398 gm. of food was
removed, a daily average of 162.9 gm. of 40.7/gm./rat/day. These figures
lie somewhere between the minimal requirements and the amount they
would remove given an unlimited supply.

Grain warehouses often have, what to the rats, are limitless supplies
of food. In a study of 8 penned bandicoots Parrack (in press) found

EIGHTS

CHASES

MOUNTS

FIGHTS
\ 33C

V 34.0
APPROACHES

Mihi: apie » hyn

BEHAVIOUR OF LESSER BANDICOOT RAT 71

that given an unlimited supply the rats removed a daily average of 67.4
gm./rat and calculated that this amount was about 5 times the amount
actually consumed.

Deoras (1967) reported a daily consumption of 12.8 gm./rat/day
and Spillett (1968) reported about 11 gm./rat/day. These figures are for
the amount actually eaten and do not include hoarding. Our own studies
(in press) of adults in individual cages which allowed no hoarding showed
an average consumption of 14.9 gm./rat/day (34 rats; x body wt. =216.7
gm.). The discrepancies in these three reports are probably due to indivi-
dual variations in the physiology of the rats, the body size of the rats,
the season of the year, and the duration of captivity.

If the average of the three reports (12.9 gm. rat/day) is taken to be
fairly reliable estimate of actual food consumption, the animals in the
present study were probably consuming 32 per cent and hoarding 68
per cent of the total amount removed from the food containers.

General Comparison of Individuals

During the course of the study the males lost weight and the females
gained. Table 2 summarizes several types of activity for the entire study
period. In most of these activities there is a strong difference between
the sexes. In terms of the total number of squares entered, the males were
much more active than the females, with the dominant male (No. 33)
entering almost 7 times as many squares as the least active female. The
number of squares entered is also associated with the initial weight
of the animals, the heaviest animal (330) being the most active, the
lightest (36 2 ), the least active.

TABLE 1
CHANGES IN BODY WEIGHT DURING THE 28 DAYS OF THE STUDY

Rat No. Initial wt. (gm.) | Final wt. (gm.) | Change (gm.)

‘| 2B yee gia amma aa 245.8 225.5 arg
annoit aoc be , 211.4 196.0 ae Se
B52 Jo telus vilab ay, 190.0 229.5 e305
369 165.5

1953 | 1-298

Overall average body wt.=207.4 gm.

The subordinate male spent more than twice as much time above
ground than did the dominant male. It seems likely that he was prevented
from entering the burrows by the dominant. Not only did the subordinate

6

72 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 67 (1)

male spend more time above ground, he moved about less rapidly than
the other 3 animals, entering only 1.7 squares/minute above ground, as
compared with 5.4 for the dominant and 7.6 for 35 9. Female 35 and
the dominant male made frequent trips to the food platform (both more
than 3000 times), while 34 & and 36 2 went much less often. The sub-
ordinate male did much more wandering per trip to food (21.6 squares/
trip) than did the others. The 2 females had taken up residence in burrows
near the food platform and confined most of their movement to food
gathering, hence they entered only 2.2 (352) and 3.1 (36 9) squares
per trip. Female 35, who occupied a hole under the food platform, visited
the food dishes on an average of every 17 seconds (.3 min./trip) when
she was above ground, while female 36, occupying a hole slightly further
away, returned to the platform every 38 seconds (.6 min./trip). The sub-
ordinate male returned to platform on an average of every 12.5 minutes in
contrast to the dominant male who returned after average intervalsof
1.6 minutes.

Grooming : Neither of the females was observed grooming. Male 33
groomed for a total of 9 minutes and male 34 for 20 minutes. Grooming
as a displacement activity has been reported for several rodents and
Barnett (1958) describes it in R. rattus. Displacement activities occur
when the expression of a drive is blocked or frustrated. That the males,
rather than the females, groomed in this study and that the subordinate
male groomed much more than the dominant, suggests that at least some
of the grooming observed here was a displacement.

Digging : The amount of time of observed digging was not related
to sex or rank. It is known that most, if not all, of the burrows were
interconnected, and as the burrows were extensive, much of the digging
must have been done when the animals were invisible to the observers.

Trips to water : The timing of the trips to the water container reflected
the general pattern of activity, that is, during those hours when the animals
entered many squares, there was an increase in the number of trips to
water. Most of the trips fell between 18.00-24.00 hours and 06.00-09.00
hours, the times in which the food platform was visited more frequently.
There was, however, no correlation between the daily total of squares
entered and the daily total of trips to water.

Diurnal activity : Although bandicoots are generally nocturnal, they,
like R. norvegicus (Calhoun 1962), will become active during the day
time under undisturbed conditions. Of the total time spent above
ground by all 4 animals about 35 per cent was during the day time and
about 48 per cent of the trips to the food platform took place during the
day-light hours.

Fig. 5

TOTAL

120]

100 Ir

HO ‘|

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| @- wg { AGGRESSIVE
ENCOUNTERS

le«, @ 3 4 5
4 DAY PERIODS

Fig. 6

_ BEHAVIOUR OF LESSER BANDICOOT RAT 73

Use of Burrows

Forty-one holes were dug by the rats during the 28 days of the study.
The usage of these holes (as indicated by the number of times the animals
entered or left them) was far from uniform. No entries were recorded for
2 of the holes after they had been dug. On the other hand, some of the
holes were entered well over a thousand times. Fig. 2 gives a history of
the occupancy of the holes which has been simplified by considering only
those holes which were entered 10 or more times in a day by an individual
rat. The records of entries and exits were so nearly identical that only
the entries will be considered.

The most striking characteristic illustrated by fig. 2 is that the females
tend to settle down very quickly to occupying one hole, while the males
are more inclined to change burrows. On day 2, female 35 began frequent-
ing hole No. 3 (under the food platform, fig. 1) which she occupied through-
out the remainder of the study. In the 26 days of her occupancy she made
a total of 3,983 entries of which 3,310 (83 per cent) were into that hole.
The other female (36) established herself in hole No. 5 on day 6 and used
it as a residence for the rest of the 28 days even though on days 19, 20,
and 23 she was generally inactive and entered the hole less than 10 times.
She was somewhat less active than 35 making a grand total of 2,348
entries ; 1,943 (82 per cent) of which were into hole number 5. The domi-
nant male occupied several holes. On day 6 he began frequenting No. 4
and deserted it on day 14. His second major hole was No. 19 which he
occupied from day 11 through day 28. Twenty per cent of his 4,060 entries
was to hole No. 4 and 44 per cent was to hole No. 19. Hole No. 30 was
less often visited by him and accounted for only 5 per cent of his total
entries. The subordinate male never established a permanent residence.
His longest residence was for 3 days (hole No. 8) after which he was dis-
placed by 33 o&. He was likewise displaced from holes No. 4 and 30.
The difference in the males’ total number of entries is striking, with 4,060
for 33 o and only 616 for 34.

Social Interactions

The following social behaviour were recorded : fighting, chasing,
bumping, genital sniffing, mounting, pelvic thrusting, and approaching
and following. Chasing differed from following in that the former was
slower than the latter. Approaching is defined as an interaction in which
one animal comes toward another and in which no other type of interaction
(fighting, mating, etc.) results. Bumping is used to describe the striking
of one animal with the hip of another. The other terms are self-explanatory.
No occasion of what Barnett (1958) called “‘amicable’” behaviour in
R. rattus were seen in this study,

74 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

Categorizing of most of these behaviours into headings such as
Aggressive and Sexual is straight forward ; Aggressive behaviour involving
fighting and bumping and Sexual involving genital sniffing, mounting and
pelvic thrusting. Some behaviours, however, are less easily categorized.
Chasing, for instance, could conceivably be aggressive or sexual in moti-
vation and it seemed logical to consider all chasing as aggressive except
for the questionable case of a male chasing a female. As it turned out,
there were no cases of a male chasing a female. Approaching, like chasing,
could conceivably be of sexual or non-aggressive motive. However, it
seems likely that most of the cases of approaching were aggressive. This
will be discussed later.

In this analysis attention is focused on the number and type of inter-
actions initiated (so far as the observers could determine) by the indivi-
dual rat. The number of interactions initiated by each rat varied a
great deal: 33 initiated a total of 597, while the next most active
animal, 35 @, initiated only 66. Female 36 was still less active with 20
interactions, and the subordinate male throughout the 28 days of the
study was seen initiating only one action, a single approach to 35 9.

Figures 3 and 4 summarize the interactions of the 4 animals. Of the
597 interactions of 33 o& the majority (81 per cent) were either chasing
or approaching the subordinate male. It seems likely that approaching in
this case was aggressive, since the timing of the approaches and of the
clearly recognisable forms of aggression (fighting, chasing) were almost
mutually exclusive (fig. 2). Incidents of clearly recognizable aggression
by 33" against 34 o& tended to occur on a 24 hour cycle, in the morning
between 06.00 and 09.00 hours when the subordinate male made most of
his trips to the food. This is taken to mean that during most of the “‘day’’
34’s trips to food could be intimidated by a mere approach by 33 a,
but that when hunger drove him to the food platform, more violent
forms of aggression resulted (figs. 9, 11).

Relatively little actual fighting occurred. Of the 33 fights recorded
17 were started by 33 o, 15 by 35 9, and 1 by 36 9. Twenty of the 33
fights involved 34 o& who, therefore, did somewhat more fighting than
any of the other 3 animals. The females chased only the males, not each
other, and 36 2 bumped 33 o 10 times.

The subordinate male was not seen in any sexual activity. Similar
observations were made by Calhoun (1962) on penned Norway rats
(R. norvegicus) in which some low ranking males showed no sexual
behaviour and in which highly dominant males sometimes held territories
containing several females.

DAV S

27 25 23 2t 19 17 15 3 th 8S F § 8

HOURS :
168 20 22 24 2 4 6 8 10 !2 14 16 18

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Fig. 7

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1 € GZ 6W St St 2 Gl te SZ Szaz
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Fig. 8

BEHAVIOUR OF LESSER BANDICOOT RAT 75

The dominant male sniffed the genital region of 36 2 18 times and
attempted to mount 9 times, but in 8 of these the female either kicked
him off or moved away. Only once was successful mounting and pelvic
thrusting observed (day 6) in the case of this female. Female 35 was
somewhat more receptive. He sniffed her genital region 5 times, succeeded
in positioning his feet on her back 4 times and displayed pelvic thrusting
twice (both on day 25). Neither of the females was obviously pregnant
at the end of the study.

The relationship of social rank of males, and the number of off-
spring sired is one which should be considered in campaigns of chemo-
sterilization of rats. Calhoun (1962) showed in R. norvegicus high ranking
males were more sexually active and the present study indicates that the
same is true in bandicoots. If dominant males were shown to be more
easily given the chemosterelant (either by their being more easily trapped
or more willing to take bait), the task of chemosterilization might be
made easier. If, on the other hand, low ranking and sexually inactive
individuals were more easily trapped or more willing to take the bait,
the task would be made more difficult.

The interactions of the females were, for the most part restricted
to a few squares, chiefly the squares in which their burrows or the food
platform were located. The males, on the other hand, had interactions
scattered over a much larger area of the pen. Of the 330 approaches by
33 &| to 34 o& for which the location was noted, the majority occurred
in squares B-2 (food platform), B-4, A-6 (hole No. 4), C-6, D-6 (fig. 1).
Chases were less common, with 115 of known location. These most
frequently occurred in B-2 (food platform), A-3 and A-6 (hole No. 4).
The locations of 11 fights are known: 5 took place in B-2 (food platform),
3 in B-4, and the remaining were scattered with single fights in 3 different
squares.

Cycles of Activity

G. H. Wang (cited in Richter, 1965) showed that R. norvegicus
females in activity cages have a 4-day cycle of wheel-running and that
this cycle is associated with the oestrus cycle, ovulation occurring just
before the peak of wheel-running. One of the female bandicoots used
in the present study (35) displayed a rather well developed 3-day cycle
in the number of squares entered (Table 3), which possibly reflects the
oestrus cycle of this species. In her record there are five 3-day periods
and one period of 6 days. The other female (36) was much less consistent
with peaks of activity being separated by 2 to 6 days. The males showed
peaks separated by 2 to 5 days, the most common being 4 days.

76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 )

During the first 10 days of the study there were 4 occasions when
the peak of activity of one of the females coincided with the peak of one
of the males, but during the remaining 18 days the peak of activity of the
males were synchronized with each other. If the 3-day cycles shown by
36 ¢ were actually reflections of her oestrus cycle, a degree of synchrony
between her and the males might be expected. This, however, was rarely
the case. Calhoun (1962) reported an increase of fighting among male
R. rattus when females were in heat, but in the present study fighting
showed no pattern comparable to the 3-day cycle of 35 9. The cause
of her cycle is unknown.

Changes in Behaviour

During the course of the study several aspects of behaviour changed
considerably. While the amount of time above ground for the females
remained low and constant throughout the 28 days, the males spent
increasing amounts of time above ground (fig. 6). The subordinate male
during the last two 4-day periods remained above ground about 80
per cent of the time and was often seen sleeping in the food platform when
the dominant male was underground. Although the increase in the
dominant’s time above ground could have been caused by a number of
factors, it is difficult to avoid the impression that he was remaining above
ground in response to the subordinate. The subordinate could not escape
from the area, as he might have done in a warehouse or field, and he was
physically and behaviourally capable of surviving the persecution by the
dominant. This seems to have lead to increasing amounts of time above
ground and to an increase in the amount of harassment. As shown in
fig. 6, the amount of aggression (here defined as fighting and chasing)
increased 11-fold from the first to the last 4-day period. As mentioned
earlier, approaches seem to be of aggressive motivation. If fighting,
chasing, and approaching are considered as one, the total amount of
aggression increased 13-fold during the study.

In addition to changes in the amount of time spent above ground
and the amount of aggression there were changes in the daily patterns of
activity. Figs. 7 and 8 summarize in a simplified fashion the daily activity
(number of squares entered) of male 33 and female 35 for 28 days. These
two animals were more regular in the timing of their activity than were
the other two; however, the patterns of the two males were very similar to
each other, and the same is true for the females. The females throughout
most of the study displayed two peaks of activity, the first during the
early hours of the night, 18.00-20.00 hours, the second in the morning,
06.00-07.00 hours. These peaks are associated with the weighing of the
food at 17.00 and 06.00 hours. Female 35 lived in a burrow under the
food platform and seems to have become active in response to the dis-
turbance. The other female, living a short distance away, was not so

Hrs.

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Fig. 10

BEHAVIOUR OF LESSER BANDICOOT RAT 77

regular in her response. The males also showed an early evening peak,
but this declined during the last week of the study. Their morning peak
was well developed, although not as uniform as that of the females.
During the last half of the study the males had a third peak which occurred
in the middle of the night, 24.00-03.00 hours.

10.

SUMMARY

. The amount of food removed from the food dishes by the 4 bandi-

coots far exceeded the amount they consumed. Roughly 68 per cent
of the food removed was hoarded in the burrows.

The females spent much less time above ground than did the males.
Each female occupied a single burrow throughout most of the 28
days of the study, while the males tended to change burrows and

to use none as intensively as did the females.

The subordinate male, unable to leave the pen, spent more time above
ground than did the dominant male.

The great majority of social interactions were initiated by the domi-
nant male, and most of his interactions were aggressive and were
directed toward the subordinate male.

The amount of aggression increased with the passage of time.

Most of the aggression occurred near the food platform.

. The subordinate male was in no sexual activity at all.

The females had two daily peaks of activity, one in the early evening,
one in the morning, both probably associated with the disturbance of
weighing the food.

The males had a peak of activity in the middle of the night in addition
to peaks in the early evening and morning.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This investigation was supported by United States Public Health

Research Grant No. TW-00141-05 from the National Institutes of Health.

78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

REFERENCES

BARNETT, S. A. (1958): An analysis
of social behaviour in wild rats. Proc.
Zool. Soc. Lond. 130(1): 107-152.

CALHOUN, J. B. (1962): The ecology
and sociology of the Norway rat. U. S.
Public Health Service Pub. No. 1008.
288 pp., Washington.

DeEorAS, P. J. (1966): Some observa-
tions on the probable damage caused by
rats in Bombay. Indian J. Ent. 28(4):
543-547.

KAVANAU, J. L. (1967): Behaviour of
captive white-footed mice. Sci. 155
(3770): 1623-1639.

NimpkKaR, Y. S. & DEoORAS P. J.
(in press).

PARRACK, D. W. (1966): The activity
cycle of the lesser bandicoot rat, Bandicota
bengalensis. Curr. Sci. 35(21): 544-545.

PINGALE, S. V., KRISHNAMURTHY K.
& RAMASIVAN T. (1967): Rats. Foodgrain
Technologists’ Research Association of
India, Hapur. 91 pp.

RICHTER, C. P. (1965): Biological
clocks in medicine and_ psychiatry.
Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois.
108 pp.

SPILLETT, J. J. (1968): The ecology of the
lesser Bandicoot-Rat in Calcutta.
Bombay Natural History Society and
Johns Hopkins University.

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Notes on some peculiar cases of
Phytogeographic distributions
BY
V. M. MEHER - HOMII

Institut Francais, Pondicherry

(With two plates)
INTRODUCTION

The flora of a place is above all the result of phylogenesis which has
bestowed to the area a certain number of species through the evolutionary
history. The prevailing climate acts as a sieve of big dimension permitting
only those species of the allotted stock to thrive whose tolerance range
fall within the limits imposed by the climate. Soil factors act as a sieve of
finer dimension operating further selection in the fraction passed on by
the climate. Biotic factors, mainly man and his domesticated animals
introduce a further check on the vegetation. Man’s action has been on
the destructive side mostly, but even when protective like the silvicultural
treatments, it is at the expense of a large number of species that a couple
of economic ones are favoured. He and his cattle have degraded the
optimum stages of the natural vegetation which are as a rule forests to
thickets or savannas. He also plays an important role in extending the
areas Of species, intentionally or accidentally.

BIOTIC FACTORS
Anthropogenic

The accidental introduction may be illustrated at least with reference
to three species.

(1) Capparis decidua (Forsk.) Pax—The distribution of Capparis
decidua is discontinuous. It is spread over Northern Tropical Africa,
Egypt, Arabia, Persia and West Pakistan; in India it covers Rajasthan,
Northern Gujarat and the Deccan from Julwania up to Bijapur. After a
considerable discontinuity it reappears in the extreme south-east part
of the Peninsula. Its introduction in this south-east corner via the ship
route from Africa may be a possibility as is also suggested by the
distribution pattern of Acacia planifrons.

(2) Acacia planifrons-W. & A. (Plate 1) The Umbrella Thorn
Tree is distributed mainly over the semi-arid area of south-east corner

82 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

of India near Tuticorin and Pamban in Tirunelveli and Ramanathapuram
districts and at a few localities in Madurai and Coimbatore districts.
It is found also in Bellary but is planted there. After a long discontinuity
in the Peninsular India, the species is encountered near Porbandar
(Kathiawar) which is and which was a port of some importance in the
past like Tuticorin. Morphologically the species is closely allied to
A. spirocarpa Hochst. ex A. Rich. of North-East Africa and Arabia
(Fyson 1919; Viart 1963). The Map shows the distribution of
A. planifrons.

Marco Polo during his return from China (1291-1295), visited a
part of India. One of his observations was concerning the flourishing
horse trade between the ports of south Arabia (notably Aden) and Cail,
a port of south India which has presently disappeared but which was
at the mouth of the Tambraparani River in Tirunelveli District (Hambis
1955; Viart 1963).

Annually about 10,000 horses were imported. A good number of
these perished due to lack of care and had to be replaced. Marco Polo
notes that the Sultans of the Arabian and the Persian Gulf ports received
considerable revenues because of this commerce. This trade continued
for a long time even in the hands of Portugese after the Arabs. Panikkar
(1958) also reports that the Portugese supplied persian horses to the
Vijayanagar Empire.

This important trade route between Arabia, Africa and the above
mentioned ports of India may be responsible for the accidental intro-
duction of the species in India where over centuries it has emerged as a
species only slightly distinct from the African-Arabian member.

(3) Hyphaene indica Becc. The Indian Doum Palm has been
reported from the sandy coast of Daman, Diu and near Bombay (Seshagiri
Rao 1963, 1964; Abraham 1969). Hence the endemic occurrence of the
species in the erstwhile Portugese territories is a noteworthy feature.
Besides, H. indica has close morphological affinities with H. thebaica
(L.) Mart. of Africa.

This peculiar genus of branched palm is concentrated in Africa,
Madagascar, and Arabia with as many as 30 species (Willis 1967).
H. indica seems to be a case of early introduction on the west Coast of
India.

Anamalous Distribution

The discontinuous patchy distribution of Hardwickia binata Roxb.
in peninsular India is a puzzle.

Hardwickia binata is encountered on acid parent rock, genissic
complex, sandstone or quartz in the plateau region of Andhra Pradesh,

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J. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 67 (1)

Meher-Homji : Phytogeographic Distributions PLATE II

LEGEND

QQ Hardwickia binata

Albizia amaro
Hordwickio binato
Albizia amara
Acacia planifrons

Hyphaene indica

150

Above: Hardwickia binata (foreground) in tree-savanna. Note its

deformed shape due to lopping and hacking. Below: Distribution of

Acacia planifrons, Hyphaene indica, Hardwickia binata and Albizia
amara

NOTES ON PHYTOGEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION 83

Mysore State and Salem District of Tamil Nadu. After a long disconti-
nuity it reappears in the Malegaon Desh, the Satmala and the Satpura
ranges of the Deccan trap country and in a few parts of the Vindhya
and Mahadeo ranges (Map).

Another remarkable feature of its distribution is its complete
absence in the Western Ghats. It occurs on the east-west oriented
Satmala, Satpura, Mahadeo and Vindhya ranges but is conspicuous by
its absence in the north-south oriented Sahyadris. It is found in dis-
continuous patches in NE-SW oriented hills of Eastern Ghats (in Andhra
Pradesh and Tamil Nadu) and near Haveri, Harihar, Chitradurga, Hiriyur
and Tumkur (Mysore State) just to the east of the Western Ghats.

Rainfall range is 500 to 1200 mm. spread over a period of 4 to 6
months in the areas of Hardwickia but the distribution of the species
has not been satisfactorily correlated with climatic and soil conditions.
It is not uncommon to come across statements like “‘ the distribution
of Hardwickia is curious and not readily explicable,” “‘ distribution of
Hardwickia cannot be logically explained ’’ in the Working Plans.

Brandis (1911) noted that Hardwickia binata most commonly grows
on sandstone, and if found on trap, as in south Berar, the rock is rich
in veins of quartz.

According to Champion (1936) this species is the most characteristic
of shallow hard gravelly soils over trap but occurs on a variety of other
rocks though then more mixed with other trees.

In Satpura division of Chhindwara district Hardwickia occurs on
sandstone with underlying marl,—a reddish, soft and crumbling material
intermediate between rock and soil (Working Plan).

Mahabale & Karnik (1958) considered Hardwickia forests of the
Satpura range in Maharashtra to be edaphic climax because they are
found only in a few definite localities on recent alluvial formations.
They further reported that calciferous soils inhibit its good growth
whereas black soils with higher percentage of silica favours better growth.

Pataskar & Seshagiri Rao (1965-66) are of the opinion that in the
Dhulia District Hardwickia is conspicuous on the leached out soils.

Bhatia (1959) on the other hand states that Hardwickia occurs on
the calcareous soil in Madhya Pradesh and that it grows well on the
black cotton soil. He describes a Tectona-Hardwickia forest on limestone
in the Nimar division.

Karnik (1955) observes that the belt of Hardwickia in the Satpura
range of Khandesh is associated with cherty or gritty soil. Pebbles of

84 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

white, yellow or red quartz and scanty and stunted nature of the grass
growth are enumerated as the special features of the Hardwickia soil.

In the Working Plan of North and East Khandesh Division (1958)
it is stated that the soil carrying Hardwickia forest is hard, gravelly or
gritty with admixture of pebbles of quartz crunching under feet.

Because of its general association with skeletal soil, Hardwickia
forests have been called as an edaphic type; however, we have observed
this species on deep black soil in Andhra Pradesh.

From the foregoing it may be seen that contrasting views have been

expressed as to the edaphic requirements of the species; this is because
every study has been on a local scale and not covering the entire distri-
bution range of Hardwickia.

Mall (1968) comparing the forest of Daultapur (in Dewas division
at a distance of 113 km. from Bhopal) with that of Kalakund (in Mhow
range about 40 km. from Indore) finds that Hardwickia is totally absent
in the former. He attributes this difference to historical factor asserting
that there is no significant difference in soil characters of the two forests.

We would like to emphasise here the role of human interference
and grazing.

In the Working Plan of the Buldana sub-division (W. Berar Dn.)
it is stated that there has been no reproduction in Hardwickia forests
for at least 20 years. Seeding may not be good each year but it has been
abundant every 3 to 5 years. After each seeding, a number of seedlings
come up but they are all destroyed in the summer. It may also be added
that Hardwickia does not coppice like other trees of the deciduous forest.

Grazed areas show indications of reproduction having been killed
back by browsing or badly hacked about by graziers. Burning and
grazing are quoted as the devastating biotic factors in the Hardwickia
forests by Champion & Seth (1965). Cattle and goats are fond of Hard-
wickia leaves and the trees in the vicinity of villages are badly lopped
and hacked for fodder (Plate I and II). Great is the utility of the tree in
dry years like 1966 when it was chiefly responsible for feeding the herds
in absence of grasses, in some drought-stricken parts of Madhya Pradesh
(Pers. Comm., D.N. Pateria, D.F.O., Khargon). In short, unassisted
Hardwickia eidhice itself extremely slowly. :

There is some natural regeneration of this species by seeds in E.
and N. Khandesh divisions as also in Satpura division, Chhindwara
District where the site factors are favourable. Hardwickia resists fire but

- NOTES ON PHYTOGEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION 85

the growth for the first few years is very slow. (Working Plan for the
Satpura forests of East and North Khandesh Divisions, 1958).

Natural regeneration is again very poor in Dewas division. There is
also a dearth of younger age classes due to past selective working, though
Hardwickia represents over 50 per cent of the trees in the overwood.

We too have observed that the seedlings of Hardwickia are practically
lacking in many of the open forests and tree-savannas where there are
big old trees of the species. Does this lack of natural regeneration mean
that the. areas where Hardwickia exists to-day will in course of time be
replaced by other species when the old trees will have completed their
life span? The gradual disappearance in patches may explain the dis-
continuous distribution of the species.

Working Plan of Buldana division makes a note that in the folds
of hills and along many nalas teak reproduction is plentiful and it is
probable that teak may one day replace Hardwickia over greater part
of this type.

In the open forests of the Satpura and Satmala, Hardwickia is
generally gregarious towards the borders of the forests but not so in the
interior. Because of its very hard wood it is not so easy to fell. Whereas
the other species become the victim of axe at the forest margin, Hard-
wickia escapes the maltreatment. In the interior where the forests are
better protected not being easily accessible, other species have a fair
chance of survival and the abundance of Hardwickia is not so striking.

ROLE OF EDAPHIC FACTOR

That the soil factor can bring about discontinuous distribution is
shown by the range of Albizzia amara Boiv.

This species which is so common in the southern part of the
Peninsula disappears from Bijapur northwards over the black soils of
the Deccan trap zone. In this tract geology changes from gneissic complex,
quartzite, slate and sandstone to the Deccan trap.

It reappears in the Nasik, Dhulia, Jalgaon and West Nimar districts
(Map). In these areas it is associated with alluvial soils or with red
ferruginous soils derived from the trap on the hills but not with black
clayey calcimorph soils. Its acidophilous nature seems to explain its
discontinuous distribution.

SUMMARY

The role of biotic, especially anthropogenic factor, has been
emphasised to explain the discontinuous distribution patterns of Capparis
decidua, Acacia planifrons, Hyphaene indica and Hardwickia binata.

86 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

The discontinuity in the range of Albizzia amara may be correlated
to its acidophilous nature, eliminating it over the black calcimorph

soils of the Deccan trap.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am thankful to Dr. P. Legris for having extended to me the facility
to tour the mapped area and to consult the forest working plans.

REFERENCES

ABRAHAM, V. (1969): A preliminary
survey on the flora of Trombay. Proc.
S$6th Indian Sci. Congr. Abstr. Pt. UI:
326-327.

BuaTiA, K. K. (1959): Teak bearing
forests of Old Madhya Pradesh. Indian
For. 85: 710-722.

BRANDIS, D. (1911): Indian trees.

CHAMPION, H. G. (1936): A preliminary
survey of the forest types of India and
Burma. Indian For. Rec. 1: 286

CHAMPION, H. G. & Setu, S. K.:
(1965): A revised survey of the forest
types of India. Dehra Dun.

Fyson, P. F. (1919): Acacia planifrons
W. & A. Bot. Bull. Presidency College,
Maaras. pp. 4-5.

Hampis, L. (1955): La description du
monde par Marco Polo. Paris 433.

KarRNnIK, C. R. (1955): A contribution
to biogeographical studies of Khandesh
with special reference to the Satpura
range. Bombay Geogr. Mag. 1: 65-72.

MAHABALE, T. S. & KARNIK C. R.
(1958): Ecology of Satpura forests,
Bombay State, India. J. Univ. Bombay
26 (pt. 5): 33-49.

Matt, L. P. (1968): Ecology of
Daultapur and Kalakund forests of
Madhya Pradesh. Proc. Symp. Recent
Adv. Trop. Ecol. 2: 398-406. ISTE.
Varanasi.

PANIKKAR, K. M. (1956):. Histoire de
l’Inde. Paris 396 p.

PATASKAR, R. D. & SESHAGIRI RAO,
R. (1965-66): Studies on the vegetation
of Toranmal ranges and surrounding
areas of Dhulia District, Maharashtra
State. Proc. 53rd Indian Sci. Congr. Pt.
IV: 267-268.

SESHAGIRI RAO, R. (1963): Hyphaene
indica Becc. along the West Coast of
India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60(3):

761-763.

(1964): The Doum palms
in India. Principes J. Palm Soc. 8(2):
49-54.

ViaRT, M. (1963): Contribution a
étude de laction de homme sur la
végétation dans le Sud de l’Inde. Thése
Sci., Toulouse.

Wiis, J. C. (1966): A dictionary of
the flowering plants and ferns. Cambridge
Univ. Press. 7th ed. revised by H. K.
Airy Shaw.

A Synopsis of the Genus Fisocreochiton
Quisumb. & Merr. (Melastomataceae )

BY
M. P. NAYAR

(With two plates)

A new species Eisocreochiton furfuracea Nayar, is described from
Borneo with illustrations. Anplectrum monticola Ridl. is transferred to
the present genus as Eisocreochiton monticola (Ridl.) Nayar. Creochiton
kinabaluense Heine is found to be conspecific with E. monticola (Ridl.)
Nayar. A key to the species so far known is also presented.

INTRODUCTION

The author has carried out a taxonomic study of several genera
in the family Melastomataceae at the Central National Herbarium,
Calcutta, the Herbarium, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, U.K. and the
Rijksherbarium, Leiden, Netherlands from 1960-68. The present paper
deals with the genus Dissochaeteae Quisumb. & Merr. belonging to the
tribe Dissochaeteae Triana.

Quisumbing & Merrill (in Philipp. Journ. Sc. 37: 177, 1928)
established the genus Eisocreochiton on the basis of specimen Ramos &
Edano Bur. Sc. No. 45610 from Luzon, Philippines. While describing
the type species Eisocreochiton bracteata, they observed that the inflores-
cence and vegetative characters agree with that of Creochiton B1. However,
since the “floral characters are totally different’? they assigned the
genus Eisocreochiton to the tribe Oxysporeae near Blastus Lour. The
genus Ejisocreochiton is closely allied to Creochiton, but differs in having
dorsally spurred and ventrally biappendiculate connective; whereas
in the genus Creochiton Bl. the connective is dorsally spurred and
ventrally inappendiculate. Quisumbing & Merrill (1.c. supra) wrongly
assigned the genus Eisocreochiton to the tribe Oxysporeae. Since the
genus Ejisocreochiton has baccate fruits, it belongs to the tribe Disso-
chaeteae; while the tribe Oxysporerae has capsular fruits.

The name Eisocreochiton is derived from Greek, ‘ Eiso ’=alike,
equal; ‘ creo’=fleshy; ‘ chiton’=an outer covering, in allusion to the
thick bracteoles covering the flowers. Ejisocreochiton=plants alike
Creochiton.

Of the three species so far known, the type species E. bracteata
Quisumb. & Merr. is endemic to the Island of Luzon in the Philippines.

88 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

The other two species E. monticola (Ridl.) Nayar and E. furfuracea Nayar
are both endemic to Borneo.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF Eisocreochiton

I. Stamens 4:

II. Bracteoles oblong-ovate, 8-11 mm. long, 4-8 mm. wide, pale
green, thin; leaves when dry pale green, under surface of leaf
when young more or less covered with ferrugineous plumose
and stellate hairs, hairs deciduous and leaves glabrescent

.... E. bracteata

II. Bracteoles obovate, 5-6 mm. long, 3-4 mm. wide, dark brown,
thick; leaves when dry brown, under surface of leaf densely
covered with ferrugineous plumose and stellate hairs. ....

.... E. furfuracea

I. Stamens 8, four large and four small .... E. monticola

ENUMERATION OF SPECIES

1. Eisocreochiton bracteata Quisumb. & Merr. in Philipp. Journ. Sc.
ST lia, 1928: .

Distribution: Philippines, Luzon, Nueva Vizcaya Prov., Mt. Alzapan,
Ramos & Edano Bur. Sc. No. 45610 (isotypes K, BM)

2. Eisocreochiton furfuracea sp. nov. (Plate I)

_ Affinis E. bracteatae Quisumb. & Merr., sed bracteolis obovatis,
brunneis, minoribus, foliis subtus dense pubescentibus differt.

Frutex scandens. Rami subteretes, dense ferrugineo-plumoso-
furfuracei. Folia ovato-lanceolata, 4.5-6.52.5-3 cm., basi subrotunda
vel subobtusa, apice acuminata, margine integra, supra glabra, subtus
dense ferrugineo-stellata, coriacea, 3-5 mnervia, venulis transversis
indistinctis; petiolus 8-11 mm. longus, dense ferrugineo-plumoso-
hirsutus. Inflorescentia axillaris, racemosa, 3-7 cm. longa; bracteolae
obovatae, 5-6 x 3-4 mm., dense furfuraceae, brunneae; pedicellus 4-5 mm.
longus. Calycis tubus campanulatus, 2.5-3 mm. longus, stellato-furfur-
aceus, limbus truncatus. Petala 4, 2-2.5x2 mm. glabra. Stamina 4,
filamentis 1.5 mm. longis, antheris 2 mm. longis, connectivo non producto,
dorso in appendicem triangularem 0.8 mm. longam exeunte, in parte
ventrali in appendices duas 0.7 mm. longas exeunte. Ovarium calycis
tubo septis 4 adnatum, ‘ loculis ’ 4, usque ad quartem partem prolongatis ;
Stylus 2-2.5 mm. longus, glaber, stigmate inconspicuo. Bacca globosa,
stellato-furfuracea; semina numerosa, cuneata, 0.7-0.8 mm. longa. -

J. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 67 (1)

Nayar: Eisocreochiton PLATE I

Eisocreochiton furfuracea Sp. nov.

A. Habit. B. Bracteole. C. Stamen-side view. D. L. S. of calyx tube

J. BoMBay NaT. Hist. Soc. 67 (1)

Nayar: Eisocreochiton PLATE IT

Diarra EE er ss a Oe ee
ibang RET SI
. insan bite =a =

-d
a

Eisocreochiton monticola (Ridl.) Nayar comb. nov.

A. Habit. B. Large stamen-side view. C. Small stamen-side view.

SYNOPSIS OF THE GENUS EISOCREOCHITON 89

Typus lectus a Jacobs and locum Rajang, altit. c. 500 m. in dist.
Kapit, Sarawak in Borneo die 25 augusti anni 1958, et positus in Herb.
kew, Anglia, sub numero Jacobs 5293; Isotypus positus in Riksherbario
in urbe Leiden, sub numero Jacobs 5293.

_ Climber. Branches subterete, densely ferrugineous and plumose
furfuraceous. Leaves ovate-lanceolate, 4.5-6.5 x 2.5-3 cm., base subrotund
or subotuse, apex acuminate, margin entire, upper surface glabrous,
under surface densely ferrugineous and stellate, coriaceous, 3-5 nerved,
transverse venules indistinct; petiole 8-11 mm. long, densely ferrugineous
and plumose hirsute. Inflorescence axillary, racemose, 3-7 cm. long;
Bracteole obovate, 5-6 3-4 mm., densely furfuraceous and brownish;
pedicel 4-5 mm. long. Calyx tube campanulate, 2.5-3 mm. long, stellate-
furfuraceous, limb truncate. Petals 4, 2-2.5x2 mm., glabrous. Stamens
4, filament 1.5 mm. long, anther 2 mm. long, connective not produced,
dorsally ending in a triangular appendage 0.8 mm. long, ventrally ending
in two appendages 0.7 mm. long. Ovary concrescent with the calyx tube
by 4 septa, extra-ovarial chambers 4, descending to + of the ovary;
Style 2-2.5 mm. long, glabrous, stigma inconspicuous. Berry globose,
stellate-furfuraceous; Seeds numerous, cuneate, 0.7-0.8 mm. long.

Distribution: Borneo: Sarawak, Kapit Dist., Rajang, alt. below
500 m., 25 Aug. 1958, Jacobs 5293 (Holotype K, isotype L.)

E. furfuracea Nayar is allied to E. bracteata Quisumb. & Merr.,
but differs in the size and shape of bracteoles and in the nature of pube-
scence on the under surface of the leaf. In E. furfuracea the bracteoles
are obovate (5-6 mm. long and 3-4 mm. wide), dark brown and coria-
ceous ; whereas in E. bracteata the bracteoles are oblong-ovate, (8-11 mm.
long, 4-8 mm. wide), pale green and membranaceous.

3. Eisocreochiton monticola (Ridl.) Nayar, comb. nov. (Plate II).

Anplectrum monticola Ridley in Kew Bull. 1: 31, 1946. Type:
Brooks 50 (K). |

Creochiton kinabaluense Heine in Mitt. Bot. Staatssamml. Munchen 1.
Heft 6: 214, 1953. Type: J. & M.S. Clemens 32646 (Isotypes K,
BM)—Synon. nov.

Climber, about 13 m. in height. Branches subterete, furfuraceous and
lepidote, pilose, nodes usually 1-2 cm. apart. Leaves elliptic, 1-3.5x
0.7-1.5 cm., base cuneate, apex retuse, upper surface glabrous, under
surface sparsely puberulous, hairs deciduous, glabrescent, 3-nerved,
cross-venules distinct on the under surface; petiole 3-4 mm. long, furfur-
aceous. Inflorescence axillary, 3-5 cm. long, furfuraceous; bract elliptic
or obovate, 5-6 mm. long; bracteole obovate, 4 mm. long, furfuraceous ;

90 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 67 (1)

pedicel 1-2 mm. long. Calyx tube campanulate, 2.5-3 mm. long, furfura-
ceous, limb sinuate. Petals 4, oblong-lanceolate, 2.5-3 mm. long,
acuminate. Stamens 8, 4 small and 4 large stamens; large stamens:
filament 1-1.5 mm. long, anther 2-2.5 mm. long, provided with a short
connective, dorsally ending in a triangular appendage, 1 mm. long and
ventrally ending in two linear appendages 1 mm. long; small stamens:
filament 0.5-0.8 mm. long, anther 1.5 mm. long, dorsally ending in a
minute tubercle and ventrally inappendiculate. Ovary 4-chambered, apex
of the ovary furfuraceous ; Style 4-5 mm. long, glabrous, stigma punctiform.
Berry globose, stellate-furfuraceous ; seeds numerous, cuneate 0.5-0.8.mm.
long.

Distribution : Borneo: Sarawak, Summit of Benkaran, Brooks
50(K); Gunong penrissen, Kuching Dist., 29 Apr. 1962, Ilias Pa’ie
S. 16371 (K); Sabah, Mt. Kinabalu, alt. 1166 m., J. & M. S. Clemens
32646 (K, BM); Colomban basin, alt. 1166 m., 14 Aug. 1933, J. & M.S.
Clemens 34455 (K); Tenompok, alt. 1666 m., 25 May 1932, 28616 A.
(K); Ibid., J. & M. S. Clemens 28616 (K).

While describing the type species Anplectrum monticola, Ridley
(in Kew Bull. 1:31, 1946) commented as follows: ‘This very curious plant
is quite unlike any other species in its densely set, small coriaceous leaves
and short axillary panicles.’’ Heine (in Mitt. Bot. Staatssamml. Munchen
1: heft 6:214, 1953) independently proposed the binomial Creochiton
kinabaluense for the same taxon on the basis of Clemens gatherings
(J. & M. §. Clemens 32646, 33951) from Sabah, Borneo. In the original
description of C. kinabaluense there is no description of the nature of
stamens and it is presumed that Heine erected this species basing on the
nature of bracteoles enveloping the flower buds and in the presence of
axillary panicles. Besides the bracteoles enveloping the flower buds, the
main generic character which distinguishes the genus Creochiton BI. is
the dorsally spurred and ventrally inappendiculate stamens. In this
taxon the stamens are dorsally spurred and ventrally biappendiculate.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my gratitude to Sir George Taylor, Director,
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, U. K. for all facilities during my stay
at Kew from 1961-67.

Obituary

FR. H. SANTAPAU, s.J.
(1903-1970)

The death of Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, s.J. on 13 January 1970 was a
grievous loss to Indian Botany, to the Bombay Natural History Society
and to his numerous friends and colleagues at the Society, in the City
of Bombay, and throughout the world.

Born at La Galera, Tarragona, Spain on 5 December 1903, Fr.
Santapau joined the Society of Jesus at the age of 16 and was educated
in Spain and London and took his Ph.D. in Philosophy at Rome in 1927.
In 1936 Fr. Santapau joined the London University but his studies were
interrupted by the war. He later joined the Imperial College in London
and took his Ph.D. in Botany based on his Flora of Khandala, worked
out during his two years (1946-48) at Kew Gardens.

Fr, Santapau reached India in 1928 and became one of the Professors
of Botany at St. Xavier’s in 1940. His botanical exploration of the
country of his adoption took him from the deserts of Baluchistan to the
rain forests of Assam and from the Darjeeling hills in the Himalayas
to the Nilgiri and Palni hills in the south. His vast collection of over
100,000 specimens is mainly housed at the Blatter Herbarium at Bombay.
He gave freely of his knowledge of Indian Botany and lectured to students
of universities throughout the country and was a recognised postgraduate
teacher in many of them. He was a ‘ Visitor ’ to the Universities of Delhi
and Poona. His contributions on Indian Botany which number over
350 include authoritative treatises on taxonomy of Indian plants such as
his floras of Khandala, Purandhar, Saurashtra and his papers on various
families of plants. His ‘ Orchids of Bombay State’ is another notable
contribution. Fr. Santapau had the rare ability to communicate with the
scientist as well as the layman with equal facility as is evident from his
book COMMON TREES published by the National Book Trust, India.

He was a fellow of the National Institute of Sciences of India and
was associated with numerous societies and scientific bodies. He was a
member of many committees of the Council of Scientific and Industrial
Research and was responsible for re-organising for the Government of
India, the Botanical Survey of India and retired as the Director of the
Survey in 1968.

Fr. Santapau’s association with the Bombay Natural History Society
dates back to 1944 when he joined as an ordinary member and was

92 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

elected to its Executive Committee the same year. He became an editor
of the Journal in 1948 (volume 48) and was elected Vice-President in
1954.

Fr. Santapau’s services to India and to Indian Botany were
recognised by the award of Padma Shri by the Government of India
and the Birbal Sahani Medal by the Indian Botanical Society. He was
made a member of the Order of Alphonso the Wise by the Spanish
Government.

His publications in the Society’s Journal are listed below:

1944 Ventilago bombaiensis Dalz. (with a plate). 44(3): 496- 498.
—— The flowering of Strobilanthes. 44(4): 605-606.

1945 New plant records for Bombay Presidency. 45(3): 445-448.
—— Curcuma pseudomontana Grah. 45(4): 618-623.

1946 An abnormal flower of Gloriosa superba Linn: (with a plate and a text figure).
46(1): 202-204.
— No pleat records for the Presidency of Bombay (II) (with a plate). 46(2):
77-381.

—— Abnormal flowering of Careya arborea Roxb. in Khandala. 46(2): 409-410.

oe erro in the numbers of floral parts in Jasminum malabaricum Wt. 46(3):
563-566.

1947 Notes on the Convolvulaceae of Bombay. 47(2): 337-355.

1948 Notes on the Solanaceae of Bombay. 47(4): 652-662.
—— The Genus Ceropegia—further comments. 47(4): 775-777.

1949 Artificial key to the Papilionaceae of Bombay Province. 48(2): 277-282.
—— Notes on the Gesneriaceae of Bombay. 48(3): 489-492.
—— The genus Ceropegia: still further comments. 48(3): 613-614.

1950 Notes on the Scrophulariaceae of Bombay. 49(1): 25-49.

—— Editorial note on the growth of herbarium specimens. 49(1): 135-136.
—— Notes on the Lentibulariaceae of Bombay. 49(2): 217-221.

-—— The flowering of Strobilanthes. 49(2): 320-321.

— A plea for the Preservation of Wild Plants. (with a plate). 49(3): 427-429.
—— Further remarks en the flowering of Strobilanthes. 49(3): 575-576.

1951 The genus Dioscorea in Bombay State. (with three plates). 49(4): 624-638.

— Newrecord for Frerea indica Dalz. in Bombay Province. 49(4): 801-802.

— Frerea indica Dalz.—A new record in Bombay. 50(2): 427.

—— A branched specimen of Costus speciosus Smith. 50(2): 427.

— Critical notes on the identity and nomenclature of some Bombay plants (with
two plates). 50(2): 305-312.

—— A note on Neuracanthus sphaerostachyus Dalz. (with two plates). 50(2): 428-430.
(Jointly with P. V. Bole).

1955

|

|

|

‘Neuracanthus sphaerostachyus Dalz.—Further comments.

OBITUARY 93

Contribution to the bibliography of Indian Botany. (Part I). 50(3): 520-548.

On a common species of Curcuma of Bombay and Salsette Islands. (with a
plate). 51(1): 135-139.

Contribution to the bibliography of Indian Botany. (Part II). 51(1): 205-259.

Notes on the Acanthaceae of Bombay. 51(2): 349-368.

Critical notes on the identity and nomenclature of some Bombay plants II.
The genus Zizyphus Mill. 51(4): 801-804.

The species of Crotalaria in Bombay. 51(4): 960-962.

Critical notes on the identity and nomenclature of some Bombay plants III.
Murdannia scapiflorum (Roxb.) Royle. (with two plates). 52(1): 137-141.
(Jointly with R. R. Fernandes).

The genus Murdannia in Bombay State. 52(2 & 3): 658.

New plant records for Bombay. (with two plates). 52(2 & 3): 661-663.
(Jointly with A. Randeria and R. R. Fernandes).

A new species of Chlorophytum from Salsette Island. (with a plate). 52(4):
897-900. (Jointly with R. R. Fernandes).
Alternanthera polygonoides R. Br. var. erecta Mart.—a new record for Bombay
State. (with a plate). 52(4): 957 (Jointly with G. P. Shrivastava).
Ney eae excursion to North Kanara, Bombay State, in May 1954. 53(1):
0-28.

Laurentia longiflora Endl. a new record for Bombay State. (with a plate).

53(1): 156-157.

The botanical exploration of Krishnagiri National Park, Borivli, near Bombay.
(with two maps, one coloured and two black-and-white plates). 53(2): 185-200.
(Jointly with A. Randeria).

New plant records for Bombay III. (with five plates). 53(2): 210-213. (Jointly
with C. Saldanha).

New plant records for Bombay IV. (with four plates). 53(2): 214-216. (Jointly
with several students).

Name changes of a few Bombay plants. 53(3): 499-500. (Jointly with D.
Panthaki).

Extensive loss of water by forest trees in the Dangs Forest. 53(3): 501.

Dolichos bracteatus Baker. 53(3): 501-502. (Jointly with D. Panthaki).

The name Hoya bendula. 53(3): 504.

Tobacco without nicotine. 53(3): 504.

The poisonous qualities of Calotropis gigantea R. Br. 54(1): 218.

Notes on Aerides maculosum Lindl. (with a_ text-figure). 541): 220-221.
(Jointly with Z. Kapadia).

Some new plants for the Dangs Forest, Bombay State. (with two plates). 54(1):
221-225. (Jointly with D. Panthaki).

Eclipta prostrata, E. erecta or E. alba: Which is the correct name? 54(2):
475-476.

Alternanthera paronychyoides St. Hil—A correction. 54(2): 476-477.

Habenaria panchganiensis—New name for a Bombay Orchid. 54(2): 478.
(Jointly with Z. Kapadia).

The genus Cuscuta in Bombay. (with a plate). 54(3): 707-713. (Jointly with
V. Patel).

Further notes on the Indian species of Curcuma (Zingiberaceae). 54(4): 966-
967.

The species of Lagenandra of Bombay and Madras. 54(4): 967-969.

54(4): 969-970.

(Jointly with G. L. Shah).

1959

1963

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

The phyllotaxy of Euphorbia neriifolia Linn. 55(1): 186-187. (Jointly with
G. L. Shah).

The coconut, Cocos nucifera Linn. Observations of the first English Jesuit
in India. 55(1): 188-189.

New plant records for Bombay-V. (with five plates). 55(3): 481-485. (Jointly
with R. R. Fernandes & Z. Kapadia).

Cryptostegia madagascariensis Boj.—A new record for Bombay. (with a plate).
55(3): 594-595. (Jointly with N. A. Irani).

The leaves of Alseodaphne semecarpifolia Nees. 56(1): 160.

Critical notes on the Orchidaceae of Bombay State. I—The genus Habenaria
Willd. (with six plates). 56(2): 188-203. (Jointly with Z. Kapadia).

Lectotypes of the species and varieties described by Blatter and Hallberg in
their ‘ Flora of the Indian Desert.’ 56(2): 276-281.

Salmalia malabarica and S. insignis in Bombay. 56(2): 364-365.

a Reval Botanic Gardens, Kew. By W. B. Turrill. (A Review). 56(3):

The flowering of Strobilanthes. (with a plate). 56(3): 677.

The leaves of Alseodaphne semecarpifolia Nees.—A correction. 56(3): 678.

Critical notes on the Orchidaceae of Bombay State. IJ. Platanthera L. C.
Rich. & Peristylus B1. (with four plates). 5711): 124-135. (Jointly with Z.
Kapadia).

The identity of the Entada plants from Bombay. 57(1): 238-240.

Critical notes on Orchidaceae of Bombay State. III. The genus Oberonia Lindl.
(with five plates). 57(2): 252-269. (Jointly with Z. Kapadia).

Artocarpus heterophyllus Lamk. (with a plate). 57(2): 447-449.

Critical notes on the Orchidaceae of Bombay State. IV. The genus Dendrobium
Sw. (with ten plates). 57(3): 491-510. (Jointly with Z. Kapadia).

Black colour in flowers: Is there such a colour in nature? 57(3): 701-702.

Critical notes on the Orchidaceae of Bombay State. V. Eulophia R. Br. and
Aerides Lour. (with five plates). 58(1): 53-67. (Jointly with Z. Kapadia).

Critical notes on the Orchidaceae of Bombay State. VI. Nervilia Gaud &
Malaxis Sw. (with three plates). 58(2): 332-350. (Jointly with Z. Kapadia).

New plant record from Bombay, Physalis longifolia Nutt. 58(2); 550-551.
[Jointly with G. L. Shah, Z. Kapadia (née V. Patel)]

New plant record from Bombay: Alternanthera pungens H.B.K. 58: 551-553.
(Jointly with G. L. Shah).

Critical notes on the Orchidaceae of Bombay State. VII. Eria Lindl. & Porpax
Lindl. (with three plates) 58(3): 595-607. (Jointly with Z. Kapadia).

Critical notes on the Orchidaceae of Bombay State. VIII. Some of the smaller
genera. (with six plates). 59(1): 154-172. (Jointly with Z. Kapadia).

Critical notes on the Orchidaceae of Bombay State. IX. Some of the smaller
genera (Continued). (with eight plates). 59(2): 382-404. (Jointly with Z.
Kapadia).

Gregarious flowering of Strobilanthes and Bamboos. (with a plate). 59(2):
688-695.

Critical notes on the Orchidaceae of Bombay State. X. Some of the smaller
genera (continued). (with two plates). 59(3) : 827-842. (Jointly with Z. Kapadia).

Critical notes on the Orchidaceae of Bombay State. XI—Some of the smaller
genera (continued). (with two plates) 60(1): 92-103.

OBITUARY 5)

—— Additions to the Flora of Bombay State: Grasses from Salsette Island. (Malad-
Madh Area). 60(1): 134-139. (Jointly with G. L. Shah)

1965, Further contribution to the botany of eat ae Forest, Gujarat. 62(2): 201-210.
(Jointly with G. L. Shah).

1969 A contribution to the Flora of Salsette Island, Bombay, (Malad-Madh Area).
66(3) : 430-442. (Jointly with G. L. Shah).

EDITORS

Reviews
1. THE TWILIGHT OF INDIA’S WILD LIFE. By Balakrishna

Seshadri. pp. 212 (24x16 cm.) with 58 illustrations and 5 Raps. London,
1969. John Baker Publishing Ltd. Price 52s. net.

__ There are two important points that Seshadri makes in his book:
THE TWILIGHT OF INDIA’S WILD LIFE which if seriously noted by the
powers that be, may yet save India’s wild life from becoming extinct.

The total area of all existing wild life sanctuaries and national parks
in India is approximately 4700 sq. miles. This is an insignificant percentage
of the total forest area of the country. Yet, these tiny pockets, the last
refuge of India’s vanishing wild life are far from inviolate. Grazing is
permitted in them. Commercial quality timber is grown and extracted
from them. Poaching is common, both by villagers allowed to live within
the sanctuaries and permitted to keep ‘crop protection’ guns and
affluent visitors (contractors and sometimes even Government officials).
All these not only disturb animal and bird life but also make their habitat
unsuitable. If grazing, and commercial exploitation of timber, and
poaching are not stopped soon in these wilderness areas they will have
nothing left to show except emaciated cattle.

The other point is that there has, sadly, been no effort made by the
Government to get the expert advice of conservationists while planning
projects (conservationists until very recently have been classified as
cranks and eccentrics) so that vast areas at dam sites and irrigation and
industrial projects have been thoughtlessly denuded of valuable forest
cover resulting not only in the extinction of several species of animals
along with their habitat but also in the washing off of the top soil leading
to serious erosion.

It is entirely practicable to plan towards control of further
despoliation. There are men and women in India who can do valuable
work to help this cause. It is their duty to make the Government aware
of the urgent need to take corrective action before it is too late.

Once it is accepted that conservation is essential the first step is
to provide effective management. Seshadri has listed 48 sanctuaries and
national parks. Of these only a handful have any sort of management.
The rest are neglected, and if neglected much longer, may cease to exist
except on paper.

I did not know that the Tons, or Govind Ballabh Pant Sanctuary,

created in 1955, in Tehri Garwal, is 368 sq. miles in area, that the Rishi-
ganga or Nanda Devi Sanctuary formed in 1939 in the Himalayas for

UREVIEWS 0.60 6 eas A 97

high elevation fauna is 250 sq. miles or that the Rajaji Srncgeted west
of the Corbett Park was 173 sq. miles.:

All these are bigger than the Conbett and Kanha National Parks
and what wonderful places they would be to visit if only we heard more
about them. Obviously, they are not as accessible as the better known
sanctuaries; not considered important, and so they languish. Poachers
and woodcutters will soon turn these beautiful forests into wasteland.

It is nothing short of criminal that we so callously neglect our most
wonderful heritage. Too late, as Seshadri says, will the people of India
realise that they have lost what nature took aeons to create.

G. S. RANGANATHAN.

2. THE MALAYAN NATURE JOURNAL. RAIN FOREST
ISSUE. Vol. 22 (1968-69). Parts 3 & 4. September 1969. pp. i-viii +99-
206 (25x16 cm.). Kuala Lumpur, 1969. The Malayan Nature Society,
P.O. Box 750, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Price M$ 10. Pes US $ 3.30/
£1-7-6 Sterling).

This special Rain Forest Issue of The Malayan Nature Journal
carries several papers of interest to botanists, foresters, and naturalists
generally. Among others may be mentioned a study by T. C. Whitmore
and C. P. Burnham of changes with altitude of forests and soils on granite
near Kuala Lumpur, another by J. A. Bullock and Khoo Bin Khong
of the formation of litter in tropical rain forest, a preliminary study by
J. B. Kenworthy of water balance in tropical rain forest in the Ulu
Gombak Forest Reserve, and a discussion by P. F. Burgess of ecological
factors in hill and mountain forest in Malaya with a description of the
rain forests at different heights. Among the shorter papers are a study
by J. L. Harrison of the abundance and population density of mammals
in Malayan lowland forests, an estimation by H. Elliott McClure of
bird population density in the primary forest of Selangor, and a description
by P. F. Burgess of colour changes in the Malayan forests in 1968-69.
On the practical side are papers by Paul Wycherley on forests and
productivity, and by J. A. Bullock on the productivity of the rain-forest
ecosystem.

As is usual with The Malayan Nature Journal, the papers are
illustrated with numerous well taken and well reproduced photographs.

D.. E.R

98 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

3. THE CLUE BOOKS: INSECTS AND OTHER SMALL ANIMALS
WITHOUT BONY SKELETONS. By Gwen Allen and Joan Denslow. pp. 61
(22.5 x20.5 cm.) with many illustrations by Derek Whiteley. London,
1969. Oxford University Press. Price 15s. net.

The Clue Books are a slim, square series for children between the
ages of eight and twelve. The other books in the series are ‘ Birds,’
* Bones,’ ‘ Flowers,’ and ‘ Trees.’

We have become used to a children’s natural history literature
which is out to charm the child, using lavish photographs and exotic
colour. The Clue Books fall in a different category. Most pages are in
sober black and white, although there are attractive and accurate colour
pictures as well. The book aims to capture the intelligent child by making
the whole business of insects an absorbing game, like a jigsaw puzzle,
and by showing him that he can win; he can find out what a particular
insect, found in the salad, actually is, discover its larvae and pupae,
and finally, he can keep it as a pet. It seems a more enduring method
than to merely enthrall him for a few moments by enormous shiny
pictures. In fact the book could be used to very good purpose by the
imaginative school-teacher. Although it is oriented to Britain and Europe,
it could be used for India with a little bit of pruning by an adult.

The first pages deal with ‘ What are Insects’ generally, illustrated
by line drawings and diagrams. The next pages deal with what the insect
(or ‘ other small animal without a bony skeleton ’) looks like under a
magnifying glass. Does it have wings but no waist? If so, turn to page 19.
On page 19 you learn something more, with another picture, and then
turn to the right page. In the next section, where there are colour pictures
dealing with various groups: Butterflies, Ants, Grasshoppers, etc. with
short trenchant notes on each such group. The last pages deal with
vivaria made out of jam-jars and daddy’s shoe-box.

SHAMA FUTEHALLY

4. THE WORLD OF THE POLAR BEAR. By Richard Perry.
pp. 195 (21.5 14.5 cm.) with 12 illustrations. London, 1966. Cassell
& Company Ltd. Price 30s. net.

How many people realise that the polar bear is not far from
extinction and that the total number currently is reckoned to be not
more than about 8,000 to 12,000. Considering the vast area of the northern
polar region which these animals inhabit it is dismal proof that no part
of this earth, however, remote from Civilisation, escapes the pernicious
influence of man,

REVIEWS 99

Richard Perry (who has also written a book on the Tiger) noting
that not much information was available in book form about polar
bears set out to rectify the deficiency and he has succeeded in putting
between the covers of his book a wealth of information in a systematic
manner. Observations about polar bears have been recorded since
890 A.D. and Perry quotes from over fifty sources from the earliest
times to the 20th Century.

A polar bear litter consists of one or two cubs, very rarely three.
A cub when born is | to 2 Ibs. in weight and a big adult male is 8 to 9 ft.
long and weighs about a thousand pounds (females are smaller). The
largest male recorded was 11 ft. long and weighed 1,800 Ibs.—about
as big as the Alaskan or Kodiak bear. Cubs are cast off after the first
spring when they are 15-16 months old although some stay longer even
up to the 3rd year. Polar bears are fertile up to 25 years and have a
maximum life span of 35-45 years.

The Polar bear is a powerful and indefatigable swimmer capable
of doing 120 to 180 yards per minute. About the only creature he fears
is the killer whale which may be the reason the polar bear, although
an excellent swimmer, avoids water if he can. He is also wary of the
Bull Walrus which may attain a length of 15 ft., a weight of 14 tons
and is equipped with 3 ft. long tusks weighing 10 lbs. apiece. The polar
bear is no fool.

Seals form the staple diet of Polar bears, mainly blubber, the flesh
being mostly left to Arctic foxes and ravens who are hangers on. In
addition, along with vegetable matter (during summer) they also eat
cast up marine animals, mussels, starfish, shrimps, and other crustacea.
They seldom catch fish. 156 lbs. of walrus blubber and meat has been
found in the stomach of a polar bear. This is about twice as much as
what a hungry tiger or lion can consume at one sitting. In captivity,
very much less suffices to feed a polar bear, the menu at one zoo being
10 lbs. of horse flesh, 3 Ibs. of butterfish, 3 lbs. mackerel and 4 to 5 Ibs.
of stale bread.

Polar bears are canny hunters and either when waiting patiently
near the blow holes of seals or swimming submerged towards an un-
suspecting seal on an ice floe, they exhibit great intelligence. When
frustrated, which must be fairly frequently, they vent their rage almost
in human fashion. A thwarted bear may jump up and down with fury,
smack the water, roar and toss snow. One bear smashed his paws against
a rock out-crop severely injuring them as subsequently discovered.
Polar bears also gambol and glissade down slopes with keen enjoyment.

100 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

The ice pack travels clockwise around the North Pole at about
2 miles per day and Polar bears are usually to be found on this, leaving
it for the mainland where they go to hibernate. Before hibernation they
eat moss to provide an internal obstruction referred to as ‘tappen’,
then stuff themselves with blubber which must keep them alive for
several months.

The dens constructed for hibernation are quite large and show
considerable SUES skill. Cane frequently, an entrance tunnel in
the snow leading to an ‘ ante room’ and an inner chamber at a slightly
raised level (to retain warmth) with a ledge between.

Estimates of Polar bear population vary between 6,000 to 17,000
and Perry thinks it may be 8,000 to 12,000. The replenishment rate
(excess of cubs over mortality) may not be adequate. The species,
therefore, is in danger of becoming extinct. The Russians were the first
to ban the killing of polar bears (in the late fifties?) and the Canadians
and Norwegians followed suit. The U.S. called an international meeting
in 1965 to discuss measures to protect the Polar bear..

The Arctic regions have a wealth of animal and bird life and Mr.
Perry has provided much interesting information not only about the
polar bear but also about the seal, walrus, muskox, arctic fox, wolf,
killer-whale, glaucous gull, kittiwake, skua and ptarmigan. It would be
wonderful to visit the fascinating world of the Polar bear. The next
best thing is to read about it.

~~ G.S. RANGANATHAN

—5. THE WEALTH OF INDIA: A DICTIONARY OF INDIAN
RAW MATERIALS AND INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS. Vol. VIII:
Ph-Re. pp. xxx+394+ XII (27.5 21.5 cm.). 11 plates and 142 text-
figures. New Delhi, 1969. Council of Scientific & Industrial Research.
Price Rs. 70; 140s; $ 21.

Vol. VIII of the Raw Materials portion of THE WEALTH OF INDIA,
which follows its predecessor after an interval of two years and more,
keeps up the high standard of the series. During the interval the Editorial
Committee suffered a serious loss by the death of Dr. Baini Prasad.
Since then another eminent member of the Editorial Committee has
died, the Rev. Fr. H. Santapau. The reviewer trusts that their absence
from the Committee will not slow down the rate at which this valuable
encyclopaedia of India’s resources makes its appearance.

Several of the genera teeih with in this volume cover Regd ae of
common use or occurrence and furnish the layman with detailed and

REVIEWS 101

helpful information about familiar things, regarding the origin, procuring,
and uses of which his knowledge is limited and vague, for instance
Phoenix (date palms), Pinus (pines from which, besides commercial
timber, turpentine, and rosin, come the chilgoza seeds that we eat with
such relish), Piper (betel leaves, black pepper), Pithecellobium (Madras
Thorn, known among other vernacular names as vilayati imli, the fruit
of.which to our schoolboy palates was a delicacy), Plantago (isubgol),
Plumbago (a common garden plant, which besides other uses provides
a drug which we are told may be of use in the treatment of leucoderma
and baldness of the head), Prunus (almonds, apricots, plums, peaches,
cherries), Psidium (guavas), Pyrus (pears), Punica (pomegranates),
Raphanus (radishes), and many more. Deserving of special mention is
Rauvolfia, the source of a drug for a long time in use in Ayurvedic practice,
the value of which was realised by allopaths only in the last decade,
leading to a sudden drain on our wild-grown supply and to a hurried
search for practicable methods of establishing a cultivated supply. On the
zoological side attention may be drawn to articles on Prawns, Shrimps
& Lobsters, and on Porpoises & Dolphins, and on the minerals side on
Rare Earths, Quartz & Silica, and Phosphates.

One slight mistake has crept in, at page 165. The tree illustrated
in text-figure 57 is Plumeria alba, not Plumeria acuminata.

The index, giving the common English names as well as those in
the principal Indian vernaculars and also trade names, makes reference
easy for the layman.

DY E.R.

Miscellaneous Notes

1. WILD DOG’S COURAGE RATING

Wild dogs, Cuon alpinus (Pallas), have always been presented to the
world as intrepid, ruthless and wanton killers. Yesterday, I watched
an incident, which together with the encounter between a pack of dogs
and a herd of sambar hinds, I had reported earlier, leaves me in doubt
as to their courage rating.

A pack of wild dogs was hunting in and around ‘ Cheetal walk ’
our week-end home in the jungle in the low country in the Nilgiris.
I followed them unseen by working my way from one hide to another,
placed by me along the Sigur River.

From the first machan I could see 9 dogs; six of them were sub-
adults and were lolling about waiting for a lead, while 3 older dogs were
running up and down the far bank trying to pick up a fresh scent. As the
dogs went down stream, beyond sight, I got down from the machan and
got into another, which was 150 yards below the first. This machan
commands an excellent view of the river for nearly 300 yards. As I was
sitting there, I saw about half a dozen dogs at the water’s edge 100 yards
below, hesitating to get in. The river which usually holds about 6 inches
to a foot of water, had about 2 to 3 feet of water in it, after recent rains.
Just then a sambar stag carrying 20 in. antlers walked into the stream-bed
from my side of the river, almost opposite the spot where the dogs were.
Without hesitation it waded into the stream and made, in a leisurely
manner, for the section of the bank where the dogs stood. I was so sure
that the stag was being driven towards the waiting dogs that I fully
expected the rest of the pack to break cover behind the stag at any
moment. Instead, to my surprise a larger stag followed. Seeing the stags
making their way towards them, the dogs retreated. Shortly afterwards
I saw them cross the river 50 yards further down. There were 16 of them
and half of them had just grown out of their puppy-hood.

I remained to see if the retreat was designed to be a tactical move.
It was not.

The stags had moved up and were almost opposite me, on the far
bank. [I had them under observation for nearly an hour. They hung
about together and were joined by two hinds, who were obviously in
the area even when the dogs were operating there. They seemed to be
together, just in case.

Only some months previously we came across a very freshly killed
young sambar stag with 15 in. horns in the Moyar flume channel, about

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 103

5 miles from ‘ Cheetal walk.’ On seeing us the dogs fled. Watching the
dogs were a young sambar stag and 3 hinds, some 50 yards away.

This would show that wild dogs in our area do kill adult sambar,
but prefer not to if they can help it. It is also possible that sambar around
‘Cheetal walk’ have, out of necessity, learnt to gang up to defend
themselves, whatever the case, it is apparent that wild dogs have been
over-rated, so far as their courage is concerned.

““CANOWIE”
Coonoor-1, E.R.C. DAVIDAR

NILGIRIS,
October 12, 1969.

2. HABITAT OF THE HIMALAYAN TAHR HEMITRAGUS
JEMLAHICUS (H. SMITH)

The genus Hemitragus comprises three forms that are usually each
assigned specific rank. The morphological differences between them
may not be as great as that reported and subspecific distinction might
prove to be a better expression of relationship.

Previous reports on the habitat of the Himalayan tahr imply that
it is a forest dwelling species. In New Zealand its preferred habitat is
the zone above the tree line and below the permanent snow. A reappraisal
of habitat requirements in the Himalaya showed that tahr were observed
only above tree line, both in winter and summer. Previous reports
therefore appear to be in error. Habitat requirements in New Zealand
and the Himalaya are identical within the limits imposed by differing
plant communities. The error in previous descriptions of habitat may be
due both to confusion of the tahr with the serow (Capricornis) and to the
finding of male tahr wandering below their normal altitudinal zone.

The Himalayan tahr Hemitragus jemlahicus ranges from Kashmir to
Sikkim along the Himalaya (Wrenicke 1943, Bailey 1944, Ellerman &
Morrison-Scott 1951, Frenchkop 1955 and Das 1966). Prater’s (1934)
contention that it also occurs in Bhutan has not been confirmed!.

Pohle (1949) proposed a separate sub-species for the tahr of Sikkim,
differentiating this postulated form from that in Nepal on alleged
differences in horn spread and pelage. Apparently he was unaware of the
marked seasonal changes in pelage colour of tahr because he has compared
the winter pelage of Sikkim specimens with descriptions of summer pelage
of specimens collected farther west. Pohle does not make a good case for
morphological differences between tahr of Sikkim and Nepal. Neither

1 See the following note—Eds.

104 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

does Schaefer (1950) argue convincingly for geographic and genetic
isolation of the two populations. The sub-species is not recognised here.

Charles (1957) proposed that until more material becomes available
for detailed comparison, the three forms of Hemitragus (jemlahicus in the
Himalaya, hylocrius in southern India, and jayakari in eastern Arabia)
should be considered provisionally as races of the nominate form
Hemitragus jemlahicus. On zoogeographic grounds I suspect that sub-
specific rather than specific distinction of forms will prove to be the more
meaningful expression of their interrelationship. |

The habitat of Himalayan tahr has been described as thick forest
interspersed with rocky bluffs (Kinloch 1876, Blanford 1888, Ward 1922,
Burrard 1925, Prater 1934, Morris 1965) and Burrard (1925) stressed that
individuals “‘ never by any circumstances wander above the tree-line’’.

In contrast, its habitat in New Zealand, where it was introduced in
1904, is restricted almost entirely to the zone above tree-line (Anderson
& Henderson 1961, Christie & Andrews 1964, Caughley 1965, 1966).
Its altitudinal range of about 3,000-7,000 ft. in that country is ecologically
and climatically equivalent to 12,000-16,000 ft. in the Himalayas. Tahr
do occasionally descend below 3,000 ft. in New Zealand, but only as a
result of males wandering before the rutting season.

From March 1968 I spent a year in Nepal and was able to investigate’
this apparent paradox. Although all altitudinal zones from tropical to
frigid were investigated, tahr were found only in the region above tree
line at altitudes between 12,500 ft. and 16,000 ft. The greatest number of
observations were made between 13,000 ft. and 15,000 ft. and this range
was the same for both summer and winter. These observations suggest
that previous statements on the habitat of tahr in the Himalayas are
incorrect, and that habitat requirements in New Zealand and Nepal
are identical within the limits imposed by different vegetation types.

Two reasons for the confusion come to mind. Firstly, most of the
quoted reports on habitat appear not to be based on observation but are
repetitions without acknowledgement of observations made by Kinloch
(1876) and Burrard (1925). Both these men certainly shot. tahr in forest
but these animals are likely to be males wandering in winter. No report
is available of a female having been shot in forest.

Secondly, some reports of tahr in forest may have originated from
mistaken identity. The serow Capricornis sumatraensis is called “‘ tahr ”’
by several hill groups in Nepal, the “‘ th” form indicating a hard “t”’
and not the ‘‘ th’? of English useage. No ethnic group in Nepal uses
*‘ thar ’’ for Hemitragus: Brahmins and Chetris use “ jharal’’; Tamang
and Gurung use “ jharal,” “‘jharal-thar’’ and sometimes the Tibetan

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 105

*‘ yang ’’; and sherpas use “ reiwo.” This confusion of names may have
resulted in the occasional instance of serow being reported as tahr.

On the basis of observations reported here and those reported from
New Zealand, the published descriptions of the habitat of the Himalayan
tahr require amendment. In both winter and summer the habitat comprises
the zone of grassland between tree line and the permanent snow. In the
Himalaya this zone lies between 12,000 ft. and 17,000 ft. Occasionally
individuals will be found lower than this but such occurrences are at

variance with normal behaviour.

SCHOOL OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES,
UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY,

SYDNEY, AUSTRALIA,

September 12, 1969.

GRAEME CAUGHLEY

REFERENCES

ANDERSON, J. A. & HENDERSON, J. B.
(1961): Himalayan Thar in New Zealand.
a Zeal. Deerstalkers’ Assn: Spec.
Pub. 2.

BaiLey, F. M. (1944): The Himalayan
Tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus H. Sim.)
[Sic]) in Sikkim. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 45: 82-83.

BLANFORD, W. T. (1888): The Fauna
of British India including Ceylon and
Burma. Mammalia. London.

BURRARD, G. (1925): Big Game
Hunting in the Himalayas and Tibet.
London.

CAUGHLEY, G. (1965): Horn Rings
and Tooth Eruption as Criteria of Age
in the Himalayan Thar, Hemitragus
jemlahicus. New Zeal. J] Sci. 8: 333-351.

——, (1966): Mortality
Patterns in Mammals. Ecology 47:
906-918.

CHARLES, R.P. (1957): Morphologie
Dentaire du Thar et du Bouquetin
Espéces Actualles et Subfossiles des
eo Préhistoriques. Mammalia 21:

Curistig, A. H. C. & ANDREWS
J. R. H. (1964): Introduced Ungulates
in New Zealand. (a) Himalayan Tahr.
Tuatara 12: 69-77.

_ Das, S. M. (1966): Palaearctic Elements
in the Fauna of Kashmir. Nature 212:
1327-1330. ee DS

ELLERMAN, J. R. & MORRISON-SCOTT,
T. C. S. (1951): Checklist of Palaearctic
and Indian Mammals 1758 to 1946.
London.

FRENCHKOP, S. (1955): Sous-ordre des
Ruminants ou Sélénadontes, pp. 568-593.
In P.-p. Grassé (ed.) Traité de Zoology.
Paris. |

KINLOCH, A. (1876): Large Game
Hunting in Thibet and the Northwest.
London.

Morris, D. (1965): The Mammals.
London.

PoHLeE, H. (1949): Hemitragus jemla-
hicus schaeferi sp. n., dieostlichste Form
des Thars. Zool. Anz. 194: 184-191.

PRATER, S. H. (1934): The wild animals
of the Indian Empire and the Problems
of their Conservation. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 37: 59-96.

(1965): The Book of
Indian Animals, second (revised) edition.
Bombay.

SCHAEFER, [E] (1950): uber den Schapi
(Hemitragus jemlahicus schaeferi). Zool.
Anz. 145: 247-260.

Warp, A. E. (1922): Game Animals
of Kashmir and the adjacent hill Pro-
vinces. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 23:
595-609.

WRENICKE, C. J. T. (1943): Occurrence
of the Himalayan Tahr (Hemitragus

Jemlahicus) in Sikkim. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 44: 114-117.

106 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

3. HIMALAYAN TAHR, HEMITRAGUS UaMEA BaeUS
(H. SMITH, 1826) IN BHUTAN

In so far as neither S. H. Prater in his BOOK OF INDIAN ANIMALS
nor Ellerman & Morrison-Scott in their CHECKLIST OF INDIAN AND
PALAEARCTIC MAMMALS mention the presence of tahr in Bhutan, I wish to
record that this animal is present and not uncommon in the Chuka,
Gedu, Phutlibr areas of S. W. Bhutan on the Thimphu road, between
5,000 to 7,000 ft. above sea-level.

I had heard of its occurrence at Chuka a year ago, and I was given
some * poached’ tahr meat a few weeks ago. I myself was lucky to see
a young animal (sex unknown) with short horns, at Phutlibr on 27
October 1969 at midday in rocky jungle whilst I was watching birds
in a favourite haunt. The animal did not see me and approached head-on
to within less than ten yards when it stopped and, puzzled by my keeping
still, watched me for some ten seconds before taking fright.

My Bhutanese companion also saw the animal and stated its name
in Bhutanese to be ‘ Chara,’ similar to the Nepalese name of * Jharal.’

Its occurrence in Eastern Bhutan will be investigated and the subject
of a further letter if any reliable information comes to light.

BANK OF BHUTAN, J. R. S. HOLMES
PHUNTSHOLING, |

BHUTAN,

November 7, 1969.

4. BLACKBUCK, ANTILOPE CERVICAPRA (LINNAEUS)
SWIMMING

~ .On 16 December 1969, I was walking back to the Rest House at
about 5-30 P.M. after watching a large number of Blackbuck around the
observation tower at the Point Calimere Sanctuary. As I came near the
forest rest house, my way was blocked by a lagoon about 25 yards wide,
which was either a backwater fed by the sea or a drainage of the water
from the forest. I was looking for a safe place to cross it when a fisherman
coming from the opposite direction shouted a warning to me not to
cross where I was, as there was apparently a strong current at the junction
of the sea and the lagoon. As I crossed further up as he directed, I saw
him swimming across. It must have been quite deep. I started walking
towards the Rest House when I saw: a Blackbuck standing to my left
towards the sea. On seeing me he started to gallop along the shore,
until he came near the lagoon. He stopped momentarily, when he saw
his way cut off, but the next moment jumped into water and with two
characteristic leaps he was in the middle of the lagoon and promptly

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES | 107

went down. After a couple of seconds I saw his head bob up and he
Started swimming steadily till he reached the opposite shore. He shrugged
and sneezed a few times and bounded off out of sight. I am not aware
whether Blackbuck have been observed swimming before.

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY’S S. A. HUSSAIN
BirD MIGRATION STUDY CAMP,

POINT CALIMERE SANCTUARY,

TAMIL NADU,

January 4, 1970.

5. A RECORD OF THE TIGER BITTERN, GORSACHIUS
MELANOLOPHUS (RAFFLES) FROM KARAIKUDI, RAMANA-
THAPURAM DISTRICT, TAMIL NADU

In December, 1968, Prof. J. Samuel Raj, Head of the Department
of Zoology, Alagappa College, Karaikudi, brought to the Museum a
mounted specimen of a medium-sized bird more or less resembling a
Black Bittern. Since the species was not represented in the Museum
collection and as we were doubtful about its correct identity, we had it
sent to the Bombay Natural History Society, where it was identified as the
Tiger Bittern or Malay Bittern, Gorsachius melanolophus (Raffles). This is
quite an unusual record for this species since it had not been apparently
recorded earlier from eastern India, although there was one record from
the Nilgiris in the report of the Eastern Ghats Survey by Whistler and
Kinnear. The occurrence of this species in Tamil Nadu is therefore quite
unique and is worth reporting.

Prof. Samuel Raj who secured the specimen reports that the bird
was caught on the Alagappa College campus, Karaikudi, Ramanatha-
puram District, on 7 November, 1967, which was a rainy day. Due to
heavy rains, the bird is reported to have dropped down from a tree.
It was kept alive for a week and stuffed and mounted later on and finally
brought to the Madras Museum in December, 1968. Prof. Samuel Raj
reports that specimens of the Tiger Bittern are seen occasionally in and
around Karaikudi during November and December. The distribution
of this species is cited in Stuart Baker’s (1929) FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA
6: 362 as “‘ Ceylon, the Malabar Coast to the Southern Bombay Presi-
dency, Assam, Manipur, Burma, South through the Malay States to
Sumatra, Java, Borneo and Formosa.”’

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am grateful to Prof. J. Samuel Raj for having kindly donated the
specimen of this Bittern to the Madras Government Museum, where it

108 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

was hitherto unrepresented, and for furnishing the necessary information
on its locality, date of collection and the circumstances under which the
specimen was collected.

GOVERNMENT MUSEUM, ae S. T. SATYAMURTI
EGMOoRE, MADRAS-8, Director of Museums, Madras
December 1, 1969.

6. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF SWINHOE’S SNIPE, CAP-
ELLA MEGALA (SWINHOE) NEAR BOMBAY, AND A NOTE
ON ITS IDENTIFICATION

On 7th December 1947, while shooting with Dr. Salim Ali on the
lower portion (c. 300’) of Cathedral Rock, near Kalyan, Bombay, we
put up two snipe out of tall rushes on the edge of terrace paddy. In flight
they appeared much heavier and darker than either Pintail (C. stenura)
or Fantail (C. gallinago). We preserved the less damaged one, believing
it to be Swinhoe’s [C. megala (Swinhoe)] which has been recorded in
eastern and southern India but not so far north-west. It was sent to the
British Museum, but was identified by Sir Norman Kinnear as a Pintail
(C. stenura).

In the course of cataloguing the collection recently, I found this
specimen (No. 14938) listed among C. gallinago. The notes on the label
prompted me to re-compare this with the Pintails and, as the tail
(originally noted to have 22 feathers with the central pair in moult,
and a part of which is preserved) definitely lacked the more pin-like
feathers on the outside, I sent the skin to Dr. Dillon Ripley who agrees
that it is Swinhoe’s Snipe (C. megala).

This extends the accepted winter range of the species north-west of
Madras, Mysore, and Kerala.

In 1934, La Personne (JBNHS 37 : 734) stated that Swinhoe’s Snipe
could be distinguished from the Pintail by its bastard wing being 20 mm.
or longer as against 17 or less in the latter. Stuart Baker confirmed the
difference and suggested diagnostic limits of over 19 mm. for Swinhoe’s
and under 19 mm. for the Pintail. This is repeated in subsequent literature
including IND. HANDBOOK (2 : 285), but the spike-like and longest feather
in the bastard wing only measures 15-18 mm. in this and six other
specimens in the Society’s collection and does not appear to be any
longer than in the Pintail.

This species resembles the Pintail in the shape of the bill tip, the
barring on the underwing, and the absence of the broad white tips to the
secondaries, and the only consistent differences appear to be:

(a) the absence of the pinfeathers at the side of the tail,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES _. A 109

(6) aslightly longer wing (135-144, cf. 128-137), and
(c) alonger tail (52-60, cf. 44-50).

The last character does not appear to have been noticed before
but is very consistent. :

15, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, | HUMAYUN ABDULALI
BOMBAY-3,

January 9, 1970.

T.? OCCURRENCE OF THE GREAT SNIPE, CAPELLA
MEDIA (LATHAM) IN BURMA AND INDIA

- Only three records of the Great Snipe [Capella media (Latham)]
have been accepted from peninsular India and, though it is said to have
been obtained in Ceylon and the Andamans, it has not been recorded
from Burma. It may therefore be interesting to note that in the course
of cataloguing the Society’s collection, we found 9 birds of this species
listed as Capella gallinago (Linnaeus). Six of them are from Iraq and
Persia but, in addition to one from near Bangalore collected by Capt.
A. Boxwell on 28th October 1910 (the label now reads: “ Capt. A.
Boxall, 2 December 1910’) and which is one of the three records referred
to above, there are two more, from Walmer, Nilgiris, and Moulmein,
Burma.

The first of these two specimens was collected by Phythian-Adams
and is marked as received in November 1933. It was no doubt sent to
the Society as it appeared different from the Common Snipe but was
apparently marked C. gallinago by one of the Society’s assistants and the
identification not checked upon subsequently. This forms the fourth
record from India.

The Burmese bird was collected at Moulmein by W. A. W. Dawn
but the label bears no date. This also was marked as the Common Snipe
and has been overlooked for many years. Mr. Dawn was elected a
member of the Society on 28 February 1899, a fact which gives some
indication of the date of collection.

In addition to the longer wing the additional amount of white on
three of the outermost tail-feathers is very distinctive. The sketch in
IND. HANDBOOK (reproduced from BR. HANDBOOK) represents this correctly
but reference is made to the Key in the FAUNA which refers to the black
base to the feathers and implies that the distal portion is pure white and
without the black bars. The Key in IND. HANDBOOK (2 : 278) perhaps
needs another correction, for it specifies a wing under 150 mm. The

110 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

specimens available have their wings 138 (frayed)—150. The upper limit
would be larger in fresh birds. The tarsus is noticeably stouter than in
gallinago.

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, HUMAYUN ABDULALI
HORNBILL HOUSE, SHANTA NAIR
SHAHID BHAGAT SINGH ROAD,

BoMBAY-1 BR,

October 25, 1969.

8. NOTES ON INDIAN BIRDS-11. ON THE DISTRIBUTION
OF STERNA FUSCATA LINNAEUS IN INDIAN LIMITS—A
CORRECTION

At a monthly meeting of the Bombay Natural History Society held
on 4 July 1887 (JBNHS 2:286), reference was made to a Sooty Tern
Sterna fuliginosa, now S. fuscata, said to have been obtained by
W. F. Sinclair at Alibag, Kolaba District; this is noted as the only record
from the area in “* The Birds of Bombay and Salsette ’ (1939, JBNHS
40 :636).

In 1938, Salim Ali, Charles McCann and I collected numerous re-
mains of terns and their eggs on the Vengurla Rocks, off Malwan, south
of Bombay, and among them the smaller wings could be divided into two
groups, brown and grey. Salim Ali who compared our specimens with
specimens in the Society’s collection (1939, JBNHS 43:448) divided the
brown wings into two groups: (a) measuring 237 (2), 240, and 242 mm.,
which he identified as Sterna anaethetus, recorded there by Hume in
1875, and (b) 2 measuring 270 and 294, which he identified as Sterna
fuscata, making the only nesting record for the area, the next nearest
being from the Laccadives. It may be mentioned that the wings found
by us have not been preserved.

On 21 October 1947, I obtained 2 terns out of a loose party of 5 or 6
on wooden boxes and similar rubbish floating in a calm patch in the sea,
about a mile south of Bombay and 5 miles off the mainland. These were
identified as Sterna fuscata by Salim Ali.

When working out my first collection from the Andamans (1968), I
was unable to separate the material in Bombay into two species fuscata
and anaethetus, and one of the two just mentioned was sent to the Smith-
sonian Institution where they identified it as anaethetus. Presumably for
this reason this record is omitted from the INDIAN HANDBOOK, but a
reference is made to Sinclair’s specimen.

While cataloguing the collection (1969), the bird from Alibag seemed
to me to be no different from the several others accepted as anaethetus,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 111

and I requested the British Museum (Natural History) to send me re-
presentative specimens of both species. With this additional material in
hand, Salim Ali and I are agreed that we have no specimen of fuscata
in the Society’s collection, and that the bird collected by Sinclair is
anaethetus and not fuliginosa (fuscata) as originally recorded.

Judging from the material available, fuscata is larger (wing over 270)
than anaethetus and is separable from it by its much darker upper parts
and the white eye-stripe not continuing beyond the eye as it does in
anaethetus. The two wings from Vengurla Rocks, if correctly measured,
indicate that fuscata breeds there but, in view of the possibility of error
in ascertaining the correct measurements from broken wings separated
from the body, it is advisable to await a confirmation.

The 16 specimens of anaethetus available in Bombay from the Red
Sea to the Andamans and the Ceylon specimens obtained from the
British Museum cannot be separated into the three races now accepted
in the FAUNA and INDIAN HANDBOOK.

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, HUMAYUN ABDULALI
BOMBAY-3,
January, 30, 1970.

9. THE FLIGHT SPEED OF THE HOUSE CROW, CORVUS
SPLENDENS VIEILLOT

On 19 August 1969, I was going from Vellore to Arkonam (North
Arcot Dt., Tamil Nadu) in our departmental jeep for field work, when
near the village of Vallam, I noticed a pair of house crows flying in the
same direction as the jeep. As the trunk road was almost straight and
they were flying overhead parallel to the road, we kept pace with them
for nearly five kilometres. The speedometer of the jeep showed a constant
speed of 35 kilometres per hour. They were flying leisurely quite often
calling to each other and it appeared that this was their normal flight
speed as against the hurried flight when they are late to return to the
roosting place from feeding areas.

Care K. N. PANICKER
VIRUS RESEARCH UNIT,
C. M. C. HOspIrTAL,
VELLORE,
December 26, 1969.
9

112 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

10. IS THE CORRECT NAME OF THE MANGROVE
WHISTLER, PACHYCEPHALA CINEREA (BLYTH) OR PACHY-
CEPHALA GRISOLA (BLYTH)?

Blyth (1842, J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 11: 799) was confused over the
identity of a female specimen supposed to be an example of Tephrodornis
superciliosus Swainson v. Lanius keroula Hardwicke and Gray. It differed
considerably from the male. Both specimens were collected together out
of a small party (from the neighbourhood of Calcutta). At a later date
he shot another female of 7. superciliosus and found that the male and
female were alike. The controversial female specimen could therefore be
isolated specifically and it appears that he could not place it with any other
species. The description laid down by him was as follows :-

“*. . « » no white whatever on the tail, which is besides shorter and
less rounded and the superciliary streak and dark colour of the ear-coverts
are also wanting.” He further pointed out “‘... the diversity in the tail
is so remarkable that I imagine few would incline to regard them specific-
ally the same.” This expression of doubt was cleared by him when a year
later (J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 12: 180) he remarked, ‘‘The supposed variety
of Tephrodornis superciliosus, having no whitish line over the eye, nor
white on the exterior tail feathers may be designated T. grisola’’. In the
year 1847, Blyth described Muscitrea cinerea (J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 16:
122) from Arakan, Burma. It was later found that Muscitrea cinerea was
the same as Tephrodornis grisola. The species name grisola has been
subsequently used by Jerdon (1862, BIRDS OF INDIA, 1: 411) Gadow
(1883, CAT. BIRDS BRITISH MUS. 8: 220), Oates (1890, FAUNA BRITISH INDIA,
Birds, 2: 31), Oberholser (1912, Smithson. misc. Collns. 60: 11), Stresemann
(1913, Novit. Zool. 20: 355), Baker (1924, 1930, FAUNA BRITISH INDIA,
Birds, 2: 484; 7: 190), Robinson (1927, THE BIRDS OF MALAY PENINSULA 1:
189) Delacour & Jabouille (1931, LES OISEAUX DE L’ INDOCHINE FRANCAISE
p. 208), Kuroda (1933, THE BIRDS OF THE ISLANDS OF JAVA 1: 151), Junge
(1936, Temminckia 1: 59), Riley (1938, Bull. U.S. nat. Mus. 172: 484-485),
Chasen (1939, THE BIRDS OF MALAY PENINSULA 4: 231), Smythies (1940,
THE BIRDS OF BURMA, p. 164). From the literature as far as available to me
I find that since 1940, the species name cinerea has been used by De Schau-
eusee (1940, Proc. Acas nat. Sci. Phil. 91: 409), Delacour (1947 BIRDS OF
MALAYASIA, p. 298), Glenister (1951, THE BIRDS OF MALAY PENINSULA,
SINGAPORE AND PENANG, Pp. 227), Smythies (1953, THE BIRDS OF BURMA,
p. 159), Ripley (1961 A SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN, P.
440), Mayr (1967, CHECK-LIST OF THE BIRDS OF THE WORLD 12: 8), Ali &
Ripley (1968, HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN I: xlvi)
and others. Ripley, Mayr, and a few others explained that Tephrodornis
grisola was unidentifiable, hence the later name cinerea should be used.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 113

The genus Muscitrea has since been synonymised with Pachycephala
Vigors (1825, Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. 14: 444). An examination of the
type specimen of Blyth’s Tephrodornis grisola (9, Botanical Garden,
Sibpur, near Calcutta), present in the Zoological Survey of India, how-
ever, leaves one without any doubt as to its correct identity—that it is
the same bird currently known as Pachycephala cinerea (Blyth). No
doubt Blyth’s (J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 12: 180) description of Tephrodornis
grisola is vague and inadequate, but the species can be identified by
referring to the type specimen. Since the species name grisolais older than
cinerea and is identifiable, it should be resurrected. Such an action will
not violate Article 23b of the code.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, AJIT KUMAR MUKHERJEE
CALCUTTA-13.

April 10, 1969.

11. SLIGHT REACTION FROM BITES OF THE REAR-
FANGED SNAKES BOIGA CEYLONENSIS (GUNTHER) AND
DRYOPHIS NASUTUS (LACEPEDE)

While handling a Cat Snake (Boiga ceylonensis, 750 mm.) which I
had collected from Khandala, it bit and held the middle of my left middle
finger, the snake’s whole mouth closed over the finger. There was slight
bleeding and after a few minutes the bitten area was swollen to the degree
of a moderate bee sting, accompanied by itching. These symptoms per-

sisted for about half an hour, the swelling gradually disappeared after
about two hours.

In April, while handling a Green Whip Snake (Dryophis nasutus,
680 mm.) it made a sudden jab at my face (which is a common habit of
this species) and made a quick bite on the tip of my nose. Immediately
blood started dripping and this continued for an unusually long time
(18 minutes). The nose tip is a very sensitive area and I experienced the
itchiness mentioned above, but only slightly noticeable swelling.

Species of Boiga and Dryophis in India grow to over six feet in
length, but the only danger from their bites would be to those rare in-
dividuals “‘ hyper-sensitive”’ to the venom (similar to the more com-
monly occurring allergy to bee and wasp venoms). The only rearfanged

snake considered dangerous to man occurs in Africa, the Boomslang
(Dispholidus typus).

C/o CHATTOPADHYAYA, ROMULUS WHITAKER
CHATEAU MARINE No. 6,

MARINE DRIVE,
BOMBAY,
March, 1968.

114 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

12, CANNIBALISM IN THE INDIAN RAT SNAKE PTYAS
MUCOSUS (LINNAEUS)

I am at present keeping a number of rat snakes of various sizes and
the water snakes Cerberus and Natrix together in a large pit with smooth
high walls to prevent escape. Periodically I put live frogs, live and dead
mice and rats in for the snakes, most of which thrive. Those that refuse
to eat I simply release as all these specimens are common. Yesterday I
noticed one of the rat snakes (8 feet in length) with a elongate bulge in
its body which was obviously a snake. Checking, I noted the absence of
a large Natrix piscator (44 inches and heavy-bodied). Today as I was
iooking into the pit I saw a seven foot rat snake seize a four foot snake
of the same species and attempt to swallow it. The small snake, however,
struggled fiercely and soon escaped. Later in the day I found a Cerberus
rhynchops nearly bitten in two, evidently by a large Ptyas. Ptyas mucosus
undoubtedly prefers mice, rats, frogs, and toads, but in the absence of
sufficient quantities will attack and devour other snakes including its own
kind. Deoras in SNAKES OF INDIA (1965) mentions snakes as part of the
widely varied diet of the Indian rat snake.

C/o CHATTOPADHYAYA, ROMULUS WHITAKER

CHATEAU MARINE NO. 6,
MARINE DRIVE,

BOMBAY,

January 8, 1968.

13. A REDESCRIPTION OF SIREMBO JERDONI (DAY):
(PISCES: BROTULIDAE)

(With a text-figure)

Five specimens of Sirembo jerdoni (Day) measuring 95 mm., 105
mm., 123 mm., 137 mm. and 145 mm. total length were collected during
April 1964 from boat seine catches on the Visakhapatnam coast. This
species has so far been recorded only from the Madras coast (Day 1888,
Menon & Rac 1963). There is one specimen in the collections of the
Zoological Survey of India, Indian Museum, Calcutta (Registered
No. 13202/1), also collected from Madras (in 1940). Until now this
species has not been assigned to its correct genus and the few earlier
descriptions are meagre (Day 1888, 1889). Hence, it is redescribed here
in detail under the relevant genus.

Day (1888) originally described this species under Brotula Cuvier
as B. jerdoni despite the absence of barbels on both jaws, a characteristic
feature of Brotula. His description is very brief and the counts for dorsal
fin rays (126) and anal fin rays (95) are much too high. No figure is given,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 115

but he stated that a coloured figure of this species was amongst Jerdon
and Elliot’s illustrations. Neither these illustrations nor Day’s type
specimen are traceable, but the colour pattern of this species is more or
less accurately described by Day.

Menon & Rao (1963), while discussing the systematic affinity of this
species, stated that a new genus should be erected to accommodate it,
since it differs from related brotulid genera in having the ventral fins
behind the eyes and the dorsal originating in front of the pectoral. How-
ever, no description was given and their specimen is not available for
examination. My observations on fresh specimens have shown that the
origin of the ventrals is below eyes, well before the posterior margin of
the orbit. The position of the origin of the dorsal fin does not seem to
have any generic significance in this group. The confusion regarding the
origin of the ventrals by Menon & Rao (1963) may be due to the fact
that their observations were limited to a single preserved specimen.
However, examination of the specimen of S. jerdoni in the Indian Museum
(text. fig.) also shows that the ventral origin is in front of posterior margin
of the orbit.

The absence of barbels on both jaws and the origin of the ventrals
below the eyes are characteristic of two genera, Haplobrotula Gill (Smith
1961) and Sirembo Bleeker (Gunther 1862, Norman 1939); the latter can
be distinguished from the former by (1) a single ray in each ventral fin
(2 in Haplobrotula), (2) the presence of scales all over head and (3) the
absence of spines on the preopercle and opercle. The characters of the
present species conform to those listed above and hence it is placed in
the genus Sirembo. The erection of a new genus as suggested by Menon
& Rao (1963) is not necessary.

| Sirembo jerdoni (Day)
D 89-92: A 61-63; V 1; P 23; C 10; Vert. 48 (13-35)

Body elongate, laterally compressed, tapering posteriorly. Greatest
body depth 5.6-6.6, length of head 4.2-4.6, distance from snout tip to
insertion of dorsal 4.8-5.0, to origin of anal 2.2-2.5, length of pectoral
8.0-9.0, all in total length. Snout 4.8-5.7, eye 3.4-3.8 and interorbital
distance 3.8-4.2 in length of head. Snout blunt with three pores on either
side; eyes covered by membrane. Mouth inferior, both lips with numerous
tubercles. Maxilla reaches to a little behind posterior margin of orbit.
Two rows of conical teeth in both jaws, the outer row a little enlarged;
villiform teeth on palatine in oblong patches and a single inverted V-
shaped patch on vomer. vise

116 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

A blunt spine at the superior corner of opercle. Four gill rakers on

lower arm of the first gill arch; five branchiostegals; pseudobranchiae
absent.

Lateral line in the upper half of body, single, distinct and complete.

Dorsal, caudal and anal fins continuous; dorsal originates before
gill openings; anal originates one-fourth length behind that of dorsal;
pectoral fins rounded, situated in the lower half of body; rays of all fins
unbranched and embedded in thin membrane; no spines in fins; ventrals
situated well before posterior margin of orbit, each a single ray, two-
thirds length of head.

Scales cycloid, covered by skin, present all over head and body; base
of pectoral scaly; no scales on fins.

; : Cais “ 5 P= —
eters SSS
Sa

= ian ee SSE
ee

Sirembo jerdoni (Day), total length 145 mm., showing the
colour pattern.

Vent in advance of mid-point of total length; pyloric caecae 9 to 11;
vertebrae 48 (13 prehaemal and 35 haemal). Colour: Body light brown;
an oblique dark band from above snout across eye to the inferior corner
of opercle; one band between eyes dorsally, one transverse band behind
eyes which descends vertically on either side to some distance and then
runs back obliquely through the superior corner of opercle fading out
before anal origin. From nape two dark grey-brown bands run back
along the body on either side, the first along the dorsal base to the last
fifth of body and the second descending to the lateral line and running
along it to the base of caudal; the second band gives off a branch above
pectoral tip; this latter runs obliquely to above anal origin from where it
runs parallel to the second band and gradually fades away by about
middle of anal. In one specimen the two main bands are connected by a
short band above anal origin. The bands of the two sides have a common
origin dorsally in front of dorsal fin. Pectoral fin base slightly brown.
There are five discrete roughly semicircular blotches on the dorsal fin, the
first, third and fifth black in colour while the second and fourth are dark
grey. The last blotch ends at about two-thirds length of the fin. After the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 117

fifth blotch the smaller specimens have one or more blotches but in
larger specimens there is a continuous black band in the lower half of
the fin up to tip of caudal. The anal fin has a broad black band running
all along its lower half to meet that of the dorsal at the tip of caudal fin.
The edge of anal fin may sometimes be lighter. The colour fades a little
in formalin preserved specimens.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Dr. S. Dutt and Mr. P. J. P. Whitehead for valuable
suggestions. My thanks are also due to Professor P. N. Ganapati for
excellent facilities. To Dr. P. K. Talwar I am grateful for kindly examin-
ing the specimen of B. jerdoni in the Indian Museum for me and furnishing
necessary information. I am indebted to the Council of Scientific and
Industrial Research for the award of Senior Fellowship, during the
tenure of which this work has been carried out.

CENTRAL REGIONAL STATION, V. VISWESWARA RAO
ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,
JABALPUR, (M.P.),

May, 20, 1969.

REFERENCES

Day, F. (1888): Fish. India, Suppl. 804.
(1889): Fauna of British India,
Fishes. 2: 435.

GUNTHER, A. (1862): Catalogue of the
Acanthopterygian Fishes in the collection
of the British Museum. 4: 371-374.

MENON, A. G. K. & RAMA

RAO,

K. V. (1963): Notes on three rare fishes
from Madras. Ann. Zool. 4(5): 47-48.

Norman, J. (1939): John Murray
Expedition, Sci. Rept., Fishes. 7(1): 80.

SmitTH, J. L. B. (1961): The Sea Fishes
of Southern Africa. 4th ed., Central
News Agency Ltd., South Africa.
pp. 360-364.

14. JOHNSON GRASS, SORGHUM HALEPENSE—A NEW
HOST OF SUGARCANE GREEN BORER, RAPHIMETOPUS
ABLUTELLUS ZELLER (PHYSITIDAE: LEPIDOPTERA)

The green borer, Raphimetopus ablutellus Zell. is one of the major
pests of sugarcane in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana States. It causes
dead hearts on young shoots from March to June. Besides sugarcane, it
has also been recorded on Saccharum spontaneum (Siddiqi & Singh 1959)
and Saccharum munja (Gupta 1959).

During 1962 and 1963 a survey was made to record its alternate
and collateral host plants in and around the Indian Institute of Sugarcane
Research Farm, Lucknow (U.P.) from March to June, when this borer
is found in serious form on sugarcane crop. Observations were made on
various Graminaceous crops and weeds like wheat (Triticum vulgare),
barley (Hordeum vulgare), oats (Avena sativa), maize (Zea mays), jowar

118 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

(Sorghum vulgare), kans or kahi (Saccharum spontaneum), Johnson
grass (Sorghum halepense), sarkanda (Saccharum munja), kush (Des-
mostachya_ bipinnata), bharuhi (Imperata cylindrica), motha (Cyperus
rotundus) and some unidentified weeds. In both years, young shoots of
Johnson grass were observed to be attacked by two species of sugarcane
borers, namely, Chilotraea infuscatellus Snellen and R. ablutellus, the
latter being the first record on this weed. Out of 15 per cent of the total
dead hearts found during June, 1963, 11 per cent were caused by R.
ablutellus alone. During this period, full grown larvae were observed
forming waterproof silken covering around their bodies in preparation
for diapause. The infestation from March to April was very low in this
grass and hardly 1 to 2 per cent shoots were attacked.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY-ENTOMOLOGY, J. P. CHAUDHARY
PUNJAB AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY,

LUDHIANA,

May, 29, 1968.

REFEERNCES

GupTA, B. D. (1959): Insect pests of Biology of Raphimetopus ablutellus Zeller
sugarcane in India IV. The green borer, (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), the green borer
Raphimetopus ablutellus Zeller. Indian of sugarcane in Uttar Pradesh. Indian
Sugar. 9(5): 269-271. J. Ent. 21(2): 132-136.

Siwpiar, Z. A. & SINGH, O. P. (1959):

15. PECULIAR ACCIDENT TO THE BUTTERFLY, DELIAS
EUCHARIS DRURY

The Common Jezebel (Delias eucharis Drury) is always about in
our garden at Andheri, Bombay, and on the morning of 7 September
1968 at 8 a.m. I found several of these alighting on a white Lantana
shrub, which was covered with flowers. One butterfly, however, appeared
to be struggling to get away from the flower, but its proboscis seemed to
be entangled in the blooms, and the antennae thickly covered with pollen.
Another of the same species came along, flitted over it for a while, and
passed along. I watched this situation for some time and then pulled
the butterfly away from the flower and placed it on the ground but it
could not fly. I had it examined at the Society and was told that it was
not damaged in any way. I wonder if any butterfly enthusiasts have ever
come across a similar situation.

32-A, JUHU LANE, ZAFAR FUTEHALLY
ANDHERI, BOMBAY-58,
September 9, 1968.

16. THE FEEDING BEHAVIOUR OF THE LEMON BUTTER-
FLY PAPILIO DEMOLEUS L.

A large number of observations on the feeding visits of Papilio
demoleus to flowers were recorded in the gardens attached to the Fruit

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 119

Experimental Station at Kirkee. The feeding time of these insects is
restricted to a few hours in the morning.

The number of such visits on the flowers of different plant families
were as follows

Convolvulaceae .. Mis a Re: 549
Geraniaceae oye mee me cay 764
Verbenaceae i as Bis of 488
Compositae a Se Me He 434
Caryophyllaceae .. “3 ae i 323
Scrophulariaceae }. a 3 107
Nyctaginaceae .. a a a3 13

With the exception of Nyctaginaceae (Apetalae) and Caryophyllaceae
(Polypetalae) these families belong to Sympetalae, in which the petals
are all united together. The nectaries are situated at the base of the fused
petals and are therefore well protected.

A very large number of visits were recorded on blue, violet and
purple shades. Next in preference were the purple-eyed and violet-eyed
white flowers. Then came the yellow and white flowers. Least preference
was shown to scarlet-red, pink, scarlet-red-eyed white and pink-eyed
white flowers.

These field observations substantiate the conclusions arrived at by
extensive experimentation (followed by statistical analysis) under the
controlled conditions of the cage with the help of the standardized Ostwald
coloured papers and the Bauman grey papers. They confirm :

(a) that these insects tend to prefer flowers with compactly arranged
and limited number of parts offering less contour (Vaidya
1958); and

(6) that they prefer for feeding blue and purple colours (Ilse &
Vaidya 1956).

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, VIDYADHAR G. VAIDYA
UNIVERSITY OF POONA,

POoON~-7,

December 20, 1967.

REFERENCES

ItsE, D. & VatpyA. V. G. (1956): VaIDYA, V. G. (1958): Visual percep-
Spontaneous feeding response to colours tion in Papilio demoleus L., Ph. D.
in Papilio demoleus L. Proc. Indian Acad. Thesis submitted to University of Poona.
Sci. XLII, 23-31.

120 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

17. ON A HYMENOPTEROUS EGG-PARASITE OF
AQUATIC BUGS INJURIOUS TO PISCICULTURE

Parasitism by hymenopterous egg-parasites has been observed in a
few cases of aquatic insects. During our investigations on the biology of
aquatic bugs, a number of eggs of Anisops bouvieri Kirkaldy and Plea
frontalis (Fieber) collected from a temporary pond near Central Inland
Fisheries Research Institute, Barrackpore, were found to be infested by a
hymenopterous parasite, Prestwichia sp. (Family Trichogrammatidae).
Examination under the microscope of these eggs showed that some of
them had exit holes. Such eggs were discarded and only complete eggs
were selected for the determination of the number of parasites per host
egg. Fifty parasitized eggs of each species were dissected and the number
of parasites in each egg were counted. Results of these observations are
given in the Table below.

Number of parasites Number of host eggs
Anisops bouvieri Plea frontalis
1 5 50
2 20 af
3 19
4 6

In the laboratory freshly deposited eggs of Anisops bouvieri Kirkaldy
and Plea frontalis (Fieber), in the stems of aquatic plants, were exposed
to the attacks of the female parasite and her behaviour was observed.
She walked on the plant twigs, touching them with her antennae until
the host egg was located when she raised her body and thrust the needle-
shaped ovipositor into the host egg. While ovipositing, she quivered and
scratched the plant tissue with her legs. The process of egg-laying took
from 4-6 minutes.

The parasite takes about 11 days to complete its life-history at a
temperature ranging from 26.6°C to 32.2°C. Further studies on the
biology of these parasites would probably lead to evolving a suitable
method for the biological control of aquatic bugs preying upon fish fry.
It is noteworthy that the genus Prestwichia Lubbock is recorded for the
first time from India and the eggs of Anisops bouvieri Kirkaldy and Plea
frontalis (Fieber) are new hosts for the parasite.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is grateful to Dr. B. S. Bhimachar, former Director,
Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, for his guidance. Thanks

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 121

are due to Dr. D. S. Hill, Commonwealth Institute of Entomology,
London, for confirming the identity of the parasite.

CENTRAL INLAND FISHERIES J. M. JULKA!
RESEARCH INSTITUTE,

BARRACKPORE, WEST BENGAL,

January 29, 1969.

18. HONEY BEES AND WASPS AS PESTS OF GRAPE

Honey bees usually feed on nectar but, the Indian Honey Bee, Apis
indica F. and Wasps, Polistes hebraeus (Fb.) and Vespa orientalis Linn.
damage the ripening grape berries in Madhya Pradesh. A. indica has not
so far been reported as a pest of grapes as far as the author is aware.

Exotic varieties of grapes, particularly Perlette, Muscat, and Beauty
Seedless are the most promising varieties of economic importance in
Madhya Pradesh. They start ripening from the middle of May and the
fruiting season is almost over by the end of June. During 1962, 1963
and 1968, at Gwalior a single vine on an average bore 136, 147, and 183
bunches consisting of 2,441, 2,876 and 3,087 berries, respectively. The
berries of Perlette and Muscat are light greenish to light yellowish in
colour, seedless, sweet, having edible thin skin, tasty and of pleasing
texture. The normal sugar content of these fruits is 18 per cent with
acid at 0.8 per cent. They are the most preferred by A. indica followed
by Beauty Seedless that are purplish in colour whereas the seeded varieties
with inedible skin are comparatively less favoured and sour varieties
are least favoured. Hard inedible skinned varieties almost escape damage.
The percentage of damaged berries in Perlette and Muscat varieties
varied from 15.6 to 64.8 and 12.7 to 58.6 respectively, during 1962,
17.2 to 63.5 and 10.7 to 54.5 during 1963; and 18.7 to 70.3 and 13.5
to 62.7 during 1968. The infestation attains a peak during the first fort-
night of June. No varietal preference has been observed by wasps. The
bees and wasps make minute punctures on the ripe and ripening berries
only and feed on the pulp by gnawing the epicarp leaving the skin behind.
Such infested berries either remain on the bunch or fall to the ground.
During 1966 and 1967, the pests of grape vine at Jabalpur in Madhya
Pradesh were also surveyed. Thrips caused maximum damage during
the blossom and fruiting stage, adversely affecting fruit formation and
causing cracking and scab formation on grapes. Bees and wasps were
secondary minor pests on these cracked berries at Jabalpur. At Gwalior,
honey bees and wasps are major pests of grapes irrespective of thrips
infestation, and are a potential menace as well as a great setback to the

1 Present Address: Zoological Survey of India, 27, Chowringhee Road, Calcutta-13.

122 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

cultivation of grapes in this region. If the ripening bunches are not pro-
tected by paper bags, no ripe fruit can be harvested and even the cost of
cultivation cannot be realised.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is thankful to Shri R. C. Srivastava, Chairman of
Horticulture, for permission to record observations and Director, Zoologi-
cal Survey of India, Calcutta, for the identifications. Partial use of data
collected along with Shri S. U. Kittur during 1962 and 1963 is duly
acknowledged. The author is indebted to Dr. R. R. Rawat, Chairman of
Entomology, for guidance and encouragement.

DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY, D. K. SAXENA
J. N. KrisHi VISHWA VIDYALAYA,

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE,

GwWaALior, M.P.,

December 24, 1968.

19. ANEMOTACTIC RESPONSE IN’ THE FIREFLY,
LUCIOLA SP. (COLEOPTERA: LAMPYRIDAE)

Positive response to wind currents by insects has been observed
by many workers (Wheeler 1899; Fraenkel 1932; Kennedy 1939). Terms
such as anemotropism and anemotaxis have been applied to this behaviour.
In some cases, the positive reaction to air currents is closely linked up
with visual or olfactory stimuli (Fraenkel & Gunn 1961).

During the second week of May, 1968 fairly large numbers of the
firefly, Luciola sp. were seen flying around trees at night in the Malabar
Christian College compound. At night, around 9 p.m., about ten of
them flew into our room, evidently attracted by the electric light. An
electric ceiling fan was at that time, revolving at top speed in the room.
It was observed that the fireflies flying inside the room were frequently
knocked down by the blades of the fan. In order to find out whether
the flight orientation was in any way connected with the wind current
produced by the fan, the lights in the room were switched off and there
was total darkness. The course of flight of the fireflies could be easily
followed with the help of the bright flashes of greenish yellow light
produced by them. It was found that the insects persistently flew towards
the fan, directly against the strong wind current. This is a positive and
directional response to the wind current, which is apparently not connected
with any other stimuli and it may therefore be termed positive anemotaxis,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 123

This behaviour must be having some adaptive significance in nature
under certain conditions.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, A. B. SOANS
MALABAR CHRISTIAN COLLEGE, JOYCE S. SOANS
CALICUT 1, KERALA,

June 8, 1968.

REFERENCES

FRAENKEL, G. (1932): Die Wanderun- KENNEDY, J. S. (1939): The visual
gen der Insecten. Ergebnisse der Biologie, orientation of flying mosquitoes in still
6: 8. and in moving air. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond.
A. 109: 221-242.

& GuNN, D. L. (1961): WHEELER, W. M. (1899): Anemo-
The Orientation of Animals. Dover tropism and other tropism in insects.
Publications, Inc., New York. Arch. EntwMech. Org. 8: 373-381.

20. THE RED PUMPKIN’ BEETLE RAPHIDOPALPA
FOVEICOLLIS (LUCAS), AS A PEST OF THE JAPANESE MINT

The Red Pumpkin Beetle, Raphidopalpa foveicollis (Lucas), is a
serious pest of cucurbits and is very widely distributed all over India.
Besides cucurbits, it has been reported to damage the leaves of plants
such as Lathyrus odoratus L., Pisum sativum L., Medicago sativa L.,
Oryza sativa L., Zea mays L., Cyamopsis psoraloides DC., Trifolium
resupinatum L., french beans, Phaseolus vulgaris Linn, etc. The beetle
is reported here for the first time as causing damage to mint, Mentha
arvensis L. subsp. haplocaly Briq. var. piperascens Malinvaud. The
menthol in the leaves of this new host plant gives them a strong aroma
and bitter taste but does not deter the pest.

The Japanese mint, an important exotic aromatic plant, was initially
introduced on the farm of the Northern Zonal Centre of the Central
Indian Medicinal Plants Organisation, Haldwani (Nainital) and is now
grown as a cash crop in about three thousand acres in the Tarai tract
of Uttar Pradesh. Adult red pumpkin beetles, Raphidopalpa foveicollis
(Lucas) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) were observed in groups of three
to six on leaves of Japanese mint in March-April 1967 and 1968 at the
farm of CIMPO, Haldwani, situated on Bareilly-Nainital Road about a
mile north of Pantnagar Railway Station. They fed on the underside of
the leaves and caused fairly severe damage. Initially the damage is mainly
to the palisade tissue in between the veins, causing transparent patches
on the infested leaves which are progressively holed. Unless large number
of such patches appear, the pest escapes detection while feeding on the
undersurface of the leaf and continues to damage it. Besides the leaves,
young growing apical and auxiliary buds are eaten. This, however,

124 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

retards growth only temporarily. In severely infested plots, the loss of
crop ranges from 15 to 20 per cent.

Even though the beetles were observed feeding on the foliage and
also pairing on the plants ; it is not yet known as to how far they complete
their development on this new host. However, the ease with which they
feed on this plant suggest, in addition to the pairing recorded on the
host, that the pest might be able to complete its life cycle on the Japanese
mint itself. The extent of damage caused afford sufficient justification
to classify it as a serious pest.

Control Measures: Spraying 0.02 per cent endrin at the rate of
about 1,000 litres per ha. in the early hours of the day effectively control
the pest. In this case, the crop should not be harvested within three
weeks of the date of spraying. Dusting 5 per cent malathion at the rate
of 2 kg. per ha. or spraying 0.1 per cent malathion at the rate of about
1,000 litres per ha. is also effective in reducing infestation.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are thankful to Dr. R. L. Paliwal, Director (Research),
Experimental Station, and Dr. N. K. Anant Rao, Dean, College of
Agriculture, U.P. Agricultural University, Pantnagar and Director &
Scientist-in-Charge, Central Indian Medicinal Plants Organisation,
Lucknow, for their keen interest in the work. Thanks are also due to
Dr. A. P. Kapur, Director, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta-12, for
identifying the beetle.

DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY, J. P. SINGH
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE,

U. P. AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY,

PANTNAGAR (NAINITAL) U.P.

CENTRAL INDIAN MEDICINAL RAJENDRA GUPTA
PLANTS ORGANISATION (CSIR),

NORTHERN ZONAL CENTRE,

HALDWANI,

(NAINITAL), U.P.

May 11, 1968.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 125

21. THE TAXONOMIC STATUS OF THE SECTION
FISSENDOCARPA (HAINES) RAVEN OF THE ONAGRACEOUS
GENUS LUDWIGIA L.

The taxonomy of the genus Ludwigia has been worked thoroughly
by Baillon (Hist. Pl. 6: 463, 1877), Munz (Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 71:
152-165, 1944 & Darwiniana 4: 179-284, 1952), Brenan (Kew Bull.
8: 163-172, 1953), Hara (J. Jap. Bot. 28: 289-294, 1953), and Raven
(Reinwardtia 6: 327-427. 1963). Baillon united the genera Jussiaea L.
and Jsnardia L. with this. But some authors including Munz did not
accept Baillon’s treatment in uniting Jussiaea with Ludwigia and
maintained the former as a distinct genus having stamens twice as many
as the sepals and the latter having stamens as many as the sepals. Brenan
convincingly showed the inconsistency of the above character and
followed Baillon in merging Ludwigia and Jussiaea; but selected the
name Jussiaea, which was contrary to rules as pointed out by Hara.
Raven in his synoptical treatment of the genus Ludwigia which includes
Jussiaea, Isnardia and Oocarpon Mich., recognises 17 sections; out of
them Fissendocarpa stands in an anomalous position without any close
relatives on account of its fruit and seed characters and destroys the
homogeneity of the genus Ludwigia. This is obvious from the following
remarks by Haines (J. As. Soc. Bengal n.s. 15: 312-314, 1919) and Raven.

Haines—‘“‘ The species with these peculiar fruits and dimorphous
seeds seem to merit a special section of the genus which I propose to
call Fissendocarpa.” “‘...on all these characters some botanists would
perhaps make a new genus.”

Raven—“ It has no relatives. ...The dimorphic seeds of this

species are very unusual.”

So in order to make the genus Ludwigia a homogenous one, the
section Fissendocarpa is here raised to generic status.

Fissendocarpa

Seeds dimorphous

Each locule with uniseriate seeds at the
proximal portion of the fruit and pluri-
seriate seeds at the distal portion.

In fruits uniseriate seeds at the proximal
portion are embedded in endocarp and
pluriseriate seeds at the distal portion
are free.

Ludwigia

Seeds not dimorphous

Each locule with either uniseriate or
pluriseriate seeds throughout the length
of the fruit.

In fruits all the seeds are free or all
embedded in endocarp.

Fissendocarpa (Haines) Bennet stat. nov.

Jussiaea sect. Fissendocarpa Haines in J. As. Soc. Bengal n.s. 15:

314, 1919.

126 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

Type species: Jussiaea fissendocarpa Haines I.c. 313=J. linifolia
Vahl.

Fissendocarpa linifolia (Vahl) Bennet comb. nov.
Jussiaea linifolia Vahl, Ecolog. Am. 2: 32, 1798.
J. fissendocarpa Haines lI.c. 313.
J. hyssopifolia G. Don, Gen. Syst. 2: 693, 1832.

Ludwigia hyssopifolia (G.Don) Exell, Garcia de Orta 5:471, 1957
Raven /.c. 385.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author thanks Dr. K. Subramanyam, Director of the Botanical
Survey of India for encouragement and Mr. A. N. Henry, Scientific
Officer of the Botanical Survey of India for suggestions.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, S.S. R. BENNET
CatLcutTtTa-14,

March 3, 1969.

22. INTERESTING PLANTS FROM MAHARASHTRA
STATE

During studies on the flora of Maharashtra State the species noted
below were recorded as little known or new to the State. Salient identi-
fication characters to their brief notes on distribution are given in
this paper.

APIACEAE (= UMBELLIFERAE)

1. Seseli diffusum (Roxb. ex Sm.) Sant. & Wagh in Bull. Bot.
Surv. Ind. 5: 108, 1963. Ligusticum diffusum Roxb. ex Sm. in Rees,
Cycl. 21: 11, 1812. Cnidium diffusum DC. Prodr. 4: 153, 1830. Seseli
indicum Wt. & Arn, Prodr. 371, 1834; C. B. Clarke in Fl. Br. Ind. 2:
693, 1879; Gamble, Fl. Madras 1: 561 (reprint).

Herb, annual, sub-erect, 8-20 cm. high, profusely branched from the
base; leaves pinnate ; umbels compound with linear bracts and bracteoles ;
corolla whitish pink; fruits subglobose with prominent ridges, densely
hairy, tip ending in two divaricating reflexed points.

Fls. & frts.: April-May. Loc.: Islapur along Penganga river bed,
Nanded District, Janardhanan 101320. (Occasional along river bed.)

The density of hairs on the fruit of this species varies considerably.
Clarke (/.c.) also indicates the occurrence of both glabrous and densely
hairy fruits with a wide range of intermediate forms.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 127

The present record from the drier parts of Central Maharashtra is
interesting, as it links up the distribution between eastern India including
Bengal and southern India covering Andhra Pradesh and Mysore State.

FABACEAE

2. Eleiotis monophylla (Burm.f.) DC. Mem. Leg. 7: 350, 1825;
Schindl. in Fedde. Repert. 311, 1928. Glycine monophylla Burm. f. FI.
Ind. 161, t. 50, f. 2, 1768. Eleiotis sororia DC. Mem. Leg. 7: 350, 1825;
C. B. Clarke in Fl. Br. Ind. 2: 153, 1876; Cooke, Fl. Bombay 1: 364
(reprint); Gamble, Fl. Madras 1: 333 (reprint).

Annual monsoon herb; stem about 1 m. long, weak, trailing, tri-
quetrous; leaf usually 1-foliate, stipulate, large, orbicular, rarely with a
pair of small, oblong-oblanceolate leaflets arising from the joint just
above the short petiole; thereby indicating the trifoliate character of
leaf; racemes auxillary up to 15 cm. long, fragile, flowers rosy purple;
pods small, boat-shaped.

Fils. & frts.: August-November. Loc.: Dhulia District; Ranipur,
Pataskar 926009; Unapdeo near hot springs, Pataskar 110115; Ratanpur
forest near Kansali, Pataskar 110262; Kotbandhani, Pataskar 110061.

This species, reported from Madras, Mysore, Andhra Pradesh in
the south and Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh in the north, has so far
not been recorded from Maharashtra State. Santapau (Jour. Bomb.
Nat. Hist. Soc. 48: 277, 1949) expresses doubts about its availability in
Bombay Presidency. It is, therefore, interesting that the present record
establishes the continuity of its distribution from south to north of India.

3. Galactia tenuiflora (Klein ex Willd.) Wt. & Arn. Prodr. 206,
1834; van Steenis in Reinwardtia 5(4): 431, 1961; Baker in FI. Br. Ind. 2:
192, 1876; Cooke, Fl. Bombay 1: 393 (reprint); Gamble, Fl. Madras 1:
251 (reprint).

Fls. & frts.: September-October. Loc.: Kondhibari ghat near Sakri,
Dhulia District, Pataskar 117519.

4. Indigofera colutea (Burm. f.) Merr. in Phil. Journ. Sci. 19:
355, 1921; Santapau, Fl. Saurashtra 131, 1962. Galega colutes Burm.
f. Fl. Ind. 172, 1768. Indigofera viscosa Lamk. Encycl. 3: 247, 1789;
Baker in FI. Br. Ind. 2: 95, 1876; Cooke, Fl. Bombay 1: 337 (reprint).

Fls. & frts.: August-October. Loc.: Dhulia District: Ranipur-
Nagzari, Pataskar 110062; Kansali hill forest, Pataskar 110237; Ranipur
River, Pataskar 11001.

10

128 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

The present record is from Dhulia District of Maharashtra State,
where the species is common.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors wish to express their grateful thanks to Shri R. S. Rao,
Regional Botanist, Betanical Survey of India, Western Circle, Poona-1
for encouragement and guidance in preparing this paper.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, R. D. PATASKAR
WESTERN CIRCLE, (Miss) K. K. AHUJA
7 KOREGAON ROAD,

Poona-l,

March, 6, 1969.

23. A NEW LOCALITY RECORD OF CORDIA CRENATA
DEL. IN PIRAM ISLAND OFF SOUTH SAURASHTRA COAST

A species of Cordia reported from Piram Island off Bhavnagar-
Gopnath shores in the gulf of Cambay on identification was found to be
Cordia crenata Del. Recently this species was reported from Nargoa
airport, Diu Island; Duthie reported it from Rajputana in 1911.

In Piram Island this plant was found growing along the margins
of the scrubland exposed to sea-influence. In the year 1962 the writer
also collected the same species under similar situations from Diu Island.
A look at its scattered isolated habitat would reveal that it is a new
intruder.

Piram Island: T. A. Rao 2061, 4.10.64; Diu Island: 7. A. Rao
1947(a), 22-11-1963.

ECOLOGY SECTION, T. ANANDA RAO
BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

76, LOWER CIRCULAR ROAD,

CALCUTTA-14,

May 1, 1969.

24. CLEOME RUTIDOSPERMA DC. (CAPPARACEAE)—A
NEW RECORD FOR ASSAM

C. rutidosperma DC., a native of West Tropical Africa, introduced in
Caribbean region, found in Malaysia and Burma, recently recorded for
India from West Bengal (vide, Mukherjee in Ind. For. Vol. 95(4):
237.1969.) and, is now recorded here for the first time for Assam.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 129

Cleome rutidosperma DC. Prod. 1: 241.1824; Jacobs in Fl. Males.
(Ser. 1) 6: 104. 1960.

An annual, erect to spreading, widely branched herb. Stem, petiole
and nerves underneath with sparse prickle-like, softish appendages.
Leaves on 2.5-4 cm. long petioles, ovate-elliptic with an acute or cuneate
base, subacute, thinly herbaceous, lateral ones 2-2.51-1.2-1.8 cm.
central leaflet 2.5-3cm. x1.5-1.8 cm. lateral nerves 6-9 pairs. Flowers
solitary, violet-blue; pedicels filiform, 2-2.7 cm. with minute whitish
gland-like sticky hairs. Fruits cylindric, tapering towards both ends,
4-5 cm. long, glabrous. Seeds yellowish symmetrical with a blackish
tcenre, obtuse concentric ribs and stronger cross-ribs.

Specimen examined: ASSAM. Gauhati, Satri Bari Road, A. C. Dut
979 (CAL).

INDIAN BOTANIC GARDEN, R. B. GHOSH
SIBPORE, HOWRAH.

CENTRAL NATIONAL HERBARIUM, R. PRASAD
CALCUTTA,

May 7, 1969.

25. TWO NEW RECORDS OF ARACEAE FROM THE UPPER
GANGETIC PLAIN

The following 2 species of Typhonium collected from Ramgarh-
Khusmi forest of Gorakhpur District of Eastern Uttar Pradesh, do not
seem to have been recorded from the Upper Gangetic Plain earlier, and
hence they are recorded here as being new to the area. The two species
have been grown in the Banaras Hindu University Botanical Garden,
where they have flowered and fruited again during the following year.

Typhonium schottii Prain. Tuberous herbs, 25-35 cm. high; tubers
2.5-4 cm., in diam.; leaves 8.5-11.5 cm. long, about as broad or much
broader than its length, triangular-hastate, appearing with the inflore-
scence, 3-partite, each segment with a bulbil at the base; lateral segments
unequal sided, 8-9.5 x 2.5-4.4 cm.; middle segment 8.5-10.5 x 6-7.2
cm.; petioles 18-24 cm. long; peduncles 5-6.5 cm. long (in fruit up to
10 cm. long). Spathe slender 12.5-13.5 cm. long, open; spadix 11 .5-12.3
cm. long, exerted, with a long barren appendage; appendage oblique at
the base; female flowers and male flowers well separated ; female flowers
at the base on a 3.5-4.5 mm. long portion; neutral flowers above the
female flowers, linear, yellow, spreading, 5-6 mm. long; male flowers at a
distance of 1.3-1.5 cm. above the neutral ones on a 1 cm. long portion,
reddish-purple; anthers sessile; berry ovoid, 7-8 x 4 mm, 1-seeded.

130 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

Flowers and fruits : June-July.

Specimens examined: Khusmi Forest, Reddi 1055 (BAN), common
in ‘ Sal’ forest undergrowth.

Typhonium roxburghii Schott. Geophytic herbs, 25-30 cm. high;
tubers 3-3.5 cm. indiam., with a number of adventitious roots arising
from the top; leaves 8-9 cm. long, about as broad or slightly broader
than its length, ovate, hastately sagittate, cordate at the base, sub-3-
lobed, with bulbils at the base; petioles 17-22 cm. long; peduncles 1.8-
2.3 cm. long. Spathe slender, 13.5-14.5 cm. long, 3-4 cm. broad at
the base, reddish-purple; apex rounded, somewhat twisted; limb open;
spadix 12 cm. long, exerted, with a barren appendage; appendage rounded
at the base; female and male flowers well separated; female flowers at
the base; neutral flowers above the female flowers, yellow, linear,
spreading, 5-7 mm. long; male flowers reddish-purple.

Flowers and fruits : June-July.

Specimens examined : Khusmi Forest, Reddi 1056 (BAN), common
in ‘ Sal’ forest undergrowth along with T. schottii Prain.

The description of both these taxa has been drawn from fresh living
material. The identification of both the specimens has been done at the
Central National Herbarium, Calcutta.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Thanks are due to Dr. A. C. Joshi, Vice-Chancellor, Banaras Hindu
University, for guidance and to the Keeper, Central National Herbarium,
Calcutta, for his help in the identification work.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY, B. VENKATAREDDI
BANARAS HINDU UNIVERSITY,
VARANASI,

June 20, 1969.

26. ON CHAETOSPHAERIDIUM GLOBOSUM (NORDST.)
KLEBAHN FROM INDIA

(With a text-figure)

Out of the five genera of the family Coleochaetaceae, five species
only of Coleochaete have been described so far from different parts of
India. All the five species Coleochaete nitellarum Jost., C. pulvinata A.Br.,
C. soluta (de Bréb.) Prings., C. scutata de Bréb. and C. orbicularis Prings.
have been reported for the first time from Gujarat by Patel (1966, 1968),
except C. scutata de Bréb. which was previously recorded from Ahmedabad

|
{
:
|

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 131

by Kamat (1962). As far as the author is aware, the taxon Chaetosphae-

ridium globosum (Nordst.) Klebahn is described here for the first time
from India.

Chaetosphaeridium globosum (Nordst.) Klebahn, showing the nature of the cells in
a cluster (x 690).

The material was collected by the author, in the last week of October,
1955, from a small pond near the railway line at Valavao, Baroda District,
Gujarat State. The plant grew as an epiphyte on Zygnema sp. The cells
are generally spherical, in clusters of irregular shape with mucilaginous
envelopes. Clusters with mature cells were also seen as free floating
with Zygnema filaments. Basal interconnecting tubes in the cells are not
apparent. Individual cell bear a long seta, Characteristic of the family
Coleochaetaceae. Seta is the axial cytoplasmic filament, the basal portion
of which is ensheathed by a short cylindrical gelatinous sheath. The
cells are uninucleate with a laminate parietal chloroplast containing a
single pyrenoid in it. Clusters are of about 60 » in width. The cells are
15.0 » in diameter.

132 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

The description and the dimensions of the species described here,
generally agree with those of Chaetosphaeridium globosum (Nordst.)
Klebahn.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY, R. J. PATEL
SARDAR PATEL UNIVERSITY,

VALLABH VIDYANAGAR,

GUJARAT STATE,

July 15, 1969.

REFERENCES

Kamat, N. D. (1962): Chlorophyceae Pulvirata A. Br. from Gujarat. J. Bombay
of Ahmedabad, India. Hydrobiologia 20: nat. Hist. Soc. 63: 222-224.
248-279. (1968): On _ Coleo-
chaete from Gujarat (India). Phykos
PATEL, R. J. (1966): Coleochaete 7(1 & 2): 90-97.

27. A NEW RECORD FOR CROTALARIA INCANA LINN.
FROM SOUTH INDIA

Crotalaria incana Linn. forming the subject of this note was collected
by me in June 1969 from the Museum compound, Trivandrum, Kerala
State. The specimen was identified at Kew (ref: H.2412/69) and is
preserved in the Herbarium, Sree Narayana College, Quilon. This South
American species, hitherto known to occur in India only in the Kumaon
hills, is an addition to the south Indian flora. Description given below
is based on fresh specimens.

Crotalaria incana Linn. Erect, annual white silky pubescent herba-
ceous shrub, 95 cm. or so high. Stem terete, white silky pubescent. Leaves
alternate, trifoliate, stipulate; stipules linear, subulate, hairy, deciduous,
about 4 mm. long; petioles c. 6.8 cm. long, subterete, pulvinate, silky
pubescent; petiolule pubescent; blade 7.7 c. 4.4 cm., soft, elliptic
to elliptic-obovate with an acute mucronate or obtusely acute mucronate
tip and a cuneate base, sparsely pubescent below, puberulous to glabrate
above. Flowers up to 30 in a terminal raceme 25 cm. or more long,
bracteate, bracteolate and shortly pedicellate; bracts linear subulate,
hairy, deciduous, about 6 mm. long; bracteoles narrow, hairy, 5 mm.
long; pedicels 3 mm. long. Calyx hairy outside, glabrous within, 1.3 cm.
long with a tube 3 mm. long and linear-lanceolate greenish-yellow lobes.
Corolla pale yellow, slightly exserted; standard pale yellow, round
elliptic 1.6 cm. long and 1.2 cm. broad ; wings yellowish hyaline, obliquely
linear oblong with a round tip; keel yellowish hyaline with a thick
brush of white hairs on the upper margin without. Stamens 10, mona-
delphous with dimorphous anthers. Ovary subsessile to sessile 5 mm.
long, 2 mm. broad, thick, white, silky hairy; style slender, linear, hairy
on the inner side; stigma slightly thickened; ovules many. Fruit

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 133

cylindrical, swollen, deflexed, silky hairy, 3.5 cm. long, 7 mm. wide,
sulcate above, up to 40-seeded; seeds angularly reniform, smooth,
greenish black with a light brown shade around the groove, 3-2.5 mm.

It is interesting to note that C. incana Linn, characteristic of the
Kumaon hills (about 5,000 ft. above sea-level), is now found at sea-level.
Equally interesting is the fact that the specimen collected by the author
is not the typical asiatic form. To quote Kew authorities, “* This is clearly
referable to Crotalaria incana L., although, as you correctly surmise,
is not the typical asiatic form. It is in fact an exact match with the forms
of this rather variable pan-tropical species which hails from S. America,
and your plant may well have been introduced either by accident or
design from that continent’.

The author wishes to express his sincere thanks to the Director,
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, who has identified the specimen. The
author’s thanks are also due to Prof. N. A. Erady, Maharaja’s College,
Ernakulam, for valuable advice.

SREE NARAYANA COLLEGE, N. RAVI
PUNALUR, KERALA,
September 19, 1969.

28. AN ABNORMAL PSIDIUM MUTATION

In 1954 the writer as Senior Technical Assistant, National Botanic
Gardens, was in charge of malis engaged in lifting closely packed guava
seedlings for transplanting. Among the first batch lifted was one with
distinctive foliage, which was potted off; later on three more came to
light. They were all about 60 cm. in height. One of the strongest growing
was planted in a shrubbery border.

It was impossible to trace the source of these abnormal seedlings
as the fruit from which they were raised had been purchased in the
open market. There was every likelihood that the fruit responsible for
the abnormal seedlings was from a mutating branch in some orchard.
Had an entire plant shown the abnormal foliage and poor fruiting quality,
there is little doubt that it would have been uprooted.

By 1964 this guava had developed into a tall bush about 3.65 m.
in height, and as it bore several fruits was protected with a wire-netting
screen. Unfortunately this was not thief proof and the following year some
individual stripped the plant of all but a solitary fruit that was hidden
under a cluster of leaves. The fruit was artificially ripened, it was only
2.5 cm. in diameter. The flesh was nearly 2 cm. in diameter, of normal
guava flavour, not very sweet, and containing about 100 seeds;
germination took place in 6 weeks, but during adry spell, when a tube
well failed, these seedlings died.

134 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (1)

The height of the abnormal guava plant at the time of making this
report is 3.65 m. In Psidium guajava two flower buds appear at the lower
end of young growth, two to three pairs, of leaves from the base. In the
abnormal specimen, however, terminal or side shoots, each bear on the
upper nodes 2-4 flowers, which, as a rule, do not fully expand. The growth
of the abnormal guava is more or less fastigate. The dry foliage of the
mutant normally does not fail but remains attached till removed by the
breeze or other mechanical method.

The summer of 1965 was very severe, and the fruits of the mutant
fell in large numbers. The first tree-ripened fruit was collected in August,
and a note was made of its characteristics: Diameter of fruit 5 cm. ; scent
very strong; flesh white, thickness of flesh 1.2 cm.; seeds large, but rela-
tively few; colour of skin pale greenish yellow. The following details refer
to the plant or its leaves: Bark greyish brown in colour, rough; leaf
cordate, apex finely pointed, pigmentation confined to the swollen veins
at the base of the leaf; petiole average 17 mm. long; leaf blade
33.5 < 30) mm:

LUCKNOW, S. PERCY-LANCASTER
November 1, 1969.

29. TUBERS IN ERIOCAULON RITCHIEANUM RUHL

(With eight text-figures)

Tuberiferous habit has not been reported in any member of Erio-
caulaceae so far. The plants of EF. ritchieanum collected from Radhanagari
and Pahanala (Kolhapur District, Maharashtra) were found to bear tubers
(fig. 1). The tuberiferous habit is a regular feature of all the plants of
this species growing in these two localities. The development and morpho-
logy of these tubers is described here.

Tuber primordia originate as axillary buds. Each primordium
srows vertically up to 5 mm. into a short axillary branch; its tip then
branches dichotomously into 2-4 branches (fig. 2); these turn down,
pierce through the subtending or adjacent leaf-base and enter into the
soil. Each branch tip then swells up to form a tuber (figs. 3, 4). The mature
tuber has an average size of 42.5 mm.; it is round (fig. 6), or bilobed
(fig. 5) in outline; its surface is covered with dense growth of unicellular
hairs (fig. 7). One or two buds (eyes) are found on the tubers. Mature
tubers are full of simple circular starch grains (fig. 8). Dried tubers germ-
inate readily in a petridish with a thin layer of moist soil. The plants
attain maturity within 45 to 60 days.

Tubers in Eriocaulon ritchieanum Ruhl.

Fig. 1. Entire plant with tubers (t). Figs. 2-4. Development of tuber producing branches
and formation of tubers. Figs. 5, 6. Mature tubers. Fig. 7. Unicellular hair on the
tuber. Fig. 8. Statch grains.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 135

The authors are thankful to Sir George Taylor, Director, Royal
Botanical Gardens, Kew, for confirmation of the specific identity and
to Dr. H. N. Moldenke, U.S.A., for his opinion.

BOTANY DEPARTMENT, A. R. KULKARNI
SHIVAJI UNIVERSITY, M. H. DESAI
KOLHAPUR, MAHARASHTRA,

October 31, 1969.

30. FIELD IDENTIFICATION OF TEPHROSIA PERS.

In the field it is difficult to identify the species of Tephrosia from other
plants in vegetative state. For example, the plants of Indigofera tinctoria
Linn. and Tephrosia purpurea Pers. look very similar in vegetative state.
To identify one from any other the following method has been tried
by us during botanical excursions and found useful. Take a leaflet of
any species: hold its apex and base and pull it apart; if it is a leaflet of
Tephrosia, it will always be cut in V-shaped manner. This is true even if
the leaflet is folded transversely and then pulled apart. This technique
has been tried by us on all the species of Tephrosia available here.

Other taxonomists are requested to try this method.

DEPT. OF BOTANY, P. K. MUKHERJEE
UNIVERSITY CAMPUS, RITA GUPTA
NAGPUR UNIVERSITY,

NAGPUR,

September 17, 1969.

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CONTENTS

TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES BELOW THE LEVEL OF GENUS: THEORETICAL AND
PRACTICAL ASPECTS. By Dean Amadon HHL We Mit ay

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE HIMALAYAN RuBYTHROAT, Erithacus pectoralis,
(GOULD) IN THE TIEN SHAN. By E. I. Gavrilov and A. F. Kovshar.

Nores ON Stellaria saxatilis BucH.-HAM. ex D. Don, Stellaria vestita
KURZ AND Stellaria sikkimensis Hoox. f. By N. C. Majumdar ..

101TH GENERAL ASSEMBLY AND 11TH TECHNICAL MEETING OF THE INTERNATIONAL
UNION FOR CONSERVATION OF NATURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES. ail aii
Futehally ! Hil MHL ait alla uh H

GROWTH POTENTIAL OF RED HAIRY CATERPILLAR, Amsacta moorei BUTLER,
IN RELATION 10 CERTAIN Foop PLANTS. allt N. D. lt Hi Ram
Yadava and T. P. S. Teotia i

CAUSE AND EFFECTS OF A HEAVY RAINFALL IN DARJEELING AND IN THE Sr

HMa.ayas. By Leszek Starkel Ws we Ny ay hi ile
A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL
History Society — 6. By Humayun Abdulali WH is ue HK

NOMENCLATURAL NOTES ON SOME FLOWERING PLANTs - IT. By N. P. Balakrishnan

THE BEHAVIOUR OF THE LESSER BANDICOOT RAT, Bandicota bengalensis (GRAY
AND HARDWICKE). By Dwain W. Parrack and Jacob Thomas... wi

NOTES ON SOME PECULIAR CASES OF PHYTOGEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTIONS. By V. M.
Meher-Homji ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee

A SYNOPSIS OF THE GENUS Ejisocreochiton QUISUMB. AND MERR. By M. P. Nayar
OBITUARY Mp ub th uit AN Hn) i ui Hh bi
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ul a a Mi} ale kl Ale ee

102

Journal of the

Bombay Natural History Society

Vol. 67, No. 2

Editors
ZAFAR FUTEHALLY
J. C. DANIEL & P. V. BOLE

AUGUST 1970
Rs. 18 (Inland), 30sh. (Foreign)

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the
editors by observing the following instructions:

1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for publica-

tion to other journals or periodicals, or have already been published
elsewhere, should not be submitted.

2. The MS. should be typed (double spacing) on one side of a
sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered. :

3. All scientific names to be printed in italics should be under-
lined. Both in zoological and in botanical references only the initial
letter of the genus is capitalized. The specific and subspecific names
always begin with a small letter even if they refer to a person or a

place, e.g. Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni or Streptopelia chinensis suratensis
or Dimeria blatteri.

4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where |
identification has been authentically established by comparison of
specimens actually collected. In all other cases, or where identification
is based merely on sight, binominals should be used.

5. Photographs for reproduction must be clear and show good
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6. Text-figures, line drawings, and maps should be in Indian ink,
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7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the
paper, alphabetically arranged under author’s name, with the abridged
titles of journals or periodicals underlined (italics) and titles of books
not underlined (roman type), thus:

Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55 (2): 243-268.

Prater, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay.
Titles of papers should not be underlined.

8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting
the author’s name and year of publication, thus : (Banerji 1958).

9. Synopsis: Each scientific paper should be accompanied by
a concise, clearly written synopsis, normally not exceeding 200 words.

10. Reprints: Authors are supplied 25 reprints of their articles
free of charge. In the case of joint authorship, 50 copies will be
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packing. ies ‘a aS helio

) EDITORS,
Hornbill House, Journal of the Bombay Natural

Shahid Bhagat History Society.
Singh Road,

Bombay 1-BR.

VOLUME 67, NO. 2—AUGUST 1970

Date of Publication: 31-10-1970

CONTENTS

A NEW RACE OF THE BLACKCRESTED BAZA, Aviceda leuphotes (DUMONT), FROM THE
ANDAMAN IsLANDS. By Humayun Abdulali and Robert B. Grubh Hes og Sf

OrcHIDsS OF NEPAL—3. By M. L. Banerji and B. B. Thapa. (With nine text-
figures) at at ce as re ae Se.

AMPHIPODA FROM THE EAST COAST OF INDIA—2. By T. E. Sivaprakasam. (With
six text-figures) .. se 3 a AP i ot 453

Sex RATIO IN SOME INDIAN Bats. By A. Gopalakrishna and A. Madhavan .. 171

FLORA OF MOTHRONWALA SWAMP Forest (DISTRICT: DEHRA Dun, U.P.,

INDIA). By K. M. M. Dakshini #5 me oe ore TG
NOTES ON SOME BUTTERFLIES IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HIs-
TORY SocieTy. By N. T. Nadkerny .. ts ae ae 187

STUDIES ON THE BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES. By V.S. Bhatt. (With

eight text-figures) 194
SPIDER FAUNA OF INDIA: CATALOGUE AND BIBLIOGRAPHY. By B. K. Tikader 212

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON DISTRIBUTION OF Scoparia dulcis LINN. IN INDIA. By

J. D. Shah Ag is as ae or Ay PW
THE TIGER IN INDIA : AN ENQUIRY—1968-69. By J.C. Daniel .. ke eee. |,
THE THALASSINOIDEA (CRUSTACEA, ANOMURA) OF MAHARASHTRA. By

K.N. Sankolli. (With four text-figures). ae Ye 2» 235
PRE-FOLIATION IN Scindapsus officinalis ScHoTT. By T. A. Davis. (With a

text-figure). se x es se ae ey 2
FORAMINIFERA OF THE GULF OF CAMBAY. By K. Kameswara Rao. (With 37

figures in three plates). a * Aa us Bs A)
ECO-TOXICOLOGY AND CONTROL OF INDIAN DESERT GERBIL, Meriones hurrianae

(JERDON). By Ishwar Prakash and A. P. Jain af ake ..274
A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SociETy—7. By Humayun Abdulali Ee ae 5 ame agh)
STUDIES IN INDIAN EUPHORBIACEAE—IV. By N. P. Balakrishnan. (With two

plates) es she Ls th Se Serre)
REVIEWS :

1. The Vanishing Jungle. (S.A.)_.. ie ae Pes {07 /

2. The Spotted Sphinx. (R.R.) a = Ee -. 309

3... The Kingfisher: (Z.F.) a a a ~~... ald

4. A Wealth of Wildfowl. (H.A.) .. © sé a +1310

5. The White Impala. (D.E.R.) - a, ais BR aes 1 A2

6. Indian Thysanoptera. (N.T.N.) .. ag ae lS,

7. Waterfowl in Australia. (H.A.) .. ie ot -. 314

8. Handbook of Fern Gardening. (A.J.A.) ve a reas Ne)

9. The Compleat Flea. (R.R.) ie a Ks pees Bh

10. Prehistoric Animals and their Hunters. (R.R.) a -. 316

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :

Mammals: 1. First positive record of Pipistrellus savii (Chiroptera: Ves-
pertilionidae) from India. By Hans N. Neuhauser (p. 319); 2. A note on the
Yellow Throated Marten Martes flavigula (Boddaert) in West Pakistan. By T
J. Roberts (p. 321) ; 3. The Dugong, Dugong dugon (Muller) in Burmese waters.
By Tun Yin (p. 326); 4. Stranding of four Whales along Goa coast between
December 1968 to April, 1970. By Rajinder M. Dhawan (p. 327).

Birds: 5. Record of the Himalayan Monal Lophophorus impejanus
(Latham) in Burma. (With a map). By Tun Yin (p. 328) ; 6. Interesting Eagles
in Western India. By Himmatsinhji (p. 330); 7. Notes on Indian Birds—12.
Extension of the southern limits of the Eastern Stock Dove (Columba eversmanni
Bonaparte). By Humayun Abdulali (p. 331) ; 8. An addition to the list of Indian
Birds—The Migratory Jungle Nightjar, Caprimulgus indicus jotaka Temm. &
Schl. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 331); 9. Greyheaded Myna, Sturnus mala-
baricus (Gmelin) in Kutch. By Himmatsinhji (p. 332) ; 10. Notes on the White-
eye (Zosterops palpebrosa) and Whitebreasted Kingfisher (Halcyon pera
By Lavkumar J. Khacher (p. 333).

Reptiles: 11. Notes on the Indian Sand Skink Ophiomorus tridactylus
(Blyth). By M.S. Rathor (p. 334) ; 12. Notes on bites by the Saw-Scaled Viper,
Echis carinatus in the Deogad area of Ratnagiri District, Maharashtra. By
Romulus Whitaker (p. 335). -

Fishes: 13. Capture of a Whale Shark Rhineodon typus Smith in Ratnagiri
waters. By M.R. Ranade, Shakuntala S. Shenoy and Fahim Ahmed (p. 337) ;
14. Fishing methods for the Spiny Eel Mastocembelus armatus in Madhya Pradesh.
By B. M. Gupta (p. 338); 15. A review of the Taxonomy of the Indian Frog-
Fishes (Family Batrachoididae). (With a photograph and a text-figure). By A.
K. Nagabhushanam and K. V. Rama Rao (p. 339).

Insects: 16. An assessment. of damage and loss by Linseed Caterpillar
Laphygma exigua Hb. By R.R. Rawat and R. R. Deshpande (p. 344); 17. A
new record of Brachydeutera longipes Hendel (Diptera: Ephydridae) from
West Bengal. By K. Ramachandra Rao (p. 345); 18. First record of Coeno-
myia Latreille (Diptera : Coenomyiidae) from India. By A.N.T. Joseph (p. 346) ;
19. The time of emergence and the periodicity of occurrence of the Tiger Beetle,
Cicindela cancellata Dej. (Order: Coleoptera—Family : Cicindelidae). By
A. B. Soans and J. S. Soans (p. 347) ; 20. Swarming of Butterflies and Moths.
By M. Mohanasundaram and C. V. Sivakumar (p. 348) ; 21. Observations on
the mating behaviour in the Ant Monomorium gracillimum Smith (Hymenoptera :
Formicidae). By A. B. Soans and J. 8. Soans (p. 350).

Crustacea: 22. Various associates of Sessile Barnacles in Bombay waters.
By A. B. Wagh and D. V. Bal (p. 351).

Botany: 23. On a newly recorded host species of Dendrophthéz2 falcata
(L.f.) Ettingsh. By R.B. Ghosh (p. 354) ; 24. Occurrence of Ceratopteris thalic-
troides (Linn.) Brongn. in Rajasthan. By Vijendra Singh (p. 354); 25. The
identity of Pimpinella lateriflora Dalz. By R.S. Rao and K. Hemadri (p. 355) ;
26. Nomenclatural notes on Indian Plants. By R. S. Rao and K. Hemadri
(p. 357) ; 27. Nomenclature of two Indian Plants. By S. S. R. Bennet (p. 358) ;
28. On the occurrence of Buddleja davidii Franch. (Loganiaceae) in India. By
S. N. Biswas and R. Prasad (p. 359) ; 29. Further studies on the host range in
Loranthus longiflorus Desv. By R. Sampathkumar (p. 360) ; 30. Onthe produc-
tion of adventitious Roots from the excised petioles of some Angiosperms. (With
a photograph). By R. Sampathkumar (p. 361).

JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL

HISTORY SOCIETY

en ES Ai oo

—.

-—————— cr EE

1970 AUGUST Vol. 67 No. 2

a ee

A new race of the Blackcrested Baza,
Aviceda leuphotes (Dumont), from
the Andaman Islands’

BY

HUMAYUN ABDULALI AND ROBERT B. GRUBH

In February 1969 an attempt was made to visit Narcondam Island,
80 miles east of North Andaman Island. A party of three assembled
for the purpose at Port Blair, in the Andamans, but the arrangements
for the Narcondam trip went awry and H.A. returned a few days later
leaving behind Rex Pimento and R.B.G., both of the Bombay Natural
History Society, as there was still a chance of the trip to Narcondam
coming off. During their wait these two collected some 130 birds in
the neighbourhood of Port Blair and on some islands further south, on
which H.A. will report later. The present note concerns two specimens
of the Blackcrested Baza, Aviceda leuphotes (Dumont), a species not pre-
viously recorded from the Andamans, obtained by them at Wrightmyo
in South Andaman Island.

The specimens of Aviceda leuphotes already in the collection of the
Bombay Natural History Society are from India and Burma, and have
been assigned to the subspecies A. /. leuphotes (Dumont) (Type locality :
Pondicherry) and A. /. syama (Hodgson) (Type locality : Lower region
of Nepal) in accordance with their places of origin (1969, J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 65: 697). The present specimens differ strikingly from
the India and Burma specimens in :

(a) having a thin, and not broad, blackish-rufous bar across the
upper breast following the white ;

(6) this band being followed in the case of the male by only one

chestnut band and in the female by only two chestnut bands, leaving
the rest of the underparts unbarred ;

138. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

(c) the unbarred portion of the lower breast being more intensely
rufous than in the specimens from India and Burma, and

(d) the wings & 223, 2 224 being slightly smaller than in 45 birds
at the British Museum (Nat. Hist.) from northern and southern India,
Burma, Siam, Cambodia, and Malacca kindly measured for us by Mr.
D. J. Freeman of the British Museum (Nat. Hist.) as (excluding
one 220 mm. ) 224-251 av. 235°8 mm.

As regards (b) and (c) above, Mr. Freeman states that the material
available to him varies greatly in the amount of barring, and 3 of 4 birds
from Ceylon, which otherwise agree with A. /. leuphotes ae have pale
breasts, are virtually without barring.

The ¢ had testes 12 mm. and the 29 3 mm. ovaries, which fact together
with their behaviour suggests a courting pair and leaves little doubt that
this species, though so far overlooked, is resident in the Andamans.

On these differences, we separate the Andaman birds as:

Aviceda leuphotes andamanica subsp. nov.

Type and paratype: ¢ No. 23112 and 92 23113 in the collection of
the Bombay Natural History Society, obtained by Robert B. Grubh and
Rex Pimento at Wrightmyo, South Andaman Island, on 9th April 1969.

A list of specimens from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands received
from the Zoological Survey of India included specimen No. 23177
obtained in the Andamans and designated as Baza leuphotes. The
specimen itself was not traceable and no additional data are available
thereon.

In view of the limited amount of material available in Bombay, these
two specimens were sent to the British Museum (Nat. Hist.) and to the
American Museum of Natural History. We are grateful to Messrs
1. C. Galbraith and D. J. Freeman of the former institute and Dr. Dean
Amadon and Mrs. LeCroy of the latter for their comments and obser-
vations which have been of considerable help to us in deciding to des-
cribe a new subspecies.

Orchids of Nepal—3

BY

M. L. BANERJI! AND B. B. THAPA 2
(With nine text-figures)

[Continued from Vol. 66 (3) : 583]

In this paper the species belonging to the genus Dendrobium and also
those of Epigeneium and Ephemerantha are accounted. The species of
the allied genus Eria, collected from Nepal, are also included in this part
of the series.

Schlecter estimated the total number of species of Dendrobium (in
the broad sense) at 900, and of Eria at 400, and these two genera to con-
stitute almost the whole of the tribe Dendrobium. However, recently
there have been some readjustments in the generic limits of Dendrobium,
and Summerhayes (Kew Bull. 1957) adopted the name Epigeneium
Gagnep. and discarded Katherinea Hawkes, and Sarcopodium Lindl.
considering that Epigeneium, Sarcopodium and Katherinea are congeneric.
Balakrishnan & Chowdhury [Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 8 (3 & 4): 312-318,
1966], however, feel that Epigeneium and Katherinea are two distinct
genera with clear differences. We have followed Summerhayes.

The genus Desmotrichum was established by Blume in 1825, but
Pfitzer (Pflanzfam. II, 6 : 173, 1889) treats it as a section of Dendrobium,
an arrangement accepted by Schlecter, J. J. Smith and Holttum although
Kranzlin in Pfreich. I: 343-358, 1910, had restored the genus. The
name Desmotrichum has been conserved as a genus of the Phaeophyta,
and P. F. Hunt & Summerhayes proposed a new name, Ephemerantha
for the orchid genus (see Taxon 10: 102, 1961). This genus is dis-
tinguished from Dendrobium by vegetative characters and the fuga-
ciousness of the flowers.

The characters of the tribe Dendrobium may be broadly given as

_. plants nearly all epiphytic, of sympodial growth, each branch of the

sympodium bearing one or more leaves, its stem thin or fleshy through-
out or fleshy in part, leaves of various shape, joined at the base ; in-
florescence usually lateral of one to many flowers, which sometimes
appear singly in succession from a small group of bracts ; lateral sepals

t University of Kalyani, Kalyani, W. Bengal.
* Horticultural Assistant, Indian Co-operation Mission, Kathmandu

[19]

140 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

more or less triangular in shape, their bases joined to the column-foot
forming a mentum ; petals either smaller or larger than the sepals, usually
thinner, lip more or less 3-lobed, the base often long and narrow, joined
to the end of the column-foot and sometimes partly to the sides of the
column-foot, often with longitudinal keels, column with distinct feet
which is often longer than the column, anthers usually attached at its
apex by the filament, pollinia 4 in two pairs, with or without caudicle,
rostellum small.

Dendrobium, Epigeneium and Ephemerantha all have 4 pollinia, with-
out caudicle, while Eria has 8 pollinia with short caudicles. ©

ARTIFICIAL KEY TO THE SPECIES OF Dendrobium

A. Inflorescence terminal or both terminal and lateral—

B. Stem simple or nearly so, often a small pseudobulb, flowers small. Petals ~
not broader than the dorsal sepal; side-lobes of lip strongly inciso-
serrate—

C. Racemes elongate, drooping, many flowered. Lip much shorter
than ‘the; sepalsan 7.0. sk ee eho eee eee denudans

CC. Racemes many flowered. Lip as long as the sepals... .eriaeflorum

CCC. Racemes short, erect, 3-5 flowered. Lip shorter than the sepals....
aN fa acee treet GS Vals ac iental Oe eae ata Oe waists aie eae enema,

BB. Stem rather short, tufted, suberect. Flowers solitary or racemose, often

large—
C. Mentum as long as the dorsal sepal. Mid-lobe small, orbicular,
fringed, disk with 3 wrinkled ridges................ longicornu
CC. Mentum half as long as the dorsal sepal. Mid-lobe retuse, apiculate,
disk with: \2 ‘ cidges<.i8'.%% Ih. aed Ek ee ee formosum

AA. Inflorescence lateral on the stem or pseudobulb—

B. Stem flattened ; leaves shortly ensiform, distichous, imbricating. Flowers
on the leafless extremities of the branches, minute, greenish...... anceps

BB. Stem tufted, elongate, stout or slender, distichous. Flowers usually large
in lateral pairs, fascicles or racemes—

C. Mentum short, conical or rounded. Lip not calceolar—

D. Petals as narrow as the sepals or narrower. Lip narrower than
broad. Flowers 2°5-3:0 cm., fragrant........ ‘. .candidum

| .
DD. Petals as narrow or narrower than the sepals. Lip as broad
as long. Flowers c. 6 cm. in diam............ primulinum

DDD. Petals broad. Lip narrower than broad—

E. Flowers 1-3 on a short peduncle. Lip recurved, base with
Sides GNCUrVed .-s0.. oie ee ee ee Se heterocarpum

EE. Flowers in pairs. Lip clawed, base convolute. .transparens

[20 ]

ORCHIDS OF NEPAL—3 141

EEE. Flowers 2-3 on a short peduncle. Lip clawed, undulate
SUSLiaeor of cater om ool ch conteltapiar st ollaltal alt cf af opie sie, ebis. vf oF als! elidel 6. oie amoenum

DDDD. Petals much broader than the sepals. Lip as broad as long or
broader—
E. Flowers solitary or 2-3 on a short peduncle or simple pedi-
celled. Margin of lip entire or slightly erose—
Lip orbicular, hairy inside. Flowers c. 5 cm. in diam.

Soke Reprinted Stade Pes "dbs dune Dyess one. DICFQTAL

Lip broadly ovate, pubescent, margin wavy. Flowers

SS Cha 100 GAT aes ss ees OS so ahd ah crepidatum

Lip broad, ovate, pubescent, base slightly convolute.
Flowers 6-7 Cia: in diami.y Sci... s fas ee. so nobile

BE. Flowers 5-12 in a raceme, large. . 0.2.2. pulchellum

CC. Mentum short. Lip not calceolare. Stem often swollen at the
very base—

/ D. Stem terete—
E. Lip orbicular, margin fimbriate, 2 brownish spots... . gibsonil
EE. Lip with a small convolute base, pale yellow, disk deep red
Sen a coe NOR ttre Out Sis cike Wh we OEE clavatum
EEE. Lip clawed, orbicular, margin toothed, with 2 deep red spots
SPAR aR eee, ee NC iy ie ots 2, eee a. SCRE USANLNUM
DD. Stem clavate, flowers crowded on decurved racemes. Lip large,
funnel-shaped; Very “hairy... ob. 3.2./.8 one cee densiflorum

CCC. Mentum short. Lip calceolar, fimbriate with 2 purple blotches.
Blowers lett yellow 00% oo. he Po ed Rin oe moschatum

Dendrobium alpestre Royle, Ill. Himal. 370, t.83, 1839; F.B.I. 5:
715, 1890.

Flowers reddish-white ; sepals ovate-lanceolate ; petals oblanceolate,
mentum short and obtuse, lip lanceolate, side-lobes serrate, mid-lobe
small, crisp, disk with 2 lamellae. Collected from Talmuga at 2300 m.

D. amoenum Wall. ex Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 78, 1830; F.B.I..
5: 738, 1890; Limnodorum aphyllum Roxb. Pl. Corom. 1: 34, t.41,
1795; Dendrobium aphyllum (Roxb.) C. E. C. Fischer in Gamble, FI.
Madras Pres. 1416, 1929 (Fig. 1).

Flowers white with violet tips and lip purple, scented ; sepals oblong-
lanceolate, obtuse ; petals larger, ovate, mentum conic and stout ; lip
shortly clawed, ovate, obtuse, undulate, purplish, base yellow. Flower-
ing in April and May ; distributed between 900 to 1800 m. Collected
from Nagarjung, Godavari, locality unknown (Herklott).

[21]

142 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

=f Of LA)
——_

=<

Ss

LiF

fe g
ham

i)
a
SSS

~

>

x
2
3

Fig. 1. Dendrobium amoenum Wall. ex Lindl.; 2. D. anceps Sw. ; |
3. D. chrysanthum Wall. ex Lindl. ; 4. D. crepidatum Lindl,

[22]

ORCHIDS OF NEPAL—3 143

D. anceps Swartz in Vet. Acad. Handl. Stockh. 246: 1800; F.B.I.5:
724, 1890; King & Pantl., in Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. Calc. 8: 41, t.54,
1898 ; Hara in Fl. Eastern Himal. 431, 1966 (Fig. 2).

Flowers c. 1°2 cm. long, greenish ; mentum longer than the sepals ;
lip oblong, faintly 3-lobed, membraneous, margins stiff and crisp.
Flowering during June or earlier; distributed in the subtropical belt.
Collected from Hitaura, locality unknown (Herklott).

D. candidum Wall. ex Lindl. Bot. Reg. 1838, Miscl. 54, 1838 ; F.B.I. 5:
735, 1890 ; King & Pantl., 49, t.63, 1898 ; Hara, 431, 1966.

Flowers 2°5-3°0 cm., fragrant, whitish or with little purplish shade ;
sepals and petals subsimilar, linear-oblong, obtuse, mentum rounded ;
lip ovate-lanceolate with cuneate base, side-lobes narrow, mid-lobe
ovate, obtuse, disk with a long callus. Flowering during March and
April, and again in September and October, distributed between 1500
to 2100 m. Collected from Manichur and Daman.

D. chrysanthum Wall. ex Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 80, 1830; F.B.I. 5:
747, 1890 (Fig. 3).

Flowers about 5 cm. across, fleshy, bright yellow; sepals broad,
petals orbicular, fimbriate, mentum broad, crested ; lip clawed, orbi-
cular, margin toothed with 2 deep red spots (F.B.I. mentions one spot,
but our specimens had two spots). Flowering during June and mid-
September ; distributed at 900 to 1800 m. Collected from Pokhra,
Dhankutta.

D. clavatum Wall. ex Lindl. in Paxton Fl. Gard. 2: 104, 1850; F.B.I.
5: 746, 1890.

Flowers glossy, large, yellow; sepals linear-oblong, petals much
broader, suborbicular, mentum short ; lip with a small convoluted base,
pale yellow, disk deep red. Flowering during May and June; distri-
buted between 1500 to 1800 m. Collected from Godavari.

D. crepidatum Lindl. in Paxton Fl. Gard. 1 : 63, t.45, 1850-51 ; F.B.I.
5: 740, 1890; King & Pantl., 48, t.66, 1898 (Fig. 4).

Flowers about 3°5 cm. across, yellow, waxy with purple pedicels ;
sepals oblong, obtuse, petals obovate, mentum short, obtuse; lip
_ clawed, broadly ovate, retuse, pubescent, margin wavy, base deeper
yellow. Flowering during April and May ; distributed between 300 to
900 m. Collected from Hitaura, locality unknown (Herklott).

D. densiflorum Lindl. ex Wall. Pl. Asiat. Rar. 1 : 43, t. 40, 1830; F.B.I.
5: 748, 1890; King & Pantl., 56, t.79, 1898 ; Hara, 432, 1966.
Flowers about 5 cm. across, yellow ; sepals obtuse, petals broader,
erose, mentum large, sub-globose ; lip large, funnel-shaped, retuse in
[ 23]

144. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

front, very hairy inside, edge not fringed, deeper yellow. Flowering
during April and May ; distributed between 900 to 1500 m. Collected
from Bajrabarahi, Pokhra, Dhankutta, locality unknown (Herklott).

D. denudans D. Don, Prodr. Fl. Nep. 34, 1825 ; F.B.I. 5: 715, 1890.

Flowers white with reddish veins on the lip, rarely yellowish ; sepals
long, slender, dorsal sepal with 3 nerves and lateral sepals with 5
nerves ; petals long and slender, 1-nerved ; mentum incurved ; lip much
shorter than the sepals, brownish, side-lobes serrate, mid-lobe small,
disk with 2 lamellae. Flowering during August and September ; dis-
tributed between 1500 to 2100 m. Collected from Chandragiri,
Sundarijal, Sheopuri, and Suryabinak.

D. eriaeflorum Griff. Notul.3 : 316, 1851; F.B.I.5 : 715, 1890; King &
Pantl., 44, t.61, 1898 ; Holttum, Rev. Fl. Malaya 1 : 308, 1953; Hara,
432, 1966.

Flowers greenish-yellow : sepals lanceolate ; lip as long as the sepals,
side-lobes serrate, mid-lobe undulate, purple veined, mentum incurved,
obtuse, disk with longitudinal crest. Flowering in March. Collected
only once from Lamidanda at 1900 m. |

D. formosum Roxb. FI. Ind. 3: 485, 1832 ; F.B.I. 5: 721, 1890.

Flowers large; sepals oblong-lanceolate, acuminate ; petals much
larger, about 4 cm. in diam., sub-orbicular, undulate, mentum half as
long as the dorsal sepal, conical ; lip 7 cm. long, broadly obovate, entire,
side-lobes rounded, mid-lobe retuse, apiculate, disk yellow, with two
ridges from the base to the middle. Flowering during May and June:
well distributed in the tropical belt. Collected from Trisuli, Hitaura,
locality unknown (Herklott).

D. gibsonii Lindl. in Paxton, Mag. Bot. 5: 169, 1838; F.B.I. 5:
746. 1890. | : .

Flowers small c. 3°5 cm. across, orange-yellow ; sepals sub-orbicular,
petals broader, entire, mentum short ; lip suborbicular, margin everted
and fimbriate, 2 brownish spots, hairy. Flowering during April and May ;
distributed between 900 to 1050 m. Collected from Dhankutta.

This species has a strong resemblance to Ephemerantha fimbriata (BI.)
Hunt & Summerhayes, but differs in having smaller flowers, petals not
erose, lip not deeply fimbriate. The flowers are not fugacious.

D. heterocarpum Wall. ex Lindl. Gen, et Spec. Orch. 78, 1830 ; F.B.I.
5 : 737, 1890; King & Pantl., 53, t. 74, 1898 ; Holttum, 287, 1953.
Flowers c. 6 cm. across, ochraceous-yellow or creamy-yellow, highly
fragrant ; sepals linear-oblong, acute, petals ovate-lanceolate, acuminate,
mentum large, conical, lip ovate-lanceolate, recurved, base with incurved
[ 24]

ee

ORCHIDS OF NEPAL—3 145

sides, yellowish, disk with 2 purplish spots. Flowering during March and
April ; distributed in the tropical belt. Collected from Sundarijal, near
Tokha, locality unknown (Herklott).

D. longicornu Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 80, 1830; F.B.I. 5: 720,
1890 ; King & Pantl., 46, t. 64, 1898 ; Hara, 432, 1966 (Fig. 5).

Flowers faintly yellowish ; sepals lanceolate, acuminate, not keeled,
petals narrower, acuminate, mentum slender, funnel-shaped, straight
and as long as the dorsal sepal, side-lobes of the lip rounded, mid-lobe
small, orbicular, yellow inthe middle, fringed disk with 3 wrinkled rid-
ges. Flowering during September and October ; distributed from 1200 to
2400 m. Collected from Chandragiri, Sheopuri, Godavari, and locality
unknown (Herklott). A few specimens were collected from Shankhoo
areac. 1350 m. which had the lip densely fimbriate, and probably belonged
to var. hirsuta.

D. moschatum Sw. in Schrad. Neues. Journ. 1: 94, 1805; D. calceo-
laria Carey ex Hook. Exot Fl. 184, 1828 ; F.B.I. 5 : 744, 1890.

Flowers 6-8 cm. across, light yellow with purplish lines ; sepals elliptic-
oblong, petals broader, mentum stout ; lip cup-shaped, margin broad,
incurved, fimbriate, 2 large purple blotches. Flowering during June and
July ; distributed at 900 to 1200 m. Collected from Hitaura, locality
unknown (Herklott).

D. nobile Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 79, 1830 ; F.B.I. 5: 740, 1890;
King & Pantl., 51 t. 71, 1898 ; Holttum, 291, 1955 ; Hara, 432, 1966.

Flowers 6-7 cm. across, in groups at the nodes, purple above and
white below; sepals linear-oblong, obtuse, petals much broader ; lip
subsessile, broad, ovate, pubescent, margin recurved, base slightly con-
volute, deep purple at the base. Flowering during April and May ; distri-
buted at 1500 m., and collected from Dhankutta. F.B.I. gives the colour
of the flower as variable, but as our collection has been from only one
locality, we are unable to comment on this.

D. pierardi Roxb. in Hook. f. Exot. Fl. t. 9, 1828; F.B.I. 5: 738, 1890;
King & Pantl., 51, t. 72, 1898 ; Holttum, 292, 1953 ; Hara, 433, 1966.

) Flowers 5 cm. across, purplish ; sepals oblong-lanceolate, sub-acute,
- petals broader, oblong, mentum short ; lip orbicular, hairy throughout
_ inside, base purple, light shade of yellow all over. Flowering during
_ Aprilto June and even July ; distributed from 600 to 1200m. Collected
‘ _ from Deorali to Narkata, Dhunibesi, Pokhra, and Chatra.

D. primulinum Lindl. in Gard. Chron. 400, 1858; F.B.I. 5: 735,
1890 ; Holttum, 293, 1953. |
Flowers lilac, c.6 cm. in diam. ; sepals and petals subequal, 5-6 mm.
wide, linear-oblong, obtuse ; lip 3 cm. in diam., large, pubescent, base
[ 25 ]

i

Fig. 5. Dendrobium longicornu Lindl.; 6. D. transparens Wall. ex Lindl.

[ 26]

ORCHIDS OF NEPAL—3 147

short and convolute, margins ciliated, purplish. Flowering during April
and May ; distributed between 600 to 1200 m. Collected from Hitaura. .
This species is very similar to D. pierardi.

D. pulchellum Roxb. ex Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 82, 1830; Holt-
tum, 293, 1953 ; D. dalhousieanum Wall. F.B.I. 5 : 743, 1890.

Flowers large, c. 10 cm. in diam., yellowish ; sepals oblong, acute,
petals much broader, mentum crimson, tip and sides densely glandular-
villous, disk with 2 lamellae which are slightly fringed. Flowering during
July and August ; distributed from 1200 to 1800 m. Collected from
Tarebhir area.

D. transparens Wall. ex Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 79, 1830; F.B.I.
5 : 738 ; 1890 (Fig. 6).

Flowers purplish or whitish with a shade of purple ; sepals lanceolate,
acute, petals broader, ovate, mentum conical ; lip clawed, elliptic-oblong,
base convolute, lobes obtuse, purple, pubescent, 2 blotches. Flowering
_ during April and May, or even June; distributed from 200 to 1350 m.
Collected from Goarigaon to Chanipur, Bhainsa, Dhunibesi, Pokhra,
locality unknown (Herklott).

Ephemerantha Hunt & Summerhayes

The genus is distinguished from Dendrobium principally in the
fugaciousness of the flowers and secondarily on vegetative characters.

Ephemerantha macraei (Lindl.) P. F. Hunt & Summerhayes in Taxon,
10: 105, 1961 ; Dendrobium macraei Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 75, 1830;
F.B.I. 5: 714, 1890; King & Pantl., 61, t. 86, 1898; Hara, 432, 1966;
Callista macraei (Lindl.) O. Ktz. Rev. Gen. Pl. 655, 1891.

Flowers creamy-white, fugacious ; sepals and petals erecto-patent,
linear-lanceolate, acute, mentum short, side-lobes of lip sprinkled with
red, oblong, mid-lobe small with 2 lobules, crenulate, disk with 2 crests.
Flowering during June and July ; distributed between Hea to 2400 m.

Collected from Godavari.

Hunt & Summerhayes consider this species to be quite different from
E. fimbriata (BI.) Hunt & Summerhayes, and Narayanaswami (Journ.
Ind. Bot. Soc. 25: 215, 1946) has discussed the TOES of macraei
and fimbriatum.

Epigeneium Gagnep.

_ Rhizome elongated, pseudobulbs numerous, moniliform, monophyl-

lous; inflorescence solitary terminal; flowers large, sepals subequal,

spreading, dorsal sepal adnate to the column, lateral sepals large, attached
[27]

148 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

laterally to the foot ; petals narrower, adnate to the sides of the column ;
‘lip panduriform (fiddle-shaped), oblong, base cuneate, side-lobes erect,
mid-lobe obovate to obcordate ; column short, foot long ; pollinia 4 in 2
pairs.

ARTIFICIAL KEY TO THE SPECIES OF Epigeneium

Leaves 10-12 cm. long. Flowers with a shade of purple, 7-8 cm. in diam. ; mid-
lobe: rhomboid ‘and: thick... igen. ee eee te ua eee ee ee amplum

Leaves 5:5-9:'0 cm. long. Flowers chestnut-brown, 4:0-4°5 cm. in diam. ; mid-lobe
orbicular Sand: “thins Pe Pe ee se ee rotundatum

Epigeneium amplum (Lind!.) Summerhayes in Kew Bull. 1957 (2): 260,
1957 ; Dendrobium amplum Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 74, 1830; F.B.1. 5:
711, 1890 ; Hara, 431, 1966 ; Bulbophyllum amplum Reichb. f. in Walp.
Ann. 6: 244, 1861; Katherinea ampala (Lindl.) Hawkes, Balak. &
Chowdhury in Bull. bot. Surv. Ind. 8 (3 & 4) : 312, 1966 (Fig. 7).

Flowers large 7-8 cm. in diam., white to dull green with a shade of
purple ; sepals lanceolate, acuminate ; lip sessile, side-lobes short, mid-
lobe broad, rhomboid, acute, crenulate, thick, purplish ventrally and
purple spotted dorsally, disk with 3 lamellae. Flowering during May and
again during October and November; distributed between 1200 to
1800 m. Collected from Sheopuri, Thokha, and Sundarijal area.

E. rotundatum (Lindl.) Summerhayes in Kew Bull. 1957 (2) : 264, 1957 ;
Sarcopodium rotundatum Lindl. Fol. Orch. Sarcopod, 2. 1853; Bulbo-
phyllum rotundatum (Lindl.) Reichb. f. in Walp. Ann. 6: 244, 1861 ;
Dendrobium rotundatum (Lindl.) Hk. f. in Fl. Brit. Ind. 5: 712, 1890;
Katherinea rotundatum (Lindl.) Hawkes, Balak. & Chowdhury in Bull.
bot. Surv. Ind. 8 (3 & 4) : 312, 1966.

Flowers 4'0-4°5 cm. in diam., pale chestnut-brown ; sepals and petals
erect, acute, fleshy ; lip sessile, side-lobes small, mid-lobe large, orbicular
and thin, 3 lamellae on the base. Flowering during April and May ;
distributed at 1800 m. Collected from Mahadeophedi to Katonje. |

Eria Lindl.

Long stem-like pseudobulbs. Flowers not large nor showy, flower-
structure as in Dendrobium, but the base of the lip not forming a spur
by uniting with the edges of the column-foot ; pollinia 8 with caudicles.

ARTIFICIAL KEY TO THE SPECIES OF Eria

A. Pseudobulbs ovoid or depressed. 2-3 leaved, leaves membraneous. Scape
longer than the leaves, filiform. Flowers very small, glabrous ; lip narrow,
lanceolate and slightly dilated in the middle.................... muscicola

[ 28]

ORCHIDS OF NEPAL—3 149

“AA. Stem tall, terete, leafy. Leaves distichous, long, narrow, having crystalline
concretions. Flowers minute, woolly in subterminal spikes, lateral sepals
short, broad, mid-lobe of lip bilobed and crenulate............ paniculata

AAA. Pseudobulbs short or long, 1-noded forming a fleshy stem or crowded on the
_ creeping rhizome. Flowers small or medium sized, glabrous or pubescent,
rarely woolly in lateral or subterminal spikes or racemes—

B. Flowers small or minute in dense spikes, sub-globose, pilose..........

RRS ONE OTR A ane eae ae, SW See ree convallarioides
BB. Flowers small or medium-sized, many-flowered spikes—
C. Flowers sessile or subsessile—
D. Mentum rounded, lip short........ poe rey graminifolia
DD. Mentum nil; lip short, yellow and pink............ excavata
DDD. Mentum rounded ; lip oblong, yellow and red............ alba

CC. Flowers pedicelled, bracts large—

D. Side-lobes of lip incurved and with 3 thick ridges. Flowers
Coe SRCUIE LIM AGIA es. ote, Sa ele, og LORE. confusa

DD. Side-lobes of lip rounded. Flowers c. 1:5 cm. in diam......
Pea eae er a. IMIG wigs lest. bractescens

DDD. Side-lobes with 2 thick ridges between them. Flowers c.
Depa Uitte ete CI ATIN crs to ce tek ttetae sg cee. Gobet Be Baten o Beads coronaria

“a Nes Pseudobulbs usually large. Leaves one or few, often loaded with crystalline
concretions. Flowers in terminal or subterminal spikes, woolly or dense
white tomentose, yellow with purplish markings.................... flava

Eria alba Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 67, 1830; F.B.I. 5: 795, 1890.

Flowers white, sepals ovate-lanceolate, 3-5 nerved, glabrescent, petals
linear-oblong, 3-nerved, mentum rounded ; lip oblong, broadly clawed,
_ side-lobes pointed forwards, obtuse, mid-lobe yellow and red, disk with

2 ridges between the side-lobes. Flowering time probably August.
Collected from Dana at c. 1450 m.

EK. bractescens Lindl. Bot. Reg. 27, Miscl. 18, 1841 ; F.B.I. 5 : 796, 1890;
King & Pantl., t. 166, 1898 ; Holttum, 388, 1953.

Flowers light pink, glabrous, puberulous; lateral sepals ovate-
lanceolate, falcate, acuminate, petals linear-oblong, 5-nerved, mentum
conical, side-lobes deeper pink, rounded, mid-lobe creamy and papillose.
Flowering during August and September ; distributed between 1500 to
1800 m. Collected from Rhingmo to Jubing and Suryabinak.

B29 Ie

150 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

E. confusa Hk. f. in Hook. Icon. Pl. 19, t. 1850, 1889 et F.B.I. 5: 796,
1890.

Flowers whitish; sepals broadly ovate-oblong, obtuse, 5-nerved.
pubescent, petals elliptic-lanceolate, 3-5 nerved; lip obovate, side-lobes
incurved, 3 thick ridges, mid-lobe orbicular, thick. Flowering during
April and May ; distributed between 1200 to 1800 m. Collected from
Bajrabarahi. This species has a strong resemblance to E. bractescens.

E. convallarioides Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 70, 1830; F.B.I. 5: 791,
1890.

Flowers greenish-yellow, subglobose, pilose ; sepals very broad, 5-7
nerved, petals 3-nerved, mentum rounded; lip cuneate with a broad
warted tip. Flowering during September and October ; distributed at
about 1800 m. Collected from Sheopuri, Godavari, and Sundarijal.
F.B.I. gives the colour of the flowers as white or straw-yellow, but in
all our material the colour was greenish-yellow.

E. coronaria (Lind|.) Reichb. f.in Walp. Ann. 6: 272, 1861;*King &
Pantl., 124, t. 172, 1898, Hara, 433, 1966 ; Coelogyne coronaria Lindl.
Bot. Reg. Miscl. 83, 1841 ; Trichosma suavis Lindl. Bot. Reg. t. 21, 1824 ;
F.B.I. 5 : 827, 1890.

Flowers whitish or yellowish, sweet smelling ; sepals ovate-lanceolate,
petals oblong, lip sub-sessile, streaked, with purple and yellow in the
middle, disk with 2 ridges, slightly deeper yellow b.tween the side-lobes,
mid-lobe with 5 clear and 2 faint ridges. Flowering during October and

November ; distributed between 1500 to 2000 m. Collected from |

Okhaldunga and Sundarijal areas.

E. excavata Lindl. ex Hk. f. Icon Pl. t. 1846, 1889, et Gen. et Spec.,
Orch. 67, 1830 (p.p.) ; F.B.I. 5: 795, 1890; King & Pantl., 124, t. 171,
1898 ; Hara, 434, 1966.

Flowers dull yellow ; sepals ovate-lanceolate, falcate, petals 5-nerved,
mentum nil ; lip short with 3 central ridges, yellow, side-lobes pink with
purple nerves, mid-lobe large, obovate. Flowering during June ; col-
lected from Sheopuri c. 1800 m. ;

E. flava Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 65, 1830; F.B.I. 5: 801, 1890 ; Hara
434, 1966.

Flowers light yellow with purple markings on the lip ; sepals ovate-
lanceolate, 9-nerved, obtuse, petals obtuse, 3-nerved, mentum sub-
cylindric ; lip thick, puberulous, side-lobes short. Flowering during
Apriland May, but in the orchid-house of the garden it sometimes flowers
in December also, probably due to the plants being fully exposed to bright
sun and the effect of temperature ; distributed at 450 to 750m. © Collected
from Hitaura and Dhunibesi.

[ 30 |

ORCHIDS OF NEPAL—3 151

Fig. 7. Epigeneium amplum (Lindl.) Summerhayes ; 8. Eria graminifolia Lindl. :

9. Eria muscicola Lindl.

[31]

152. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

E. graminifolia Lindl. in Journ. Linn. Soc. 3 : 54, 1859 ; F.B.1. 5: 794,
1890 ; King & Pantl., 119, t. 164, 1898 ; Hara, 434, 1966 (Hie. 8).

Flowers white, glabrous ; lateral sepals ovate-lanceolate, 3-5-nerved,
petals linear-lanceolate, acute, mentum rounded ; lip short ; side-lobes
oblong, recurved and with a short ridge, mid-lobe orbicular. Flowering
during June and July ; collected from Sheopuri, c. 1800m. The spread-
ing and recurved side-lobes are very characteristic of this species.

E. muscicola Lindl. in Journ. Linn. Soc. 3:47, 1857; F.B.I. 5: 789,
1890 ; Hara, 434, 1966 (Fig. 9).

Flowers very small ; sepals lanceolate, finely acuminate, lateral sepals
falcate, petals narrowly lanceolate, mentum rounded ; lip narrow, lanceo-

late and slightly dilated in the middle. Flowering during April and May to

distributed between 1200 to 1500 m. ‘Collected from Lamidanda and
Dhankutta.

E. paniculata Lindl. in Wall. Pl. Asiat. Rar. I: 32, t. 36, 1829; F.B.J.

3% 789, 1590:

Petals elliptic, obtuse, mentum rounded ; lip suborbicular, side-lobes
oblong, mid-lobe bilobed and crenulate, disk thick. Flowering during
Apriland May ; distributed at 750 to 1200 m. Collected from Dhunibesi
and Bajrabarahi.

(to be continued)

[32]

SA Sts oy
a

Amphipoda from the East Coast of
India—2

Gammaridea and Caprellidea
BY

T. E. SIVAPRAKASAM
Zoological Survey of India, Southern Regional Station, Madras

(With six text-figures)

[Continued from Vol. 66 (3) : 576]

Cymadusa sardenta (Oliveira)
(Fig. 13)
Grubia sardenta Oliveira, 1953, p. 365, pls. 25-26.

Material: MHare Island, Tuticorin: | male from algae growing on
a wooden pole.

Length: 10mm.

Description: Male: Head less than twice as long as Ist segment.
Eyes small, oval, colourless in alcohol (was probably red). Lateral
lobes only slightly produced. Body broadly curved, with grey or violet
patches and dots all over the body and appendages.

Antenna 1 as long as body, with short setae. Peduncle reaching
end of 4th peduncular joint of antenna 2. Ist joint as long as 2nd and
thrice that of 3rd, lower margin with a spine at 1/3 its length and another
subterminal. Flagellum nearly 4 times as long as peduncle, with 53
joints. Accessory flagellum 2-jointed, 2nd being minute. Antenna 2
less than 2/3 as long as antenna |. Peduncle as long as flagellum with
long, dense, plumose setae on both the margins ; 4th joint a little longer
than the 5th. Flagellum with short setae, with 33 joints.

Mandible: Molar well-developed, reniform. Primary cutting
plate with 6 teeth and the accessory with 5. Spine row with 8 spines.
3rd joint of palp a little longer than 2nd, thrice as longas Ist, inner margin
apically with about 10 long setae. Maxilla 1: Inner plate very short,
with 6 long setae on inner margin. Outer plate with 9 apical spines.

Z [31]

154. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NAILURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

G

ao

Si)
Ut.
2

rae
2
522
Coes ~. am
Ro ere
DP
——a
wP>:

NS
Ws"

ned
14. MM. (A.F.G )
04 MM. (8,¢,0,€)

Fig. 13. Cymadusa sardenta (Oliveira). Male: A, head ; B, mandible ; C, maxilla J; ,
D, maxilla 2; E, maxilliped ; F, gnathopod 1 ; G, gnathopod 2.

[32] Ce

OO ll

AMPHIFODA FROM EAST COAST OF INDIA 155

2nd joint of palp thrice as long as Ist, with 11 spines on apical and inner
margins and an oblique row of 6 long setae onlower aspect. Maxilla2:
Inner plate about half as broad as outer, both with long plumose setae
apically and oninner margin. Maxilliped : Inner plate extending beyond
base of Ist palpar joint inner margin and apex setose. Outer plate not
reaching end of 2nd palpar joint, with 4 long setae at the apex and 16 spines
on inner margin decreasing in length from the apex. 2nd palpar joint
twice as long as Ist, inner margin with long setae ; 3rd joint narrower
distally with long setae on both margins ; terminal joint with 6 stout
setae on inner margin.

Gnathopod 1 much longer than gnathopod 2 but slender. Side plate
oval, conically produced in front, with a fine row of setae below. 2nd
joint narrow, as long as 5th joint, front margin with 2 angular ribs which
are distally produced into two small, rounded lobes. 3rd joint half as
long as next, front margin elevated into a rounded lobe. 4th joint hind
margin distally produced into a conical, pointed lobe. 5th joint un-
usually long, constricted at the base and widening distally ; hind margin
serrate, with dense setae, front margin with 8 sets of setae. 6th joint about
2/3 as long as 5th, densely setose, constricted at the base and widening
distally. Palm shorter than hind margin, oblique, slightly concave,
defined by a spine at posterior angle. Dactylus narrow, nearly straight,
longer thanthe palm. Gnathopod 2 : Stout, densely setose with plumose
setae. Side plate quadrate, rounded below. 2nd joint densely setose,
longer than the 6th, front margin 2-ribbed and distally produced slightly.
3rd joint 2/3 as long as next, front margin with a notch near the base.
4th joint only slightly produced distally. 5th joint about half as long as
6th, both margins densely setose. 6th joint large, oval, densely setose.
Palm oblique, shorter than hind margin, with a flat-topped tooth near the
hinge of dactylus, followed by a concave portion and a pointed tooth
defining the palm. Dactylus stout, strongly curved.

Peraeopods, uropods and telson as in C. microphthalma.

Remarks: The specimen closely agrees with the description and
figures of C. sardenta given by Oliveira (1953), the differences being
insignificant. The antennae are much longer, the flagella with more joints,
otherwise similar. The inner plate of maxilla 2is much narrower. 2nd
palpar joint of maxilliped longer, twice as long as Ist. 6th joint of
gnathopod 2 of male is broader, palm with a flat-topped tooth near the
hinge of dactylus which is not found in Oliveira’s specimen. This struc-
ture is, however, not of any systematic value (Schellenberg 1928: 668).
The present material is only half the length of the type which was 20°5 mm.
in length.

I believe that Grubia compta Pearse (1912, p. 376, fig. 6, not Smith)
from Florida should be referred to this species, though Barnard (1955)

(334

i156. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

unites it with Cymadusa filosa. Pearse’s figures are strikingly similar to
the present specimen, though the gnathopods are wrongly labelled.

Distribution: Rito de Janeiro, Brazil. This is the first record of this
species from India.

Family COROPHIDAE
Genus Corophium Latreille

Corophium acherusicum Costa
(Fig. 14)

Corophium acherusicum Bate, 1862, p. 282 ; Della Valle, 1893, p. 364, pl. 1, fig. 11,
pl: 8; figs. 17, 18, 20-41 ; Stebbing, 1906, p. 692 ; Chevreux & Fage, 1925, p. 368,
fig. 376 ; Schellenberg, 1925, p. 191 ; 1928, p. 672; Shoemaker, 1934, p. 24;
1947, p. 53, figs. 2-3 ; 1949, p. 76 ; Crawford, 1937, p. 617, fig. 2 P. (literature) ;
Barnard KH, 1940, p. 482 ; Reid, 1951, p. 269 ; Barnard JL, 1955, p. 37 ; Nayar,
1959, p. 43, pl. 15, figs. 14-20.

Material: Visakhapatnam harbour : 4 females from algae growing
on wooden rafts.

Length. 2:4 iam

Remarks: All the specimens studied are females. They have the
characteristic features given by Crawford (1937). Antenna | : Ist joint
of peduncle with 4 spines on the inner margin and 5 on the lower, the
basal ones being slightly curved. Antenna 2: 2nd joint of peduncle
with 3 distal spines on the pointed lobe, 3rd joint with 2, 4th joint with 7
spines on lower margin arranged 2, 2, 2, 1 and Sth joint with 2 single
spines equidistantly placed on lower margin. Gnathopod |: Side plate
conically produced, with 3 long, apical setae. Dactylus with a tooth
on the inner margin. Gnathopod 2: Dactylus with one or two teeth
on inner margin.

One specimen had the spines on antenna 2, joint 4, arranged as 1,
2, 2, 1 on the right and 1, 3, 2, 1 on the eft. Spines on joint 5 were
arranged 2, 1 on both sides. |

Distribution : Cosmopolitan in tropical and temperate seas. Pre-

viously recorded in India from the Krusadai Island in the Gulf of Mannar
and presently from the Andhra coast.

[ 34]

AMPHIPODA FROM EAST COAST OF INDIA 137

Hy

Genus Grandidierella Coutiere

Grandidierella bonnieri Stebbing

Grandidierella bonnieri Stebbing, 1908, p. 120, pl. 6; Barnard KH, 1935, p. 299,
figs. 12d & 13b; 1951, p. 708; 1955, p. 7; Schellenberg, 1938(4), p. 215;
Shoemaker, 1948, p. 11, fig. 3 ; Nayar, 1959, p. 38, pl. 14, figs. 1-5.

Grandidierella megnae Chilton, 1921, p. 548, fig? 10 ; Stephensen, 1933(a), p. 434,
Unciolella lunata Schellenberg, 1928, p. 669, fig. 207 (not Chevreux).

Material: Tuticorin: Several specimens from a saltwater pond in
Hare Island. Devipattinam : 2 males and 2 females from algae on the
sea shore. Tondi: Several specimens. from a brackish water canal.
Point Calimere: Several specimens from the Kodiakkarai swamp.
Kovelong : Several specimens-from the Buckingham Canal. Madras :
Several specimens from the Adyar estuary and the Buckingham Canal.
Ennore estuary : Several specimens from filamentous algae and oyster
shells. Pulicat Lake : Several specimens from the lake, mud pools and
salt pans.

Length: 8mm.

Distribution: India, Philippines, Suez Canal, South Africa, Brazil,
Bogaire Island, Caribbean sea, West Indies and Cuba.

Grandidierella gilesi Chilton

Grandidierella gilesi Chilton, 1921, p. 552, fig. 11 ; 1925, p. 537; Barnard KH,
1935, p. 300 ; Schellenberg, 1938(a), p. 93 ; Nayar, 1959, p. 40, pl. 14, fig. 6.

Material: Pinnakayal: 1 female and 2 males from the tanks of a
saltwater pumping station. Tuticorin: 1 male and 1 female from a
saltwater pond in the Hare Island. :

=

Length: 7mm.

Distribution: India, Tale Sap (Thailand) and Philippines.

Genus Ericthonius Milne-Edwards

Ericthonius brasiliensis (Dana)

Pyctilus brasiliensis Dana, 1853-55, p. 976, pl. 67, figs. 5 a-h.

Ericthonius brasiliensis Stebbing, 1906, p. 671; 1910, p. 463; Walker, 1909,
p. 343; Kunkel, 1910, p. 100, fig. 39 ; 1918, p. 163, fig. 49; Chilton, 1923,
p. 242, figs. 1-5 ; Chevreux & Fage, 1925, p. 353, fig. 360 ; Schellenberg, 1925,
p. 187; 1926(b), p. 384; 1928, p. 668; 1931, p. 257; 1935, p. 233; 1938(a),
p. 90; 1938(b), p. 217 ; Stephensen, 1927, p. 136; 1942, p. 402 ; Barnard KH,
1937, p. 173 ; 1955, p. 8 ; Shoemaker, 1935, p. 249 ; 1941, p. 188 ; 1942, p. 48;

[35 ]

158 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Ie
US RORY

Ne
ae
i.

Fig. 14. Corophium acherusicum Costa. Female: A, antenna 1, side view; B, —
antenna 1, dorsal view; C, antenna 2; D, gnathopod 1; E, gnathopod 2; F, peraeopod 1;

G, peraeopod 4; H, peraeopod 5; J, urus.

[ 36 ]

> py eal

AMPHIPODA FROM EAST COAST OF INDIA 159

Rudwick, 1951, p. 153; Reid, 1951, p. 267; Barnard JL, 1955, p. 37; 1959,
p. 39; Pillai, 1957, p. 60, figs. 14 (3-7) ; Nayar, 1959, p. 42, pl. 15, figs. 1-13.
Ericthonius brasiliensis Sexton, 1911, p. 218; Chevreux, 1911, p. 262; 1925,

p. 391 ; Chevreux & Fage, 1925, p. 353, fig. 360 ; Pirlot, 1939, p. 68, 77.
Cerapus brasiliensis Bate, 1862, p. 267, pl. 45, fig. 8.
Ericthonius disjunctus Stout, 1913, p. 658.

Material: Pamban: 1 female from seaweeds. Kovelong : 2 females

and 3 males from sponges. Madras harbour : Several specimens from
ascidians.

Length: 4mm.

Distribution : Cosmopolitan in tropical and temperate waters.

Family PODOCERIDAE
Genus Podocerus Leach

Podocerus brasiliensis (Dana)

Platophium brasiliense Dana, 1853-55, p. 838, pl. 55, fig. 9.

Podocerus brasiliensis Stebbing, 1917, p. 447; Barnard KH, 1925, p. 366;
1935, p. 305; Schellenberg, 1928, p. 674; 1938 (a), p.94; 1938 (b), p. 217;
Rudwick, 1951, p. 153, fig. 3: Barnard JL, 1953, p. 87 ;-4955,p.. 39; 1959,
p. 39; Nayar, 1959, p. 45, pl. 15, figs. 21-26.

Podocerus brasiliensis Della Valle, 1893, p. 329; Stebbing, 1906, p. 704; Reid,
19515 pp. 267,

Cyrtophium brasiliense Bate, 1862, p. 274, pl. 46, fig. 6.
Platophium synaptochir Walker, 1904, p. 296, pl. 8, fig. 52.

Podocerus synaptochir Stebbing, 1906, p. 741; Walker, 1909, p. 343; Barnard
KH, 1916, p. 279. .

Material: Pamban: 1 male and 1 female from seaweeds. Madras
harbour : Several specimens from ascidians, sponges and polyzoans on
the concrete blocks.

Length: 4mm.
Distribution : Cosmopolitan in the tropical and temperate seas,
Genus Laetmatophilus Bruzelius

Laetmatophilus sp.
(Fig. 15)
Material: Kovelong: 1 female from the washings of ascidians.

Length: 2mm.

Description: Female: Head about twice as long as Ist segment.
Eyes protruberant, rounded and dark, Body depressed and broad, the

bar]

160 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

short and narrow pleon being folded beneath. Body segments trans-
versely grooved, not markedly keeled. Side plates small.

Antennae long, subpediform and densely setose. Antenna 1: A
little shorter than antenna 2 ; Ist joint of peduncle short and stout, front
margin distally ending inatooth. 2nd joint longer than the 3rd. Flagel-
lum as long as 3rd joint, with 3 joints of which Ist is twice as long as the
2nd, 3rd very short. Antenna 2 robust, 2/3 as long as body. 2nd and
3rd joints of peduncle short, 5th longer than 4th. Flagellum with 2

Fig. 15. Laetmatophilus sp. Female : A, antenna 1 ; B, antenna 2; C, gnathopod 1; D,
gnathopod 2; E, peraeopod 1 ; F, peraeopod 5; G, urus.

[38 ]

AMPHIPODA FROM EAST COAST OF INDIA 161

joints, Ist joint 2/3 as long as 5th joint of peduncle, 2nd very short.
Mouth parts typical of the genus.

Gnathopod |: Side plate very narrow. 5th joint as long as 6th,
hind margin produced into a setiferous lamellar lobe. 6th joint widest
at the middle, palm undefined. Dactylus stout, with averted point.
Gnathopod 2 much longer than the preceding, with stout setae. 4th
joint distally produced into an acuminate projection. 6th joint large,
oval. Palm oblique, about 13 times as long as hind margin, defined by
a small dentiform projection, followed by a concave space and the rest
tubercular. Dactylus stout, longer than palm.

Peraeopods similar in size and structure. 2nd joint shorter than Sth.
Joints 5-7 well-developed. Peraeopods 2-4 missing. Pleopods feebly
developed. Uropod 1 well-developed and spinous. Outer ramus sub-
equal to peduncle, half as long as inner ramus. Uropod 2 rudimentary,
represented by a curved lobe with a short apicalseta. Uropod 3 wanting.
Telson semi-circular in shape.

Remarks: From a single female it is difficult to fix the identity of
this specimen. Of the 7 species of Laetmatophilus so far described, the
female is not known of L. tridens and L. leptocheir and among others the
present specimen is very near to L. purus Stebbing.

Suborder CAPRELLIDEA

Family CAPRELLIDAE
Genus Paradeutella Mayer
Paradeutella bidentata Mayer
(Fig. 16)
Paradeutella bidentata Mayer, 1890, p. 29, pl. 1, figs. 35-36; pl. 3, figs. 36-41 ;
Dl Ss figs.-34=35: pl. 6, figs. 12-25; 1903. p. 145 3 1904, p. 225 ; Ray; 1927,
p, 125, pl. 15, figs. 2 a-b.

Material: Pamban: 3 females from seaweeds growing on rocks
under the railway bridge.

Length: 45 mm.

Remarks : This species seems to be very localised as all the previous
records, as well as the present one, refer to material collected from the
Gulf of Mannar.

Distribution ; Ceylonese and Indian coasts of the Gulf of Mannar.

[39]

162 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

“4

44
vy

Y
1
/
t
f
t
l

i/

0°8 MM.

Fig. 16. Paradeutellu bidentata Mayer. Female: A, front part of animal; B, gnathopod 2;|

C, peraeopod 5.
| Genus Tritella Mayer
Tritella pilimana Mayer

(Fig. 17)

Tritella pilimana Mayer, 1890, p. 31, pl. 1, fig. 37, pl. 3, figs. 48-50, pl. 5; fig.
50, pl. 6, fig. 9 & ply 7, fig: 7; 1903, p48, pl. 2, fig...

[40 ]

AMPHIPODA FROM EAST COAST OF INDIA 163

eH
0'8 MM.(A-E)
04 MM.(F )

Fig. 17. Tritella pilimana Mayer. Male: A, front part of animal; B, antenna
1; C, antenna 2; D, gnathopod 2; E, peraeopod 5. Female: F, gnathopod 2.

_ Material: Kovelong: 34 specimens from the hydroids and poly-
zoans growing on ascidians. Madras harbour: 3 females from poly-
zoans growing on concrete blocks.

Length: 6mm.

Remarks : These specimens closely agree with Mayer’s (1890,
1903) figures of this species first described from California. I am, how-
ever, doubtful of the identification, considering how these slow-moving
animals could be distributed over such a long distance existing between
California and India.

Distribution: California. This is the first record of this species
from India. i

Genus Paracaprella Mayer

Paracaprella alata Mayer
(Fig. 18)
Paracaprella alata Mayer, 1903, p. 67, pl. 2, figs. 40-41 & pl. 9, fig. 73.

Material: Madras: 28 specimens from polyzoans growing on
sponges washed ashore at Marina beach,

[41]

164 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Length: 42 mm.

Remarks : The specimens closely agree with the figures and des-
cription of this species given by Mayer (1903). I was not able to examine
the mouth parts as the specimens were collected in a semi-dried con-
dition. The specimens are also similar to Giles’ (1888) Caprella mad-
rasana, but his figures are not good. Mayer did not refer to this paper
and it is possible that P. alata may have to be united with this species.

Distribution: Sydney, Australia. This is the first record of this
species from India, |

0°38 MM.(A)
04 MM. (B-E) |

Fig. 18. Paracaprella alata Mayer. Male: A, front part of animal; B,
gnathopod | ; C, gnathopod 2 ; D, peraeopod 5. Female : E, gnathopod 2.

NOTES ON ECOLOGY

The amphipods studied here are mostly littoral, collected from in-
tertidal and shallow waters. Some are estuarine, brackishwater and
terrestrial, collected from the sea-shore, estuaries and nearby ponds and
canals. The littoral species were found clinging to seaweeds, free or
attached to the rocks or washed ashore. Some species were also found =
in association with other invertebrates. Orchomenella affinis was collec-
ted from the washings of nudibranchs. Ampelisca-zamboange was

[42]

AMPHIPODA FROM EAST COAST OF INDIA 165

found in the cavities of sponges. Amphilochus schubarti was found in
the debris formed on compound ascidians. Leucothoe spinicarpa lives
among algae as well as sponges and holothurians. Maera quadrimana
was also found on holothurians. Llasmopus pectenicrus was found
among zoantharian colonies and also among the arms of crinoids. Lem-
bos kergueleni:and Cymadusa microphthalma were found in the cavities
of sponges. Ericthonius brasiliensis and Podocerus brasiliensis were
collected from the washings of both sponges and ascidians. The cap-
rellids were found clinging to polyzoan and hydroids growing on sponges
and compound ascidians. The association of these amphipods with
other invertebrates appears to be purely a chance occurrence and has
not developed to the extent of commensal or semiparasitic relationship
as they were also collected from seaweeds and the present observations
do not indicate such a relationship.

Among the terrestrial amphipods, some talitrid and hyalid amphi-
pods were collected from the sea-shore and on the banks of brackish-
water and freshwater canals and ponds, two or three miles away from
the sea-shore. Hurley (1959) applied the term *supralittoral’ to the
amphipods of the sea-shore zone generally called sandhoppers. These
are still dependent on sea-water for their distribution though their feed-
ing and breeding may be performed on land. The term ‘terrestrial ’
was used for those which are entirely independent of sea-water. In the
sense of these terms, there are only supralittoral amphipods and no ter-
restrial ones in the present collection. Orchestia anomala was collected
from under stones at the high tide mark, around saltwater ponds and
also around a freshwater pond about a mile away from the sea-shore.
Talorchestia martensii was collected from the tidal edge, the sea-shore
and the banks of brackishwater and freshwater ponds and canals. Par-
hyale inyacka was collected from the intertidal waters as well as from
under stones and jumping about at the tidal edge.

The change from marine to terrestrial environment is one of the
important steps in the evolution of the Amphipoda. Carter (1931) says
that the majority of terrestrial animals have reached the land by way of
freshwater rather than directly from the sea. Pearse (1929) and Edney
(1954) believe that the route to land was across the littoral zone rather
than by way of estuaries and swamps. I think that both these routes
are possible, though there are no truly terrestrial species in the present
collection to prove this. 7. martensii appears to have taken to land
through the estuaries, though they are not still independent of water.
It occurs in all the zones from the littoral area to the freshwater.
O. anomala on the contrary, appears to have taken up land life through
the sea-shore. It occurs under the stones on the sea-shore and also around
freshwater ponds near the sea-shore.

[ 43]

166 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

The interpretation of distributional data is an extremely complicated
affair. The importance of a group of animals for zoogeographical con-
clusions depends on the volume of our knowledge of the group, the faci-
lities for their dispersal and the barriers in their way of dispersal
(Mahendra 1939). It is also necessary to consider the distribution of as
many groups as possible before arriving at conclusions (Nicholls 1933).
Our knowledge on the Amphipoda is far from complete. In this paper,
distributional data are given for each species based on published infor-
mation which are not necessarily complete.

The number of amphipod species known from India is not large and
a large part of the Indian coasts remains to be explored for their amphi-
pod fauna. Moreover, our knowledge of this group of animals from the
rest of the Indo-Pacific area is rather meagre. These animals are also
likely to be introduced from one country to another by ships whose
bottom with their algal growth is an ideal habitat for them. In view of
these points, no definite zoogeographical conclusions can be reached
from the present study. However, the amphipod fauna of India has its
closest affinity to that of Ceylon and other islands and countries border-
ing the Indian Ocean. In the present collection of amphipods, there
are 9 cosmopolitan species. Apart from these there are 12 species which
are nearly cosmopolitan (or are irregularly distributed and hence not of
any importance in the present discussion). This is largely due to lack
of knowledge of this group in several areas. 18 species are distributed
in the Indo-Pacific Ocean. The maximum number of 19 species are
restricted to the Indian Ocean. 3 species are known only from India,
namely, Paracalliope indica, Parhyalella indica and Photis digitata, but
it cannot be said whether they are truly endemic since our knowledge of
this group of animals in the rest of the Indo-Pacific area is, as already
pointed out, rather scanty.

SUMMARY

The present paper is the second and concluding part of a systematic
study of the Amphipod Crustacea of the east coast of India. A total
number of 32 species belonging to seven gammaridean families and a
caprellidean family are dealt with here, of which 16 species are recorded
for the first time from India. The ecology of these amphipods is dis-
cussed. A discussion on the geographical distribution shows their
close affinity to the Amphipoda of the islands and countries bordering

the Indian Ocean.

[44 ]

AMPHIPODA FROM EAST COAST OF INDIA 167

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raneo. Ann. Mus. Stor. nat. Genova
60 : 127-151.
——_—— (1938b): do. IX. Gli
anfipodi del Red Sea. ibid. 60 : 152-180.
———— (1950): do. XXII. Anfi-

podi del Venezuela raccolti dal dott.
G. Marcuzzi. Mem. Mus. Civ. Stor.
Nat. Verona 2 : 49-65, 5 figs.

(1954) : Anfipodi raccolti nel
Venezuela dal Prof. G. Marcuzzi. ibid.
4: 117-125, 2 figs.

———— (1956) : Nota su alcuni An-
fipodi raccolti sulle coste dell: India del
Dr. K. Lindberg. ibid. 5: 211-216.

~—— (1958) : Amphipodes terre-
stress et des eaux continentales de
Madagascar, des Comores et de la
Reunion. Mem. Inst. Scient. Madagas-
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— (1959) ; Contributo alla cono-
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Sars, G. O. (1895): An account of
the Crustacea of Norway with short des-
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SCHELLENBERG, A. (1925): Crustacea
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Beitrage zur Kenntnis des Meeresfauna
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———- (1926a): Amphipoda 3. Die
Gammariden der Deutschen Tiefsee-

AMPHIPODA FROM EAST COAST OF INDIA

Exped.

Expedition. Deutsch Tiefsee
Dampfer)

1898-99 (auf dem ‘ Valdivia’
23 (5): 195-243, 28 figs., 1
SCHELLENBERG, A. (1926b): Die Gam-
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(1928) ; Report on the
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Expedition to the Suez Canal, 1924.
Trans. zool. Soc. Lond. 22 (5): 633-692,
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— (1931):

Gammariden und
Caprelliden des Magellangebietes, Sud-
georgiens und der Westantarktis. Fur-
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(1935): Amphipoda_ von
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67 (4) : 225-234, 3 figs.

(1936) : Amphipoda _ ben-
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—.

Alexandria. Notes & Mem. Fish. -Res.
Directorate Egypt 18: 1-27, 1 fig., 8
charts.

———— (1938a): Litorale Amphi-
poden des tropischen Pazifiks. K. svenska

Vetensk Akad. Handl., Ser. 3, 16 (6):

1-105, 48 figs.

(19385): Brasilianische
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—.

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(1939) : Amphipoden des
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1906. J. Mar. biol. Ass. U.K. 9 (2):
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(1934): The Amphipod
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————. (1935): The amphipods of
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(1941): On the names of

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— (1942): Amphipod crus-

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3

169

101 (11): 1-52, 17 figs.

SHOEMAKER, C.R. (1945): The Amphipod
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———— (1947): Further notes on
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———— (1949): The Amphipod

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(1956): Observations on
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[47]

170 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

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[ 48 |

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———— (1904): Report on the
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(1909): Amphipoda Gam-

‘maridea from the Indian Ocean, British

East “Africa and the Red Sea. Trans.
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WEBER, M. (1892) : Susswasser-Crus-
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Bemerkungen uber die Susswasser-
Fauna in Angemeinum. Zool. Ergebn.
einer Reise in Neiderl. Ost-Indien 2:
528-571.

Sex Ratio in some Indian Bats
BY

A. GOPALAKRISHNA AND A. MADHAVAN
Department of Zoology, Institute of Science, Nagpur

INTRODUCTION

The determination of accurate sex ratio in bats is rendered difficult
because most of the species live in sexually segregated colonies through-
out the year except during the season of copulation. Hence, records of
the sex ratio in these animals can be valid if sufficient number of speci-
mens are collected at random throughout the year from several colonies
at frequent intervals. The data so far available from the literature on the
subject indicates that there is an uneven sex ratio with the females out-
numbering the males in most species of bats (Wimsatt 1945 ; Gopala-
krishna 1947, 1955; Ramakrishna 1951 ; Pearson ef al. 1952; Abdulali
1949; Ramaswamy 1962; Brosset 1962 a, b, c; 1963). Taphozous
melanopogon and Hipposideros lankadiva (Abdulali 1949) appear to be
the only two exceptional species in which the males exceed the females.

This paper presents data pertaining to the sex ratio of the following
species of bats : Rousettus leschenaulti (Desmaret), Taphozous longimanus
(Hardwicke), Megaderma lyra lyra (Geoffroy), Hipposideros fulvus
fulvus (Gray), Hipposideros speoris (Schneider), Hipposideros ater ater
(Templeton), Pipistrellus ceylonicus chrysothrix (Wroughton), Pipis-
trellus mimus mimus (Wroughton) and Pipistrellus dormeri (Dobson).
The specimens belonging to all these species, except Taphozous longi-
manus, were collected from various places in Marathwada in Maha-
rashtra. The specimens of Taphozous longimanus were collected in and
around Nagpur in Vidarbha, Maharashtra. In all the cases collections
have been made for at least two consecutive years, and in some cases for
three or four years. In most species all the calendar months of the year
are represented by one or more collections. In those species having a
sharply defined breeding season many collections were made during the
breeding season when the males and the females live together.

Table | gives the monthwise collections of the specimens of all the
species studied here. Infants of the two sexes are included under separate
columns with respect to each species. This will not only give a clear
picture of the sex ratio at different ages of life of the animals, but will
indicate the months of the year when the young are carried by lactating
mothers. Details of the breeding habits and associated phenomena are
published elsewhere.

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SEX RATIO IN SOME INDIAN BATS Le

OBSERVATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

Since random collections have been made from different colonies.
in all the seasons for two or more years, and since the numbers of speci-
mens collected are reasonably large in most of the species, the con-
clusions drawn from the collection should be valid. A study of Table |
indicates that in all the species studied, there is a very wide disparity in
the numbers of the males and females, and in every case the females out-
number the males. If the number of males in each species is calculated
to a common denominator of one thousand females, then the number of
males per one thousand females in each species is as in Table 2.

TABLE 2

NUMBER OF MALES PER ONE THOUSAND FEMALES IN THE ADULT STAGE

No. of males per

Species 1000 females
Rousettus leschenaulti 4 ap ILs ¥# 788
Taphozous longimanus - a ite a re 343
Megaderma lyra lyra .. ge 5 ig b 577
Hipposideros fulvus fulvus a +3 \ bs. 467
Hf. speoris.. psf es a 2 314
H. ater ater ne Nae ine “ ag 386
Pipistrellus ceylonicus chrysothrix & f 2 390
P. mimus mimus az zs a ons a 505
P. dormeri he ns ste ie Ae. 349

Note :—The numbers are corrected to the nearest whole number.

Although in most cases the number of young recovered may not
warrant a definite conclusion regarding the sex ratio during infancy, it is
noteworthy that in the case of Rousettus leschenaulti and Pipistrellus
ceylonicus chrysothrix, where a large number of young of both the sexes
were collected, there is almost a balanced sex ratio during juvenile life.
Even in the other species, except Taphozous longimanus, the sex ratio of
the juveniles is reasonably even, and at any rate, the disparity in the adult
sex ratio is not reflected at the younger stage of life. This leads to the
conclusion that during the growth period there is a preferential mortality
of the males resulting in an abnormal adult sex ratio in these bats.

An interesting feature is that, except in the case of the three species of |
Pipistrellus, all other species studied had a single young in each litter,
and in most cases only once a year. Rousettus leschenaulti produces
two litters in the year (Gopalakrishna & Chaudhari, in press), and Tapho-
zous-longimanus breeds throughout the year in quick succession (Gopala-
krishna 1954, 1955).

It is interesting to compare the present findings with the data of
earlicr workers on the subject. Wimsatt (1945) working on some

174. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

American species of bats (Myotis lucifugus lucifugus, Pipistrellus sub-
flavus, Eptesicus fuscus and Lasionycteris noctivagans) indicated that in the
summer colonies the females were preponderant and in the hibernating
winter colonies there were more males. Since there were differences
in the proportions of the two sexes in different colonies, no definite con- —
clusion could be arrived at regarding the sex ratio in these species. An
abnormal sex ratio with females far outnumbering the males was shown
by one of us (1947) in Scotophilus wroughtoni, and by Ramakrishna
(1951) in the Indian vampire bats. Pearson et al. (1952) have shown that
whereas there is a balanced sex ratio among the juveniles of Corynorhinus
rafinesquei, the counts of adults gave conflicting results. Abdulali (1949)
recorded the sex ratio in 28 species of Indian bats, and showed that in all
the species except two (Taphozous melanopogon and Hipposideros lanka- —
diva) the females outnumbered the males. In the two exceptional species
there were more males than females. About European species of bats
Brosset (1963) stated, “ Recent researches have shown that the social life
of the European species covers a short part of the sexual cycle.’ After
copulation the males and females live separately. Consequently it is
not possible to determine the accurate sex ratio in these animals. He
further stated that in Miniopterus schreibersii in France the sex ratio is
equal at birth, but among the adults the females outnumber the males.
Brosset (1962 a, b, c and 1963) has noted an unbalanced sex ratio with
females more numerous than males in many Indian species of bats.

From the foregoing it is evident that in almost all the species of bats
the females outnumber the males. Perhaps even in the exceptional
cases, if collection of specimens are made all round the year, the females
may turn out to be more than the males. The fact that in most cases
there is an annual breeding cycle with a single young in the litter indi-
cates that bats have a low fecundity. Since, in most cases, where valid
data are available, there is a balanced sex ratio among the juveniles, the
uneven sex ratio in the adult stage can only be due to the preferential
mortality of the males during the growth period. This leads one to the
conclusion that the higher mortality of the males among the bats may be
an adaptation for effecting an economy to bring about an increase in the
potential reproductive population by reducing the number of males in the
adult population.

SUMMARY

1. The sex ratio in the following species of bats have been worked
out on the basis of frequent collection of specimens at random from
different colonies for at least two consecutive calendar years—Rousettus
jeschenaulti, Taphozous Tlongimanus, Megaderma lyra lyra, Hipposideros:

SEX RATIO IN SOME INDIAN BATS

175

fulvus fulvus, H. speoris, H. ater ater, Pipistrellus ceylonicus chrysothrix, P.

mimus mimus and P. dormeri.

2. In all the cases there is an unbalanced sex ratio in the adult with
females far outnumbering the males, whereas the sex ratio is even during

the juvenile life.

3. The present findings are compared with those of earlier workers.
4. Itis concluded that the uneven sex ratio in the adults is dueto the
preferential mortality of the males during the growth period.

REFERENCES

ABDULALI, H. (1949): Sex ratio in
Indian bats. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
48 ; 423-428.

BrosseT, A. (1962a) : The bats of cen-
tral and western India. Part [. ibid. 59:

1-57.

———-— (19625) : do. Part I.
ibid., 59 : 584-624.

————-—— (1962c) : do. Part III.
ibid. 59 : 707-746.

———-— (1963): do. Part IV.

‘bid. 60 : 338-355.

GOPALAKRISHNA, A. (1947): Studies
on the embryology of Microchiroptera—
Part I. Reproduction and _ breeding
seasons in the South Indian vespertilionid
bat, Scotophilus wroughtoni (Thomas).
Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 26 : 219-232.

———— (1954): Breeding habits of
the Indian sheath-tailed bat, Taphozous
Beans (Hardwicke). Curr. Sci. 23:
60-61.

———— (1955): Observations on
‘the breeding habits and ovarian cycle in
the Indian sheath-tailed bat, Taphozous
longimanus (Hardwicke). Proc. Nat.
Inst. Sci. India 21 : 29-41,

GOPALAKRISHNA, A. & CHAUDHARI,
P. N.: Studies on the reproduction in
Megachiroptera—Part I. Observations
on the breeding habits and associated
phenomena in_ the Indian fruit-bat
Rousettus leschenaulti (Desmaret). (in
press)

PEARSON, O. P., KororD, M. R. &
PEARSON, A. K. (1952): Reproduction
of the lump-nosed bat (Corynorhinus
rafinesquei) in California. Jour. Mammal.
33 : 273-320.

RAMAKRISHNA, P. A. (1951): Studies
on reproduction in bats. I. Some aspects
of reproduction in the Oriental vampires,
Lyroderma lyra lyra (Geoff.) and Mega-
derma spasma (Linn.). Jour. Mysore
Univ., B 11: 107-118.

RAMASWAMY, K. R. (1962): Studies
on the sex cycle of the Indian vampire
bat, Megaderma lyra lyra (Geoffroy).
Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 27 : 287-307.

Wimsatt, W. A. (1945): Notes on
breeding behaviour, pregnancy, and par-
turition in some vespertilionid bats of
the Eastern United States. Jour. Mam-
mal. 26 : 23-33.

Flora of Mothronwala Swamp Forest
(District: Dehra Dun, U. P., India)

BY

K. M. M. DAKSHINI
Department of Botany, University of Delhi, Delhi-7

The Mothronwala swamp forest lying at the foot of the Himalayas in
the Dehra Dun district, U.P., India, was selected for a detailed study of its
flora. During the study 367 species of flowering plants and ferns were
collected of which 356 are angiosperms and_11 ferns. These are listed.

INTRODUCTION

The ‘ Mothronwala Swamp Forest’ occupies a compact area between
30°15’ 40” and ‘30° 16” 45%N. ‘and 78° ft" and’ 78° 2! 1578. and ties
south-east of Dehra Dun ata distance of 15 km. near the military town-
ship of Clement Town. The forest lies at an altitude of 600m. above
sea-level and occupies an area of approximately 30 acres.

Kanjilal (1901)' drew attention to this swamp forest and mentioned
few plant species represented in the forest. A reference to the Mothron-
wala forest is found in the ‘ Flora of Upper Gangetic Plain’ by Duthie
(1903-22) and in the ‘ Flora of Chakrata, Dehra Dun, and Saharanpur
Divisions’ by Kanjilal (1956), whercin this locality has been named in
respect of certain plant species. Besides this, there is no systematic
account of the flora of this region.

Therefore, in order to obtain a complete collection of the flowering
plants and ferns found inthe forest, and also to understand the vegetational
composition of the forest this study was undertaken. |

Dakshini (1960a & b, and 1965) has given details of topography of
the forest, climate, soil, and vegetation and hence those details have not
been included here.

The vegetation is very dense and the cover remains as such almost
throughout the year, but still with the seasons the vegetational composi-
tion and denseness varies. The forest lies in the monsoon belt in the
Dun valley with an annual rainfall reaching 2500 mm., most of which is
received during the months July-September. The effect of rainfall is
clearly seen in the phenomenal increase in vegetation density during the

1 KANJILAL, V. (1901): Swamp forest in Dehra Dun, N. W. Province. Indian
For, 27 : 228-230,

FLORA OF MOTHRONWALA SWAMP FOREST 177

rainy season. There is a direct correlation between heavy rainfall and
abundance of vegetational components. The heavy rainfall of July is
followed by the dense cover of August. This relationship is particularly
' noticeable on the ridges and slopes which are more exposed to drought
and other adverse factors and are thus sparsely covered during the non-
rainy days.

METHODS

Collections of plant species were made at regular intervals throughout
the year. The data presented here are based on the collections over a
period of three years. These specimens have been carefully studied in
the field and in the laboratory and descriptions drawn and also habitat
(not reported here) and phenological features recorded for each species.
The plant species have been arranged according to their sequence in
FLORA OF BRITISH INDIA (Hooker, 1872-1897).

All the specimens collected during the present study are deposited in
the herbarium of Northern Circle, Botanical Survey of India, Dehra
Dun, U.P., India. Field numbers are indicated in the present commu-
nication within brackets after the name of each species.

In all 367 species belonging to 72 of families were collected and are
listed here.

SYSTEMATIC ENUMERATION OF FLOWERING
PLANTS AND FERNS

RANUNCULACEAE

Clematis gouriana Roxb. ex DC.
(8082 ; 8085)

Fiowers and _ fruits—September
to December.

Ranunculus sceleratus Linn. (3912)

Flowers and _ fruits—September
to February.
Associated with Mimulus strictus.

MENISPERMACEAE

Tinospora cordifolia Miers (8058)

New leaves—June/July ; Flowers
—March/April.

Cocculus laurifolius DC. (8097)

Flowers—April to June.

Cissampelos pareira Linn. (7247 ;
S515)

Flowers—February/March.

Decoctions from root and leaves
are used by local people to
check diarrhoea.

CRUCIFERAE

Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum
(Linn.) Hayek (3975)

Flowers and fruits—Late January
to April.

Vegetative portions are used by
local people for making curry.

Coronopus didymus (Linn.) Sm.
(5486)

Flowers and fruits—December to
March,

178 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

CAPPARIDACEAE

Capparis zeylanica Linn. (3957)
Flowers—April/May.

VIOLACEAE

Viola canescens Wall. (8015)
Flowers—February/ March.

BIXACEAE

Xylosma longifolium Clos. (3939 ;
5475)

Flowers—December to March;
Fruits—April to May.

POLYGALACEAE

Polygala_ crotalarioides Buch.-

Ham.iex DE G541)
Flowers—May/June.

DIPTEROCARPACEAE

Shorea robusta Gaertn. (3978)
Flowers—March/April.

MALVACEAE

Sida cordata (Burm. f.) Borss.
(3980)
Flowers—March to May.

S. acuta Burm. f. (7244)
Flowers and fruits—August/Sep-
tember.

Urena lobata Linn. (3919 ; 6249)

Flowers—August to October ;
Fruits—December to February.

Variation in size and shape of
leaf common,

Abelmoschus crinitus Wall. (7250)
Flowers—August to October.

A. moschatus tetraphyllus (Roxb.
ex Hornem.) var. pungens
(Roxb.) Hochr. (7280) |

Flowers—August/September ;
Fruits—December/January.

Thespesia lampas (Cav.) Dalz.

& Gibs. (7245)

Flowers—August/September ;
Fruits—November/December.

Kydia calycina Roxb. (6262)

Flowers—Late July to October.

BOMBACACEAE

_ Salmalia malabarica (DC.) Schott

& Endl. (12488)
Flowers—February/March.

STERCULIACEAE

Sterculia villosa Roxb. (8023)

Flowers—March/April ; Fruits—
June/July.

Helicteres isora Linn. (7227)

Flowers—June to August ; Fruits
—QOctober/November.

Melochia
(7300)

Flowers—August/September.

corchorifolia Linn,

TILIACEAE
Grewia disperma Rottl. ex Spreng.

(7268)

Flowers—June to
Fruits—November,

September ;

FLORA OF MOTHRONWALA SWAMP FOREST 179

G. polygama Roxb. (7252)
Flowers—August/September.

Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. -
(7277)

Flowers and fruits—August/Sep-
tember.

Corchorus capsularis Linn. (7241)

Flowers and fruits—August to
October.

LINACEAE

Reinwardtia indica Dum. (3949)
Flowers—Late February to June.

MALPIGHIACEAE
Hiptage benghalensis (Linn.) Kurz
(3943 ; 8025 ; 8049)
Flowers—April/May ;

May/June.

Fruits—

GERANIACFAE

Geranium ocellatum Jacq. (8028)
Flowers—March/April.

OXALIDACEAE

Oxalis corniculata Linn. (5521)

Flowers and fruits—July to
October.

RUTACEAE

Toddalia asiatica (Linn.) Lamk.
(3952)

Flowers—March/April ; Fruits—
April/May.

Acronychia pedunculata (Linn.)
Miq. (5500 ; 5592 ; 6265)

Flowers—August/September ;
Fruits—December,

Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.)
Corr. (6235)

Flowers—September/October and
March/April.

Murraya_ paniculata = (Linn.)
Jack (8038)

Flowers—March to May.

M. koenigii (Linn.) Spreng,
(3917)

Flowers—March to
Fruits—April to July.

May ;

Citrus medica Linn. (8021)

Flowers—January/February ;
Fruits—April to June.

BURSERACEAE

Garuga pinnata Roxb. (8051)
Flowers—April ;
July.

Fruits—June/

MELIACEAE

Toona ciliata Roem.
Flowers—March/April.

CELASTRACEAE

Celastrus paniculatus Willd. (8025)
Flowers—April/May.

RHAMNACEAE

Ventilago denticulata Willd. (5496)
Flowers—December/January.

Zizyphus nummularia (Burm.f.)
Wt. & Arn. (8800 ; 5593)

Flowers—July to September;
Fruits—November/December.

Rhamnus virgata Roxb. (3908)

Flowers—March to May;
Fruits—November to January.

180- JOURNAL; ‘BOMBAY (NATURAEAATST. SOCTELY AV or 67. (2)

Gouania leptostachya DC. (5498 ;
3054)

Flowers—July/August ;
Fruits—December/January.

AMPELIDACEAE

Vitis parvifolia Roxb. (8093)
Flowers—April/May.
Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.)

Planch. ($516 °~5577 : “77266 :
8053 ; 8080) 3

Fliowers—August/September ;
Fruits—October/November.

LEEACEAE

Leea alata Edgeworth (5564)
Flowers—August/September.

L. edgeworthii Santapau (5543)
Flowers—July/August.

SAPINDACEAE

Acer oblongum Wall. ex DC.
(8089)

New leaves—October to January.

SABIACEAE

Sabia paniculata Edgew. ex Hook.
f. & Thoms. (8007)

Flowers—January/February.
Leaves infected with
Cephaleuros sp.

ANACARDIACEAE

Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.)
Merrill (3962)

Flowers and furits—April/May.

LEGUMINOSAE

Crotalaria prostrata Rottl. ex
Willd. (6272)

Flowers—August/September ;
Fruits—October.

C. ferruginea R. Grah. ex
Benth. (6241)

Flowers—August ;
Fruits—September/October.

C. albida Heyne ex Roth.
(395075 7298)

Flowers—July/August ;
Fruits—September.

C. calycina Schrank (7253)
Flowers—August.

C. sessiliflora Linn. (8071)
Flowers—September/October.

C. sericea Retz. (6258 ; 7279)

Flowers — August/September ;
Fruits—October. :

C. medicaginea Lamk. (6224 ;
12350)

Flowers—August.

Medicago polymorpha Linn.
(8030)

Flowers and fruits—Late
February to April.

Indigofera glandulosa Willd.
(5588)

Flowers and _ fruits—August/
September.

I. atropurpurea Buch.-Ham. ex
Roxb. (3940)

Flowers and fruits—March/
April.

:

FLORA OF MOiHRONWALA SWAMP FOREST 181

Millettia auriculata Baker
(5523 ; 8060)

Flowers—May/June ;
Fruits—July to September.

Tephrosia candida DC. (5494)
Fruits—December.

Sesbania sesban (Linn.) Merrill
(6223)
Fruits—September.

Zornia gibbosa Span. (6270)

Flowers and fruits—September/
October.

Aeschynomene indica Linn.
(6239)

Flowers and fruits—August/
September.

Uraria picta Desv. (7231)

Flowers—July/August ;
Fruits—September.

U. neglecta Prain (7295A)
Flowers—August/September.

U. rufescens (DC.) Schindl.
(7295)

Flowers and Fruits—August/
September.

Alysicarpus
(6240)

Flowers—August/September.

vaginalis DC,

A. bupleurifolius DC. (7230;
7260)

Flowers and fruits—August/
September.

A. glumaceus ( Vahl.) (6275)
Flowers—September/October.

Desmodium triangulare var.
congestum (Prain) Santapau
(7296)

Flowers—August/September.

D. caudatum (Thunb.) (12487)

Flowers—July to September ;
Fruits—November.

D. triquetrum DC, (7248)

Flowers and fruits—August to
October.

D. laxiflorum DC. (7229 ; 5594)

Flowers—July/August ;
Fruits—October.

D. gangeticum DC. (3974;
8047)

Flowers and fruits—March to
June.

D. retusum (I. Don) Swert.
(7295B)

Flowers—August/September.

D. heterocarpon (Linn.) (8077)

Flowers and fruits—July to
October.

_D. triflorum DC. (6274 ; 5538)

Flowers—May/June ;
Fruits—October.

D. motorium (Houtt.) Merrill
(8797)
Fruits—October/November.
Abrus fruticulosus Wall. ex
Wight & Arn. (7281)
Flowers—August/September.

Lathyrus aphaca Linn. (3934)
Flowers—February/March.

182 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Mucuna prurita Hook. (8779)
Fruits—October/November.

Butea monosperma (Lamk.)

Taubert (8022)
Flowers—March/April.

B. parviflora Roxb. (8083)
Fruits—November/December.

Pueraria phaseoloides Benth.

(6222)
Flowers—August/September.

Phaseolus calcaratus Roxb. (6220)
Flowers—August/September.

Vigna capensis Walp. (7273;
8061)

Flowers—August/September.

Rhynchosia rothii Benth. ex Ait-
chison (6221)
Flowers—August/September.

Moghania bracteata (Roxb.) Li
(6218)

Flowers—August/September.

M. semialata (Roxb.) Mukerjee
(6215 ; 8079)

Flowers—August/September ;
Fruits—October.

M. postrata (Roxb. f.) Mukerjee

(6241)
Flowers—August/September.

Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. (3976)
Flowers—April.

Caesalpinia decapetala (Roth.)
Alston (3922)

Flowers—February/ March.

Cassia occidentalis Linn. (6256)
Flowers—September/October.

C. tora Linn. (7237)
Flowers—June/July.

C, absus Linn. (8062 ; 7251)
Flowers—June/July.

C. leschenaultiana DC. (5589)
Flowers—August/September.

Acacia farnesiana Willd. (3963)
Flowers—February/April.

A. pennata (Linn.) Willd. (8088)
Fruits—November/December.

Albizzia_stipulata Boiv. var.
smithiana Prain (8042)

Flowers—March/April.

ROSACEAE

Rubus niveus Thunb. (5503)
Flowers—May/June.

Potentilla
(3933)

Flowers—March/April.

indica (Andr.) Wolf

Pyrus pashia Buch.-Ham. ex D.
Don (3918)

Flowers—Late January to March ;
Fruits—August/September.
MYRTACEAE

Syzygium cerasoides (Roxb.)
Chatterjee et Kanjilal f. (8044)
Flowers—April/May.

MELASTOMACEAE

Sonerila tenera Royle (8064)
Flowers—September/October.

FLORA OF MOTHRONWALA SWAMP FOREST 183

LYTHRACEAE

Ammannia baccifera Linn. (3929)
Flowers—March/April.

Rotala rotundifolia Koehne (3941)
Flowers—March/April.

Note: Variation in the length

of stamens and style common-:.

R. mexicana Cham. & Schlect.
(6273)

Flowers—September/October.

Woodfordia fruticosa (Linn.) Kurz
(3986)

Fruits—May/June.

PASSIFLORACEAE

Passiflora foetida Linn. (5567)
Flowers—July/August.

CUCURBITACEAE

Momordica dioica Roxb. ex Willd.
(8058)

Flowers—June.

Cucumis melo Linn. var, agrestis
Naud. (7246)

Flowers—August/September.

Mukia maderaspatana (Linn.)
Roem. (7299)

Flowers-—September.

UMBELLIFERAE

Oenanthe javanica (Blume) DC.
(3988)

Flowers—May/June.

ARALIACEAE

Schefflera venulosa (Wt. & Arn.)
Harms (8017)

Flowers—February.

RUBIACEAE

Oldenlandia
(8011, 8090)

Flowers—January/February.

corymbosa = Linn. |

Randia brandisii Gamble (5522 ;
7267)

Flowers—April to June.

Knoxia corymbosa Willd. (7271)
Flowers—August/September.

Pavetta tomentosa Roxb. ex Rees
(5488)
Fruits—December.

Coffea bengalensis Roxb. (5495)
Fruits—December/January.

Borreria ocymoides DC, (7270)
Flowers—August/September.

B. articularis (Linn. f.) F.N.
Wils.
Flowers—August.

Rubia cordifolia Linn. (5491)
Flowers—August.

COMPOSITAE
Vernonia cinerea Less. (7239;
8066)

Flowers and.
October.

fruits—July to

Note: Trifid stigma is also com-
mon,

i184. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Adenostemma lavenia (Linn.) O.
Ktze. (6246)
Flowers—September/October.

A. viscosum Forst. var. elata
Hook. f. (8067)

Flowers—October.

Ageratum conyzoides Linn. (3903)
Flowers—Throughout the year.

Note: Trifid stigma is common.

Cyathocline purpurea (D. Don)
O. Ktze. (3987 ; 3959)
Flowers—March to June.

Conyza japonica Less. (5534)
Flowers—May to July.

C. viscidula Wall. ex DC. (3924,
3960, 8098)
Flowers—March to May.

Blumea lanceolaria (Roxb.) Druce
(3961)
Flowers—March/April.

Gnaphalium indicum Linn. (8094)
Flowers-——February/March.

Inula cappa DC. (6293)
Flowers—October/November.

Vicoa indica (Linn.) DC. (3993;
6259)
Flowers—September/October.

Xanthium strumarium Linn. (6243)
Flowers—June/July.

Siegesbeckia orientalis Linn.
(6279)

Flowers—October/November.

Eclipta prostrata (Linn.) Linn.
(3997 ; 5505)

Flowers—Throughout the year.

Blainvillea acmella (Linn. f.)
Philipson (7274)

Flowers—August/September.

Wedelia_ wallichii Less. (3998;
5585)

Flowers—August/September.

Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. &
Sherff. (7237)

Flowers—July to September.

Tridax procumbens Linn. (7228)

Flowers—July to September.

Artemisia parviflora Buch.-Ham.
ex Roxb. (7255)

Flowers—July to September.
A. nilagirica (Clarke)
(6234 ; 6248)

Flowers—September/October.
Echinops cornigerus DC. (7254)
Flowers—August/September.
Cirsium wallichii DC. (3964)
Flowers—March/April.

Pamp.

Tricholepis stictophylla Clarke
(5540, 8798)

Flowers—November.

Youngia japonica (Linn.) DC.
(3946)

Flowers—March to May.

Crepis acaulis (DC.) Hook.
ff (537) |

Flowers—June/July.

Sonchus brachyotus DC. (3948)
Flowers—March/April.

FLORA OF MOiHRONWALA SWAMP FOREST 185

PLUMBAGINACEAE

Plumbago zeylanica Linn. (3956)
Flowers—March/April.

PRIMULACEAE

Androsace umbellata (Lour.)
Merr. (3942 ; 8006)

Flowers—January to March.

Anagallis arvensis Linn. (8029)
Flowers—March/April.

MYRSINACEAE

Ardisia solanacea Roxb. (3906)
Flowers—April to June; Fruits
ripen—February/March.

EBENACEAE

Diospyros montana Roxb. (8034)
Fruits—March/April.

OLEACEAE

Jasminum multiflorum (Burm. f.)
Andr. (3905 ; 8013)

Flowers—January to April.

APOCYNACEAE

Carissa opaca Stapf. ex Hains
(3926)
Flowers—March to June.

Rauwolfia serpentina
Benth. ex Kurz (5573)
Flowers—August to early Sep-
tember.

Tabernaemontana _ divaricata
(Linn.) R. Br. ex Roem. &
Schult. (3923)

Flowers—March/April.
4

Vallaris solanacea (Roth.) O.
Ktze. (8027)
Flowers—November ;
Fruits—March/April.

Trachelospermum lucidum (D.
Don) K. Schum. (3953 ; 8073)

Flowers—March to May ;
Fruits—October/November. .

Ichnocarpus frutescens (Linn.) Ait.
(6263)
Flowers—October.

ASCLEPIADACEAE

Cryptolepis buchanani Roem. &
Schult. (8045)

Flowers—April/May.

BORAGINACEAE

Cordia dichotoma Forst. f. (3938 ;
8095)

Flowers — February/March;
Fruits—March/April.

Ehretia acuminata R. Br. (3939 ;
3967)

Flowers—March.

E. laevis Roxb. (8037)
Flowers—Late March/April.

Trichodesma indicum (Linn.)
Lehm. (3990)

Flowers—April to June.

Cynoglossum meeboldii Brand.
(7235)

Flowers—July to September.

Bothriospermum tenellum Fisch. &
Mey.
Flowers—March/April.

186 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

CONVOLVULACEAE

Rivea ornata Choisy (7294)
Flowers—August/September.

R. ornata Choisy var. griffithii
Clarke (5476)

Flowers—November.

Argyreia thomsoni
Craib. (6213)

Flowers—August/September.

(Clarke)

Ipomaea muricata (Linn.) Jacq.
(6250 ; 7278)

Flowers—August to October.

I. pes-tigridis Linn. (6264)
Flowers—August to October.

I. eriocarpa R. Br. (6216)
Flowers—August/September.

I. dichroa (Roem. & Schult.)
choisy (6216A)

Flowers—September/October.

SOLANACEAE

Solanum nigrum Linn. (3947)
Flowers—February to May.

S. torvum Sw. (5509)
Flowers—May/June.

S. indicum Linn. (5554)
Flowers—May to August.

Physalis minima Linn. var. indica
Lamk. (7236 ; 7297)

Flowers and Fruits—July to
September.

Cestrum nocturnum Linn. (5487)
Flowers—Different seasons.

(to be continued)

Notes on some Butterflies in the
Collection of the Bombay Natural
History Society

BY

N. T. NADKERNY
Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay

_ Among the nearly 2500 species, subspecies and races of butterflies in
the Indian region, the Society’s collection has about 1100 species, sub-
‘species and races constituting hardly 45 per cent of the total. A very
large number of the west Himalayan species and many of the plains
species are not fully represented. The Lycaenids, Hesperids and Satyrids
are poorly represented constituting about 38, 20 and 43 per cent res-
pectively of the known species. While examining the specimens in this
comparatively small collection it was found that some were collected
- from places which fall far beyond their distributional area as indicated
by Evans (1932), Talbot (1939 and 1942), and Wynter-Blyth (1957). In
the list below the habitat mentioned by these authors is given as distri-
bution and the total number of specimens present is given with their
locality of collection. It will be seen that quite a few which were
supposed to be only Himalayan or north Indian have been caught
in central and south India and vice versa. Specimens collected from
such places do not show any differences in characters from those collected

in the known habitat.

Family DANAIDAE

1. Danaus aglea aglea Cr. Glassy Tiger
15: 1 Bombay, August ; 3, Nilgiris, January, July, October ; 5 Goa, Sep-
tember-October ; 4 N. Kanara, January, July, September, October; 1
Cannanore ; 1 Ceylon, No date.

Distribution : Ceylon ; S. India up to Poona ; Himalayas from, Kachin
east to Assam ; Bengal ; Burma.
Best (1951) considers it as rare in Bombay and available only in August
especially at Powai. We collected one at the Malabar Hill, Bombay, in
September, 1959. |

188 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Family SATYRIDAE

2. Mbycalesis perseoides (M.) Burmese Bushbrown
4; 2 Manipur, Jan. ; 2 Pachmarhi, Oct.

Distribution: Burma, Pegu Yomas, Chindwin, where it is said to be
common.
»
A considerable westward extension of the known distribution.

3. Mycalesis rama (M.) Singalese Bushbrown
2: Both at Kallar, Nilgiris, Aug.

Distribution: Ceylon.
This species has not been recorded in India so far, as far as lam aware.

4. Mycalesis malsara M. Whiteline Bushbrown

11: 3 Palni Hills, July ; 3 Karwar, Jan., Apr., Aug. ; 5 Burma, Feb., Mar.,
Sept.

Distribution : Kumaon, Bengal, Sikkim, Assam ; Rangoon.

Species of Mycalesis are not known to migrate and the occurrence of
this Himalayan form in the western Ghats shows similarity in its distri-
bution to vertebrate species of Himalayan affinity occurring in the
Western Ghats. It is possible that this rare species breeds sparsely in
‘these places and is uncommon.

5. Orinoma damaris Gr. Tigerbrown
5: 2 Nilgiris, May ; 1 Sikkim, May ; 1 Assam, May ; 1 Burma, Oct.

Distribution: Kangra to Assam and Burma.
This species which was known from the Himalayas is now recorded
from the Nilgiris.

6. Erebia nirmala M. Common Argus
4: 2 Assam (Garsa and Nag Tibi), July ; 2 Nilgiris, July.

Distribution: Himalayas, Kumaon, Murree, Kangra, Kashmir, Chitral.

Reported only from the Western Himalayas. Itis now reported from

Assam in the east and Nilgiris in the south for the first time.
7. Erebia shallada Lang. Mountain Argus
3: 2 Assam (Nag Tibi), No date ; 1 Kulu, July.

Distribution: Chitral, Kashmir, Kumaon—N.W. Himalayas. Eastern
range is now extended to Assam.

BUTTERFLIES IN THE SOCIETY’S COLLECTION 189
Family NyMPHALIDAE

8. Diagora persimilis (Westw.) Siren
2: Both in Palampur (Punjab), July.

Distribution: Simla to Assam, Orissa, Sikkim to Shan _ States,
Palampur is far to the west of the recorded habitat.

9. Penthema lisarda (Doub.) Yellow Kaiser
1 Mansi (Burma), April.

Distribution: Sikkim to Assam and Chin Hills.
Mansi extends the eastward distribution.

10. Euthalia nais (Forst.) Baronet
13: 3 Khandesh, Dec.; 8 Nilgiris, June to Oct.; 1 Telligheri, Mar,; 1
Pachmarhi, no date.

Distribution : South India, Dehra Dun to Sikkim, Konkan, Saurashtra,
Madhya Pradesh and Ceylon.
Though not notedin or near Khandesh so far, it seems to be acommon
species all over India.

Family LYCAENIDAE

11. Everes argiades indica W.B. Tailed Cupid
5: 1 Palni Hills, July ; 1 Kangra, Sept. ; 2 Gund, May ; 1 Gunderbal, May.

Distribution : Chitral to Kumaon to Burma, Sikkim, and Bhutan.
Another instance of a Himalayan form occurring inthe Western Ghats.

12. Nacaduba ceylonica Fr.(—sinhalaOrm.). Pale Ceylon 6 Lineblue
11: 6 Karwar, June and Aug. ; 2 Kodaikanal, Oct.; 1 Darjeeling, Oct. ; 2
Manipur, May.

Distribution: Ceylon.

Cantlie (1962) has called this species N. sinhala Orm. as N. atrata
(the original name) is invalid and ceylonica Fruh. is a homonym because
of page priority of N. pactolus ceylonicus Fruh. as pointed out by Corbet.
(The underside of the various specimens is not uniform, some have pale
lines, some are deep and a few of medium depth. This is not attri-
butable to localities as this variation is found in examples collected even
from the same locality. These specimens may have to be re-examined.)

13. Nacaduba berenice plumbeomicans WM. & DeN. Rounded
_ 6 Lineblue
4; 4 Karwar, Mar., Aug., Oct,

1909 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Distribution : Assam, Andamans and Tayoy to S. Burma.

Nacaduba species love moist forests and the occurrence of the species
at Karwar possessing similar environment as the recorded habitat is
another instance of discontinuous distribution mentioned earlier.

14. Heliophorus tamu tamu Koll. Powdery Green Sapphire
5: 1 Dangs (Gujarat), July ; 3 Gund, May ; 1 Cheena, Apr.

Distribution: Kumaon to Naga Hills, Nepal, Sikkim.

Dangs is far south of the recorded range. It is very rare in the Dangs,
Only one specimen was obtained.

15. Amblypodia atrax Hew. Dark Brokenband Oakblue
2: 1 Ranikhet ; 1 Burma. No dates.

Distribution: Shan States, Burma.
The occurrence at Ranikhet is a considerable extension of the westward
range.

16. Spindasis abnormis M. Abnormal Silverline.
3: 1 Lonavla, Oct. ; 2 Coonoor, Mar.

Distribution : Coonoor, Coorg, S. India.

According to Evans, S. India includes Lonavla but the species has
not been recorded beyond Nilgiris and Coorg. Bean (1968) collected
them at Lonavla only recently.

17. Tajuria jehana M. Plains Blue Royal
‘ 9: 4 Poona, July, Sept. ; 1 Jabalpur, July ; 3 Nilgiris, June, Oct. ; 1 Karwar,
* Dec:
Distribution: S. India, Ceylon, Simla to Bengal. K. Cantlie (1962)
includes Bombay, Dehra Dun and Lucknow under this head. Jabalpur
therefore is almost in its distributional area.

18. Rapala scintilla DeN. Scarce Slate Flash
5: 1 Kallar, Nilgiris, Aug. ; 1 Calcutta, Nov. ; 1 Sikkim, no date ; 2 Manipur
Sept., Oct.

Distribution : Nepal, Sikkim to Assam and Burma.
This is another example of a Himalayan species occurring in the South.

Family PIERIDAE

19. Colotis vestalis (Butl.) White Arab |
11: 1N. Kanara, no date; 8 Karachi, June, Oct.; 1 Kutch, no date; 1
Unao, no date. ;

BUTTERFLIES IN THE SOCIETY’S COLLECTION 191 :

Distribution: Baluchistan to Saurashtra, Punjab, Rajputana, Uttar
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh. Talbot (1939) mentions Western India
but no locality south of Saurashtra is noted. N. Kanara may now be
taken as the southernmost point of the distribution of this species,

20. Colias croceus (Four.) (=alecto L.) Dark Clouded Yellow
24: 1 Dakuri (U.P.), no date; 3 Nilgiris, July, Aug.; 4 Assam, Apr.: 2
Sikkim, May ; 7 Chitral, Apr. to July ; 3 Murree, Apr.; 4 Kashmir, Apr.,
June.
Distribution: Baluchistan to N. Punjab, Kumaon, Sikkim, Assam,
N. Burma, Nepal and Bombay.

Bombay is mentioned by Talbot (1939) and is the only place south of
the Himalayas where this butterfly is found. Nilgiris now constitutes
the southernmost locality for this species.

21. Gonepteryx rhamni nepalensis Doub. Common Brimstone
13: 1 Nilgiris, July ; 4 Chitral, Sept. ; 8 Murree, Apr.

Distribution: N. Waziristan, Baluchistan, Himalayas, Hills of N.E.
India and Burma. 3
Another spzcies found in the Nilgiris hitherto supposed to be met
with only in the north. The males collected from Nilgiris and Murree
are fairly deep yellow as against the description given by Evans (1932)
and Wynter-Blyth (1957) as sulphur yellow.

Family HESPERIIDAE

22. Daimio bhagava M. Common Yellowbreast Flat
7: 5 Nilgiris, Jan., July, Nov. ; 2 Burma, Sept., Oct.

Distribution : Bombay to C.P., Sikkim to Burma, Andamans.
Wynter-Blyth (1946) mentions this as a very rare species at Kallar in
Nilgiris.
23. Hasora vitta Butl. Plain Banded Awl
8 : 2 Dharwar, no date ; 5 N. Kanara, Mar., Aug. ; 1 Manipur, Oct.

Distribution: Kanara, Sikkim to Burma, Orissa.
A slight extension from N. Kanara to Dharwar.

24. Ismene [Bibasis] gomata M. Pale Green Awlet
2 : Both in Burma, July, Oct.

Distribution : Kanara, Sikkim to Assam, S. India ; China ; Malaya etc,
So far it has not been reported from Burma,

(192 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

25. Thoressa (Halpe) honorei DeN. Madras Ace
5: 1 Belgaum, Oct. ; 4'N. Kanara, Jan., Feb., Sept.

Distribution: Nilgiris, Palnis, N. Kanara, Trichinopoly.
Some slight extension from N. Kanara to Belgaum.

26. Pelopidas sinensis M. Large Branded Swift
8: 2 Poona, Oct. ; 2 N. Kanara, Jan. ; 3 Kallar, Jan. ; 1 Loimwe, May.

Distribution: Kangra to Assam, Shan State, Bengal, Ceylon, Palnis,
Nilgiris, Coorg, N. Kanara.
Poona, though fairly near to Kanara is about 300 km. north of it
and the other places are farther still.

27. Notocrypta feisthamelii (Boisd.) Spotted Demon

10: 4 N. Kanara, Aug., Sept.; Oct., 1 Coorg, Oct., 2 Naga Hills, Aug.,
1 Maram, Oct., 1 Manipur, Apr., 1 Ranikhet, no date.

Distribution : Murree to Assam and Burma.

This butterfly loves thick jungles and breeds in grass, ginger, palms
and cardamom. Both Coorg and N. Kanara abound in such areas.

REMARKS

Lepidopterists from time to time have collected butterflies from
various places in India e.g. Bombay, Nilgiris, Palni Hills, Nepal etc. but
these collectors generally did not come across the species mentioned
above in the respective areas, except for Best (1951 and 1955) who collec-
ted most of the species mentioned and shown here as new to Bombay.

Most of the species mentioned are rare even in localities mentioned
as their habitat. It is remarkable that a number of species supposed to
be Himalayan in distribution occur in the Nilgiris, but have remained
unnoticed so far. Some species that are common in the Himalayan
region seem to be breeding in the Nilgiris though sparsely and in certain
pockets only, giving a discontinuous distribution, lending support to
the hypothesis propounded by Hora (1949), that the similarity of the
flora and fauna of Ceylon, the Western Ghats, the Satpuras etc., to that
of the Himalayas and Malaya point to their same origin and affinities.

It seems probable that some of the butterflies appear in certain loca-
lities occasionally and unless they are caught at that time remain com-
pletely undetected. Spindasis abnormis M., for instance, a rather rare
species breeding in Lonavla (Western Ghats) year after year in small
numbers and for brief periods is not met with generally in Khandala,
only a few kilometres away or even in other areas of Lonavla with the
same topography and climate and with the same food conditions. It is

BUTTERFLIES IN THE SOCIETY’S COLLECTION 193

possible, therefore, that most of the species mentioned above are very
rare and are not seen in spots commonly visited by collectors visiting for
short periods during holidays. Unless a sustained effort is -made,
throughout the year and for some years it may not be possible to have a
correct idea of the fauna of a particular area.

REFERENCES

Evans, W. H. (1932): Identification

BAILEY, F. M.
of Indian butterflies. Bombay nat. Hist.

Butterflies from Nepal.

(1951): Notes on
J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 50 : 281-298.

BEAN, A. -E. (1968): Occurrence of
_Spindasis abnormis M. on Western Ghats.
ibid. 65: 618-632.

Best, A. E. G- (1951): The Butter-
flies of Bombay and Salsette. ibid. 50:

331-339.

sr en(l 955)»:
Bombay and Salsette—Additions.
53 : 282-284.

CANTLIE, KEITH (1962): Lycaenidae
portion of Evans Identification of Indian
Butterflies. Revised. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc., Bombay.

Butterflies of
ibid.

Soc., Bombay.

Hora, S. i (1949) : Satpura Hypo-
thesis of the distribution of Malayan
Fauna and Flora to Peninsular India.
Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 15 : 307.

TALBOT, G. (1939, 1947): Fauna of
British India including Ceylon and
Burma. Butterflies. Vols.I and II. London.

WYNTER-BLYTH, M. A. (1957): But-
terflies of the Indian Region. Bom. nat.
Hist. Soc., Bombay.

———., (1946): Butterflies of the
Nilgiris. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
45: 47-61.

‘Studies on the Biology of some
Freshwater Fishes

Part IV. Mystus seenghala (Sykes)'
BY

V. S. BHATT

National Institute of Oceanography, B-7 Hauz Khas Enclave,
New Delhi-16 :

(With eight text-figures)

The length frequency distribution of Mystus seenghala does not show any
modes corresponding to year classes, excepting in one of the quarters (July-
Sept.) when an indication of 6 modes was obtained. Size at first maturity in
both sexes was about 50 cm. Seasonal changesin gonads were fairly regular and
peak ripeness was attained in April, followed by spawning in May and June.
Seasonal changes in gonad-weight confirmed spawning months as May and
June. Ova diameter frequency distribution from December to May showed
that there is a single batch of eggs in the ovary and each individual spawns
only once during the year. The ‘ K’ values did not show any relation with
the maturation of gonads and spawning. The condition factor seemed to be
governed by the feeding intensity of the fish. The main food of Mystus seen-
ghala consists of forage fish, fish-fry, fingerlings, crabs, shrimpsetc. The
intake of food varies from season to season. Maximum feeding occurs in
July after the spawning and minimum from April to June.

INTRODUCTION

Mystus seenghala, a well known food fish of India, mainly occurs in
rivers, their tributaries, irrigation channels and seldom in ponds. It has
been reported from all parts of India and also from Burma (Day 1878).
The fish attains a fairly large size, the largest specimens being well above
ametreinlength. The fishery of this species has already been described
by Saigal & Motwani (1961) who rank this fish as only next to ‘ Hilsa ’
in commercial importance in the Ganga River system. At Aligarh,
where the fish mostly comes from the River Jamuna, this species is not
as economically important as the major carps. Perhaps even among
the catfishes, it ranks only next to Wallagonia attu and Mystus aor in
abundance.

— a i a es

1 This work was carried out in the Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim Uni-
versity, Aligarh, U.P., incontinuation of the series I-III published earlier by Qayyum &
Qasim (1964) in this journal,

STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES 195

Earlier work on this fish includes comments on the life history, breed-
ing and feeding (Khan 1924 & 1934; Raj 1940; Chacko & Kuriyan 1948 ;
Saigal & Motwani 1961). This paper deals in detail with the various
aspects of its biology.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Samples were obtained from the Aligarh fish market towards the end
of every month, over a period of 16 months, from Sept. 1962 to Dec.
1963, and examined. All specimens were measured and weighed. The
gonads of each fish were dissected out, weighed and assigned a proper
stage of maturity. The entire gut from each fish was taken out and the
food items contained in it were listed.

LENGTH FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

The length frequency of the total number of 616 fishes has been
plotted in Fig. 1 ona quarterly basis, after pooling the values of various
duplicate months. It can be seen from the figure that the various modes
in the length frequency histograms are not well defined. This may be
because the samples do not give a true composition of the population
due to selective fishing or perhaps the rate of growth of the fish is less
than the range in the size of various age groups. However, the histo-
gram of the quarter, July-Sept. (Fig. 1) gives an indication of 6 modes,
probably corresponding to 6 years. The progression of these modes
cannot be easily followed’ in subsequent quarters.

BREEDING

Maturity stages :

The classification of gonads into five maturity stages [I, immature
virgins ; II, maturing virgins or recovered spents ; III, ripening ; IV, ripe’
and V, spent was made according to the scheme given earlier (see Qayyum
& Qasim 1964)]. The maturity stages were defined arbitrarily on the
basis of shape, colour, size and weight of the gonads. For correct
identification of the five maturity stages in each sex, a little practice was
found to be essential. Stages I and II in both sexes could easily be con-
fused unless examined carefully under a microscope. Stages III and IV
in females could also be confused, for in M. seenghala the ovaries do not
enlarge to such an extent as to occupy the entire body cavity as has been
found in other fishes (Qayyum & Qasim 1964). Here the ripe ovaries
hardly occupy about one-half of the body cavity. |

196 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

NUMBERS

80
TOTAL FREQUENCY
60 ?
40
20
=
20

APR, MAY & JUN

320

JAN, FEB & MAR

—
ie)

—-—

40
OCT, NOV & DEC
30
20
10

JUL, AUG & SEPT

5 25 50 75 100 125
LENGTH (CM )

Fic. 1. Length frequency distribution of M. seenghala. Each histogram is based
on the pooled samples of various months,

STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES 197

Size at first maturity :

The size of the fish in relation to various maturity stages is given in
Table 1. It can be seen from the table that all fishes up to 50 cm. be-
longed to stage I. No fish in this group was recorded beyond stage II.
In 45 cm., however, two males at stage V were found. This shows that
the maturity in males is attained when they are about 45 cm. in length.
In females all fishes below 50 cm. were at stage I and the higher stages
of maturity were seen only when they reached more than 50 cm. in length.
It, therefore, appears that males mature at a length smaller than the
females. When these length groups are compared with the length fre-
quency histograms, they correspond to the II mode (July-Sept. in Fig. 1)
indicating that both sexes mature in their second year of life. This is
in contrast to other fishes reported earlier (Qayyum & Qasim 1964)
which mature in the first year of life.

Sex-ratio :

In all, 614 fishes were sexed during the course of this investigation.
Of this number, 311 were males and 303 were females. It can, there-
fore, be concluded that the distribution of males and females in the
population is fairly equal and that they have a ratio of almost 1:1.
The maximum size recorded of the male was 91°5 cm. while that of the
female was 120°5 cm.

Sex-dimorphism :

Although all fishes were sexed after an internal examination, the
males could be distinguished externally from the females during the
breeding season by the presence of a small stout projection at the genital
_ opening which is lacking in females.

Cycle of maturation and depletion of gonads :

Fishes falling in various maturity stages have been shown in Fig. 2.
It would be seen from the figure that the immature virgins (stage I)
are found throughout the year. The occurrence of this stage through-
out the year indicates that M. seenghala does not spawn in its first year

p of life.

The second stage (maturing virgins) is seen in all the months except
in May when the fishes are generally in the next higher stages of maturity
(stages III & IV).

The ripening stage (stage III) often appears in females as early as
January and continues to increase till April (Fig. 2). However, after
April there is a sudden fall in stage III, for in May most of the fishes
become predominantly ripe. The appearance of ripening females as
early as in January suggests that the fish is likely to spawn much earlier
_ than the other cat-fishes where stage III has been reported much later

i198 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

(Qasim & Qayyum 1961). In males, however, the ripening stage is
only seen in March and generally not before. In May no ripening
males were seen while the females did occur in small numbers at stage ITI.

Ripe females first appeared in March and their maximum. percentage
was recorded in May (Fig. 2). In June also a small percentage of
females outwardly showed ripe ovaries but these did not appear to be

FEMALE

20

60
40
20

Oo A OO
Oo Oo O

PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL
ao @

8O

40
20-5

JF MUACM SS 9D ASS SOnNdD 3 FMEA. (My AS SOL NUD

Fic. 2. Percentage of M. seenghala at each of the five stages of maturity of different
months of the year. ee

STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES 199

truly ripe. In the latter case the gonad weight to body weight ratio was
much lower than in the former. Probably these egg-bound females are
either partially spent or perhaps belong to a category where the ova are
in a stage of reabsorption as described in carps and H. fossilis (Hora 1945;
Sundararaj 1959). The ripe males, on the other hand, showed a strange
distribution. In May their percentage suddenly became maximum,
In June no ripe males were seen, but in July a few males had ripe testes.
A small percentage of spent fishes (stage V) was observed during May
and June (Fig. 2).

Summing up the distribution of various maturity stages, it seems that
the stage I (immature virgins) is found throughout the year. The stage
IL is also seen throughout the year except in May and the ripening stage
(stage III) occurs from January-May. The ripe stage (stage IV) is seen
from March to May (as the ripe females found in June are egg-bound
fishes) and the spent (stage V) in May and June. It can, therefore, be
concluded that the spawning in Mystus seenghala starts in early May and
ends by early June. At Allahabad, Saigal & Motwani (1961) have
reported the occurrence of eggs of this fish in May while from Banares,
Satyanesan (1960) reported that the fish spawns in April. From
these findings it seems that the spawning in this fish is not synchronized
with the cycle of monsoon as has been reported in many other species
(Qasim & Qayyum 1961). The spawning season being confined to May
and June suggests that M. seenghala breeds during the hottest months of

the year.

Seasonal changes in gonad weight:

The gonads of both sexes were weighed and their weight was ex-
pressed as a percentage of body weight in each month. Since the gonad
weight in the immature fishes did not fluctuate much from season to
season, their weights were excluded from the analyses. The mean
gonad weight/body weight ratio of all fishes measuring 45 cm. and
above were plotted in Fig. 3. The values show that the peak weight in
females occurs in April and thereafter it shows a sudden fall. This
abrupt fall in gonad weight obviously indicates the onset of spawning.
It is interesting to note that the minimum gonad weight/body weight
ratio is obtained in August although the spawning is over by June. This
is because of the presence of egg-bound females in July and August which
do not spawn. The testes, on the other hand, reach peak weight in May
which falls more abruptly in June.

The weight of ovaries attaining highest values earlier than the testes
signifies an early maturity in females which is in contrast to the feature
reported in Blennius pholis (Qasim 1957), where males reach peak matu-
rity earlier than the females. In B. pholis early maturity happens because
of the males taking the initiative in spawning by early occupation of

200 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

nesting sites. In M. seenghala where males have also been reported to.

take part in parental care (Raj 1940; Saigal & Motwani 1961), the
initiative towards spawning seems to be taken by the females.

The above findings on the rise and fall of gonad weight confirm that
the spawning in this fish starts from early May and continues till about
June. This conclusion, however, does not seem to agree with the obser

FEMALE

1.0

nn

GONAD WI AS PERCENTAGE OF BODY WYT.

SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV
1962 1963

Fic. 3. Seasonal variation in gonad weight as percentage of body-weight of
M. seenghala.

vations of Satyanesan (1960) made at Banares where the spawning phase
in this fish lasted from March to May. Satyanesan (1960) drew this
conclusion by a study of seasonal histology of the pituitary and gonads.

STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES 201

“Spawning frequency :

For the study of periodicity in spawning, the ovaries were treated in
the same way as has been described earlier (Qayyum & Qasim 1964).
The percentage frequencies of oocytes from fishes depicting typical
conditions have been shown in Fig. 4 from December to May.

=’ oO
o- oO

FREQUENCY

PERCENTAGE

45 65 85 [65 125 +45 (65
DIAMETER OF OOCYTE (MM.,)

Fic. 4. Size frequency distribution of intra-ovarian eggs of M. seenghala from
December to May. Stippled areas show small, immature eggs which were not
measured.

2

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

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STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES 203

As can be seen from the figure the development of eggs starts in the
month of December. In January the batch of eggs, likely to be spawned,
becomes differentiated from the original stock of smaller and yolkless
cells. In February (Fig. 4, C) the oocytes become larger in size and
in March (Fig. 4, D) they attain almost maximum diameter. The maxi-
mum size of eggs as indicated in the figure refers to those fishes which
were altnost ripe. In April (Fig. 4, E) there was practically no increase
in the egg-size except that the eggs become more uniform and get
organized into a single batch. In late May when the fishes were spent
(Fig. 4, F) there were no eggs left in the ovaries.

The ova diameter frequency clearly shows that there is only one
batch of eggs produced every year and that each individual spawns
only once in the breeding season which commences in May.

Condition factor ‘
‘The ‘K’ values of both males and females were calculated from the

conventional formula,
W x 100

L3

The immature fish did not show much change in their K eaues
throughout the year and these were, therefore, omitted from the analysis.
The mean values which are based on mature fish only have been given in
Fig. 5. It can be seen from the figure that the values of K do not corres-
pond to the cycle of spawning. A comparison of the K values of both
sexes with the seasonal changes in gonad weight will reveal that the
maximum weight of gonads is found in March and April which corres-
ponds to almost minimum values of K. The three peaks in K values
occurred during October, February and July when the gonad weight was
considerably low. These findings leave little doubt that the K values in
this fish have no correlation with the maturation of gonads and that
there is hardly any indication of the onset of spawning from the seasonal
changes in the condition factor. This is in contrast to many opinions:
held in literature that the seasonal changes in the condition factor are
largely related to the spawning cycle (see Qayyum & Qasim 1964).

_ A ccomparison of the seasonal changes in the K values with the rate of
feeding (Fig. 8) will reveal that the rise and fall of the condition factor |
agree closely with the feeding rhythm. In February, April and May ~
when feeding is low, the K values are also low and similarly in July,
August and November. the high rate of feeding corresponds with high
values of condition factor.

Many earlier authors have found that a relationship of K with the
size of fish indicates the onset of maturity of the fish. In sucha relation-
ship the point of inflexion on the curve showing a diminution of K with

204 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol..67 (2)

increasing length gives an indication. of the length at which sexual maturity
is attained (Qayyum & Qasim 1964). Sarojini (1957) found it applicable
to Mugil parsia by using ‘K,,” values. In M. seenghala the K values -of

various length groups are given in Fig. 6. It can be seen from the figure |

that there is no indication of a secondary fall in the large size-groups.

.580

= 64
x i A
&

Le)

.500

Ss

J

NS
A60

=

wy

>

420

Fic. 5. Seasonal changes in the condition factor ‘K’ of both sexes of —
M. seenghala. Females (continuous line), males (broken line).

VALUE

MEAN ‘kK?

ro. 45 35" 35. 9 45 ° 55 65 78 85; 95 105 HS 125
LENGTH (CM) .

Fic. 6. Mean condition factor ‘ K’ of M, seenghala at different lengths of females.

(continuous line) and of males (broken line).

SEPT

STUDIES ON’ BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES 205

The general trend in the K values is of a fluctuating nature which gives
no clue whatsoever, to the onset :o&maturity.

Foop ‘AND, FEEDING HABITS

No account is ‘available on the food of this fish. The present investi-
gation covers a period of 16 months during which time 567 guts were
examined. The method of estimation was the same as used earlier
(Qayyum & Qasim 1964), — on

A serious difficulty was encountered during the alee of food of
M. seenghala because the fish when caught, generally everts its stomach
probably because of the jarring it receives from the fishermen. This was
more commonly found in larger fishes, ranging between 75 em. to 115 cm.
The eversion of stomach is not normally done by the fish itself unless it is
manhandled badly, for only the injured fishes had their stomachs everted.
From the analysis, therefore, all. Such fishes which had their stomachs
everted were excluded.

The food of M. seenghala is composed mainly of fish including fish-
fry, fingerlings and small forage fishes. Fish-fry and fingerlings were
mainly of carps. Often the fish-fry of cat-fishes were also seen in the
gut and on one occasion a fish (female) contained a fingerling of its
own kind. Despite the fact that the males are known to exhibit parental
care and they are always in close vicinity of the young ones, none of them
was found to contain any young fish of its own species. The percentage
occurrence of fingerlings and fish-fry is given in Table 2 along with the
other food items. It will be seen from the table that the fingerlings and
fish-fry occurred only from May to January. This period corresponds
with the breeding seasons of most of the freshwater fishes of Northern

India (Qasim & Qayyum 1961).

Forage-fishes in the gut show a regular ar somewhat steady occur-
rence. These included Barbus stigma, Chela sp., Amblypharyngodon sp.,
Rhynchobdella sp., Wallagonia attu and Ophicephalus sp. The presence
of big scales of large-sized carps shows that Mystus seenghala attacks
large-sized fishes and probably snaps up portions of their body.

— Crabs and shrimps are also found in the guts. Shrimps were generally
more common than the crabs.

Among the terrestrial insects, dragon-flies and may-flies were quite
common. The aquatic insects were represented by Notonecta and Nepa

_ sp. Dragon-flies and their nymphs often occurred abundantly. The
other items of food (Table 2) were of negligible importance as these
occurred in very small proportions.

According to Price. (1963) the food items composing the volume or
frequency of 10% or more-in the guts can be taken as significant

food items. If the various food items are judged on this basis, the main

206 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

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STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES 207

food item of M. seenghala will be fish and prawns. Figure 7 gives the
percentage occurrence of the main categories of food in various months
of the year. It will be seen from this figure that some food items have a
higher percentage (more than 10%) in some months and these, therefore,
could be termed as important items of diet. The occurrence of minor
- food items in the gut seems a matter of chance. The unidentified food
in the guts occurs commonly in the form of semi-digested food remains.
Jts regular occurrence with a high percentage (Table 2) indicates that
probably the food is digested fairly quickly after ingestion.

Seasonal variation in food :

The intake of food items is subjected to significant variation from
season to season. This variation, to a large extent, seems correlated
with the breeding season-of other fishes (Qasim & Qayyum 1961). Fish
fingerlings are generally abundant in rivers and ponds during the post-
monsoon months (post-breeding season of most of the fishes) and there-
fore, their appearance in the guts of Mystus seenghala corresponds with
their availability in the environment. A gradual decline of these food
items from the guts during subsequent months suggests a decreasing
effect of predation on them as probably they become too large to remain
susceptible to be seized by Mystus seenghala.

Sand and mud increase in the gut (Fig. 7) with the development of
‘ gonads. The sand wasfound to be more regular in males. It has
already been reported earlier that this. fish spawns in breeding pits and
that the males guard the larvae and nourish them on some sort of white
scum produced by their own bodies during the breeding season (Raj
1940 ; Saigal & Motwani 1961). Probably a greater occurrence of sand
and gravel in males (parents) signifies that while guarding the young ones,
the males (parents) feed mainly on debris and do not go about hunting
for fish and other organisms, leaving the larvae unguarded. Active
feeding in M. seenghala starts in July and continues till about November.
From then onwards there is a cessation of feeding. In brief, the phase of
active feeding lasts during monsoon and post-monsoon months. During
the winter months feeding goes on at a moderate level but during summer
months (April-June) the intake of food is much reduced (Fig. 8). The
same feature is reflected from the percentage of empty guts in each month
(Fig. 8).

Karekar & Bal (1958) have correlated the feeding intensity with the
maturity stages in Polynemus indicus. According to these authors feed-
ing slows down with the growing maturity stages, particularly in females
and when the fish reaches the final stages of maturity, feeding is con-
siderably reduced... It rises again after the spawning is over. Similar
features seem to be true in M. seenghala where feeding decreases with the

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

208

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STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES © 209

maturation of gonads. It becomes minimum in May and June when the
gonads are fully ripe and the parents are guarding the young fishes.

TOTAL WEIGHT OF FOOD AS PERCENTAGE OF BODY WF
PERCENTAGE OF FISH WITH EMPTY GUTS

fe ete me ee oe Oe Ee Re Sie dO Oe Fe

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1962. 1963

Fic. 8. Seasonal variation in the rate of feeding of M. seenghala. Total weight
of food of adolescent and older fishes as percentage of. body weight (continuous
line) and percentage of empty guts (broken line).

SPAWNING OF Mystus seenghala IN IMPOUNDED WATERS
AND AN INDIGENOUS METHOD OF FISHING

An interesting method of fishing was observed in Bahawalpur village
in Dist. Farrukhabad, U.P. This village is situated near the River Ganga
on the banks of a lake which gets connected with the river during the
monsoon months. This lake stretches a few miles in length but is only
30-40 metres broad. During the post-monsoon months it gets discon-
nected from the river and in summer months (April-June), the water of
the lake separates off into a number of ponds. Some of these ponds are
fairly deep and perennial in nature with a lot of fishes including Mystus
seenghala in them. Enquiries with the local fishermen showed that

a

210 “JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

M. seenghala makes pits in these ponds where it spawns. It is quite usual
for the local fishermen to catch this fish along with its brood (newly
hatched larvae). In such pits the fish is known to spawn freely, com-
mencing from April onwards. The spawning of M. seenghala in im-
pounded waters, much earlier than other cat-fishes (see Qasim & Qayyum
1961), seems rather surprising and obviously demands _ further
investigation.

Taking advantage of the breeding habits of this fish in pits, the fisher-
men of that village have designed an extraordinary method of fishing of
Mystus seenghala. As the fish is a bottom dweller, the fishermen gene-
rally disturb it at the bottom by using a thick rope with small stones
hung as sinkers all along its length. The rope is held by three persons,
two at either end, and the third at about the middle. Generally two or
three persons follow the man in the middle, maintaining a distance of
about 2-3 metres. The two persons holding the ends of the rope go to
the far ends of the pond and then begin to drag the rope forward. The

third man at the middle also moves in the same direction, keeping the

rope slightly above, so that the sinkers do not touch the bottom. The
fish when disturbed by the other sinkers, apparently rushes and tries to
escape at about the middle of the rope. Thus the escaping fishes are soon
trapped in country-made hand-nets called ‘ tapars’ by the persons follow-
ing the rope. The fishermen use this method exclusively for Mystus
seenghala and generally no other fish is caught by this method probably
because M. seenghala has a different behaviour and breeding habit. The
method is interesting not because it has an advantage over the conven-
tional drag-net, commonly used by fishermen in such remote areas, but
because cf the depressed condition of the village fishermen who are
too poor to own a regular drag-net, and an ingenious contrivance of
this nature perhaps makes an ideal substitute for the drag-net.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am extremely grateful to Dr. S. Z. Qasim for supervising this work
which formed a part of my Ph.D. thesis to the Aligarh Muslim
University, Aligarh, and for much help in the preparation of this paper.

STUDIES ON BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES 211

REFERENCES

CHACKO, P. I. & KuRIAN, G. K.
(1948): A survey of fisheries of the
Tungabhadra River. Proc. Indian Acad.
Sci. 28B (5): 166-176.

Day, F. (1878): The fishes of India.
Vols. I & II. William Dawson & Sons
Ltd., London.

Hora, S. L. (1945): Symposium on
the ‘ Factors influencing the spawning of
Indian carps’. Analysis of factors in-
fluenaing the spawning behaviour of
carps. Proc. nat. Inst. Sci. India 11:
303-318.

KAREKAR, P. S. & BAL, D. V. (1958) :
The food and feeding habits of Polynemus
indicus (Shaw). Indian J. Fish. 5 (1):
77-94.

KHAN, H. M. (1924) : Observations
on the breeding habits of some freshwater
fishes in Punjab. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 29: 958-962. 5

———— (1934): Habits and habitats
of food fishes of the Punjab. ibid. 37:
655-668. —

Price, W. J. (1963) : The study of the
Food Habits of some Lake Erie Fish.
Bulletin of the Ohio Biological Survey,
Ohio State University, Ohio 2 (1): 1-89.

Qasim, S. Z. (1957): The biology of
Blennius pholis L. (Teleostei). Proc. zool.
Soc. Lond. 128: 161-208.

——, & Qayyum, A. (1961) : Spawn-
ing frequencies and breeding seasons of
some freshwater fishes with special refer-

ence to those occurring in the plains of
northern India. Indian. J. Fish. 8 : 24-43.

Qayyum, A. & Qasim, S. Z. (1964) :
Studies on the biology of some freshwater
fishes. Parts I-III. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 61: 74-98 ; 330-347 ; 627-650.

RAJ, B. S. (1940) : The extraordinary
breeding habits of cat-fish, Aoria (Mac-
rones) aor (Ham.- Buch.) and A. (Mac-
rones) seenghala (Sykes). Proc. 27th
Indian Sci. Congr. (Madras) Part III,
Abst. 156.

SAIGAL, B. N. & MotTwant, M. P.
(1963) : Studies on the fishcry and
biology of commercial catfishes of the
Ganga River system, I. Early life-history,
bionomics and breeding of Mystus
(Osteobagrus) seenghala (Sykes). Indian
J. Fish. 8 (1) : 60-75.

SAROJINI, K. K. (1957): Biology and
fisheries of the grey mullets of Bengal.
I. Biology of Mugil parsia Ham. with
notes on its fishery in Bengal. Indian
J. Fish. 4: 160-207.

SATYANESAN, A. G. (1960) : Correla-
tive cyclical changes in the pituitary and
gonads of Mystus seenghala (Sykes) and
Barbus stigma (Cuv. & Val.). J. zool.
Soc., India 12: 175-190.

SUNDARARAJ, B. I. (1959) : A study of
correlation between the structure of the
pituitary gland of the Indian catfish
Heteropneustes and the seasonal changes
in the ovary. Act. anat. 37: 47-80.

Spider Fauna of India: Catalogue _
and seas nied

BY

B. K. TIKADER
Zoological Survey of India, 8, Lindsay Street, Calcutta-16

[Continued | Ase. Vol. 66 (3) : 499]

Family HETEROPODIDAE

Genus HETEROPODA Latreille 1804

124. Heteropoda fabrei Simon 1885. Bull. Soc. Zool. France 10 :
32). te, LO,

Distribution : India : Ramnad, Trichinopoly.

Type: BMNH.

125. Heteropoda hampsoni Pocock 1901. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
13 : 495. :
Distribution: India : Ootacamund.
Type: BMNH.

126. Heteropoda lentula Pocock 1901. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 13 :
496.
Distribution: India : Travancore, Tinnevelly.
Type: BMNH.

127. Heteropoda nilgirina Pocock 1901. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 13:
495.
Distribution :- India : Nilgiri Hills.
Type: BMNH.

128. Heteropoda phasma Simon 1897. Mem. Soc. Zool. France 10:
258.
Distribution: India: Himalayas, Kasauli, Jaunsar, Mundali. |

Type: MNHN.

129. Heteropoda prompta Cambridge 1885. Araneidea, Second
Yarkand Exp. p. 71.
Distribution: India: Himalayas, Murree, Jaunsar, Deota,
Konain,
Type: BMNH.

SPIDER FAUNA OF INDIA 213

130. Heteropoda robusta Louis 1924. Rec. Indian Mus, 26: 66,

fig. 2a.
Distribution: India : Siju cave, Garo Hills, Assam.
Type: ZSI. ,
131. Heteropoda sexpunctata Simon 1885. Bull. Soc. Zool. France 10:
14, fig. 11.
Distribution: India : Thana, Poona, Khandesh, Bellary.
Type: MNHN.

132. Heteropoda smythiesi Simon 1897. Mem. Soc. Zool. France 10:
259.
Distribution: India : Dehra Dun.
Type: MNHN.

133. Heteropoda venatoria (Linn.) 1766.
Aranea venatoria Linn. 1766. Syst. Nat. 12 : 1035.
Distribution: India; Ceylon ; Burma.
Pype-

Genus THEMEROPIS Koch 1875

134, Themeropis ajax (Pocock) 1901.
Thelcticopis ajax Pocock 1901. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 13 : 488.
Distribution: India : Ootacamund.
Type: BMNH.

135. Themeropis bicornutus (Pocock) 1901.
Thelcticopis bicornutus Pocock 1901. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 13 : 489.
Distribution: India : Naga Hills, Nagaland.
Type : BMNH.

136. Themeropis rufulus (Pocock) 1901.
Thelcticopis rufulus Pocock 1901. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 13 : 488.
Distribution: India: Nilgiri Hills.
Type: BMNH.
137. Themeropis virescens (Pocock) 1901.
Thelcticopis virescens Pocock 1901. ‘J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 13 : 488.
Distribution : India: Trivandrum, Kerala State.
Type: BMNH.

214. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)
Family LYCOSIDAE
Genus DENDROLYCOSA Doleschall 1859

138. Dendrolycosa stauntoni Pocock 1900. FAUNA BRIT. INDIA
Arachnida, p. 247.

Distribution : India : Bangalore, Mysore.
Type: BMNH.

Genus EUCAMPTOPUS Pocock 1900

139. Eucamptopus coronatus Pocock 1900. FAUNA BRIT. INDIA
Arachnida, p. 245.

Distribution : Tinnevelly, S. India.

Type: BMNH.

Genus EUPROSTHENOPS Pocock 1897

140. Euprosthenops ellioti (Cambridge) 1877.
Podophthalma ellioti Cambridge 1877. Proc. Zool. Soc. London : 567, fig. 6.
Distribution: India: Chingleput, S. India.
Type: BMNH.

Genus EVIPPA Simon

141. Evippa praelongipes (Cambridge) 1870.
Lycosa praelongipes Cambridge 1870. Proc. Zool. Soc. London : 822, fig. 6.
Distribution: Punjab, Assam. :
Type: BMNH.

142. Evippa rubiginosa Simon 1885. Bull. Soc. Zool. France 10: 11.
Distribution: India: Assam.
Type: MNHN.

Genus HIJPPASA Simon 1885

143. Hippasa agelenoides (Simon) 1884.
Pirata agelenoides Simon 1884. Ann. Mus. Genova 20: 334.
Distribution: India: Dehra Dun, U.P., Nilgiri Hills, Malabar ;
Burma.
Type: MNHN.

SPIDER FAUNA OF INDIA 215

144. Hippasa himalayensis Gravely 1924. Rec. Indian Mus. 26:

593, fig. la. 5
Distribution: India: Darjeeling, Sevok, Pashok, Kalimpong.
Typé: ZSI.

145. Hippasa holmerae Thorell 1895. spIDERS OF BURMA, p. 218.
Distribution: India: Kalimpong, Darjeeling ; Burma.
Type: BMNH.

146. Hippasa loundesi Gravely 1924. Rec. Indian Mus. 26: 594, fig. le.
Distribution: India : Shevaroy Hills.
Pype. sl, :

147. Hippasa_ lycosina Pocock 1900. FAUNA BRIT. INDIA Arachnida,
pm. 250;

Distribution: India : Poona, Nasik, Satara (Maharashtra).
Type: BMNH.

148. Hippasa madraspatana Gravely 1924. Rec. Indian Mus. 26: 595,
fig. 1j.
Distribution : India : Madras city.
Type: ZSI.

149. Hippasa nilgiriensis Gravely 1924. Rec. Indian Mus. 26: 593,
fig. Id.

Distribution: India: Nilgiri Hills.
Type or ZSK.

150. Hippasa pantherina Pocock 1899. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12:
2S :
Distribution: India: Trivandrum (Kerala), Madras, Orissa,
West Bengal, Maharashtra ; Sikkim ; Ceylon.
Type: BMNH.

151. Hippasa pisaurina Pocock 1900. FAUNA BRIT. INDIA Arachnida,
p. 250. |
Distribution : India : Bangalore (Mysore), Poona (Maharashtra),
Siripur, Saran (Bihar).
Type: BMNH.

216 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

159:

134.

154.

159.

156.
fig. 4b.

ibs.

158:

160.

Genus LYCOSA Latreille 1804

Lycosa annandalei Gravely 1924.

Distribution: India: Madras city, Ootacamund, Multan
(Punjab), Siripur, Manbhum (Bihar), Sibsagar (Assam),
Manipur, Salt Lake (Calcutta), Berhampur court, West Bengal.

Type: ZSI. .

Lycosa barnesi Gravely 1924. Rec. Indian Mus. 26: 599, fig. 3b.

Distribution : India : Dhoni Forest, South Malabar.

Type a ZS |

Lycosa birmanica (Simon) 1884.

Pardosa birmanica Simon 1884. Ann. Mag. Stor. Nat. Genova 20 : 333.

Distribution: India: Western Ghat, Orissa, Punjab, U.P.,
Bihar, Calcutta, Darjeeling (West Bengal) ; Burma.

Type: MNHN.

Lycosa bistriata Gravely 1924. Rec. Indian Mus. 26 : 600.

Distribution : India : Bangalore, Bandipur, Mysore, Madras city,
Birbhum district, West Bengal, Calcutta, Darjeeling.

Type: ZSI.
Lycosa carmichaeli Gravely 1924. Rec. Indian Mus. 26: 604,

Distribution: India: Darjeeling, Kathgodam, U.P., Assam ;
Bhutan frontier.
Type: ZSI.

Lycosa catula Simon 1885. Bull. Soc. Zool. France 10 : 457.
Distribution: India : Coimbatore, Shevaroy Hills.
Type: MNHN.

Lycosa chaperi Simon 1885. Bull. Soc. Zool. France 10: 8.

Distribution: India: Wagra-Karoor near Guntakal, Bellary
district.

Type: MNHN.

Lycosa fletcheri Gravely 1924. Rec. Indian Mus. 26 : 606, fig. 4f.

Distribution: India: Punjab, Simla; N.W.F. Province.

Type: ZSI.

Lycosa fuscana Pocock 1901. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 13: 485.

Distribution: Yndia: Poona, Maharashtra.
Type: BMNH. IAS

161.
484.

te2:
fig. 3g.

163.

164.

165.

166.

167.

168.
fig. 4h.

SPIDER FAUNA OF INDIA 217

Lycosa goliathus Pocock 1901. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 13:

Distribution : Undia : Satara district, Maharashtra.
Type: BMNH.

Lycosa himalayensis Gravely 1924. Rec. Indian Mus. 26: 603,

Distribution: India: Singla, Ghumti, Pashok, Soom, Kalim-
pong, Sonarpur, Assam.

Type: ZSI.

Lycosa indagatrix Walcknear 1837. Ins. Apt. 1: 339.

Distribution: India: Pondicherry, Bellary, Eastern Ghats,
Shevaroy Hills, Chingleput, Madras ; Ceylon.
Type > 2

Lycosa iranii Pocock 1901. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 13: 485.
Distribution: Yndia : Poona, Maharashtra.
Type: BMNH.

Lycosa kempi Gravely 1924. Rec. Indian Mus. 26: 602,
ane

Distribution: India: Darjeeling, Mangaldai, Assam; Bhutan.
Type: ZSI.-

Lycosa khudiensis Sinha 1950. Rec. Indian Mus. 48 : 22, fig. 1d.
Distribution: India : Manbhum, Bihar.
Type: ZSI.

Lycosa leucostigma Simon 1885. Bull. Soc. Zool. France 10: 10.

Distribution: India: Trivandrum, Madras city, Barkuda
Islands, Birbhum district, West Bengal, Calcutta, Siripur,
Bihar.

Type: MNHN.
Lycosa mackenziei Gravely 1924. Rec. Indian Mus. 26: 606,

Distribution: India: Bangalore, Mysore; Siripur, Bihar ;
Calcutta.

Type: ZSI.

6

218 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

169. Lycosa madani Pocock 1901. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 13 : 486.
Distribution: India: Cochin, Bangalore, Barkuda Islands,
Chilka lake, Eastern Ghats, Siripur, Bihar.
Type: BMNH. |

170. Lycosa masteri Pocock 1901. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 13: 484,
Distribution : India : Satara district, Maharashtra.
Type: BMNH.

171. Lycosa nigrotibialis Simon 1884. Ann. Mus. Genova 20: 330.
Distribution: India: Bangalore, Poona, Khandala, Bombay,
Katihar, Bihar, Birbhum district, West Bengal, Calcutta,
Darjeeling, Kalimpong, ree and Garo Hills, Assam,
Bhutan ; Burma.
Type: MNHN.

172. Lycosa phipsoni Pocock 1899. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12: 751.
Distribution: | India: Bombay, Satara, Kanara, Nasik,
Maharashtra.
Type: BMNH.

173. Lycosa pictula Pocock 1901. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 13 : 486.
Distribution: India: East Khandesh, Maharashtra.
Type: BMNH.

174. Lycosa prolifica Pocock 1901. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 13 : 485.
Distribution : (ndia : Poona, Maharashtra.
Type: BMNH.

175. Lycosa punctipes Gravely 1924. Rec. Indian Mus. 26 : 603, fig. 31.

Distribution: India: Bangalore, Lucknow, Mirzapur, Siripur,
Bihar, Calcutta, Berhampur, West Bengal.

Type: ZSI. | |

176. Lycosa quadrifer Gravely 1924. Rec. Indian Mus. 26 : 608, fig. 4k.
Distribution: India: Parambikulam, Kerala State; Ceylon.
Type: ZSI.

177. Lycosa stictopyga (Thorell) 1895
Tarentula stictopyga Thorell 1895. SPIDERS OF BURMA, p. 232.
Distribution: India: Calcutta, Darjeeling, Garo Hills, Kalim-
pong, Bangalore, Siripur, Bihar, Mawplong, Khasi Hills.
Type: BMNH.

SPIDER FAUNA OF INDIA 219

Lycosa sumatrana Thorell 1890. Ann. Mag. Stor. Nat. Genova

178.
10: 136. |
Distribution: India : Bangalore, Mysore, Ootacamund, Madras
city, Bombay, Siripur, Bihar, Birbhum district, West Bengal,
Calcutta, Darjeeling, Garo Hills, Assam ; Nepal and Bhutan.
Type: BMNH.
179. Lycosa sutherlandi Gravely 1924. Rec. Indian Mus. 26: 606,
fig. 4g. |
Distribution: India: Darjeeling, Pashok, Singla, Kalimpong.
Type: ZSI.
180. Lycosa tatensis Tikader 1964. Rec. Indian Mus. 59: 265, fig.
6a, b.
Distribution: India : Tate, Central Himalayas.
Type: ZSI. |
181. Lycosa wroughtoni Pocock 1899. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12:
751.
Distribution : India: Bulsar, Gujarat.
Type. BMNH. |
Genus OCYALE Audouin 1826
182. Ocyale atlanta Audouin 1826. SAV. DESCR. EGYPTE, ARACH. p. 150.
Distribution: India: Barkuda Island, Chilka Lake, Orissa,
Siripur, Saran, Bihar ; Ceylon.
Type: ?
Genus PARDOSA Koch 1847
183. Pardosa atropalpis Gravely 1924. Rec. Indian Mus. 26: 610,
fig. Sb.
Distribution: India: Bangalore, Mysore, Nilgiri Hills, Madras
city, Chilka Lake, Orissa.
bype. 3. Zl:
184. Pardosa leucopalpis Gravely 1924. Rec. Indian Mus. 26: 610,
fig. 5d. |

Distribution: India: Madras city, Barkuda Island, Chilka Lake,
Orissa; Cevlome oy) wt epee : negit
Type: ZSI.

220 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

185. Pardosa oakleyi Gravely 1924. Rec. Indian Mus. 26: 610, fig. 5c.
Distribution: India: Ootacamund, Nilgiri Hills, Siripur, Saran,
Bihar. |
Type: ZSI.

186. Pardosa pusiola (Thorell) 1891.
Lycosa pusiola Thorell 1891. K. Sven. Vet. Adad. Handl. 24: 65.
Distribution: India : Darjeeling ; Ceylon.
Type: BMNH.

Genus PERENETHIS Koch 1878

187. Perenethis indica (Simon) 1897.
Tetragonophthalma indica Simon 1897. Bull. Mus. Paris p. 295.
Distribution: India: Poona ; Karachi.
Type: MNHN.

Genus THALASSIUS Simon .1885
188. Thalassius phipsoni Cambridge 1898. Proc. Zool. Soc. London,
p. 3), digs.
Distribution : India : Mahim, Bombay, and Dorun.
Type: BMNH.

Genus VENONIA Thorell 1895
189. Venonia himalayaensis Gravely 1924. Rec. Indian Mus. 26:
608, fig. 41. 7
Distribution: India : Darjeeling.
Type: ZSI.

Family OECOBIIDAE
Genus OECOBIUS Lucas 1846

190. Oeccobius marathaus Tikader 1962. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.,
59 : 684, fig. 2a, b.

Distribution : India : Poona, Maharashtra.

Type: ZSI.

SPIDER FAUNA OF INDIA Zt

191. Odccobius putus Cambridge 1876. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 544,

pl58, figs 1. | |
Distribution: India: Calcutta, Poona, Madras; Lahore;
Egypt ; Tripoli; Yemen ; Tanganyika.
Type: BMNH.

Family OONOPIDAE
Genus ISCHNOTHYREUS Simon 1892

192. Ischnothyreus shillongensis Tikader 1968. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 65 : 257, figs. 1-5.
Distribution: India: Shillong, Assam.
Type: ZSI.

Genus TRIAERIS Simon 1891

193. Triaeris khashiensis Tikader 1966. Current Science 35: 520,

figs, 1-3.
Distribution: India: Shillong, Assam.

Type: ZSI.

(to be continued)

Some observations on distribution —
of Scoparia dulcis Linn. in India’
BY
-- J. D. SHAH

Post-Graduate Dept. of Botany, Bhagalpur University,
Bhagalpur (Bihar)

Scoparia dulcis L. a member of tribe Gratioleae and family Scro-
phulariaceae is an undershrub with small white flowers and little cap-
sules full of minute seeds. The plant is distributed throughout the
tropical regions of both the hemispheres. Pennel (1935) reports that it

is a widespread weed of lowland tropical America, occurring in waste —

places and cultivated ground, specially where sandy. It occurs through
the Florida peninsula to southern Georgia, and along the Gulf coast to
southern Louisiana. Pennel (1943) further observes that the genus
Scoparia has about 20 neotropical species, of which Scoparia dulcis is
adventive to the old world tropics ; it is one of the commonest tropical
weeds. ‘ Scoparia dulcis Linn. is the only species occurring in- our area
(India) ’ (Chatterjee & Bharadwaj 1955). It is a weed of cultivated and
waste lands.

According to Ridley (1930) S. dulcis was first described in 1753 by
Linnaeus from specimens collected in Jamaica and Curacao ; it is un-
doubtedly of South American and West Indian origin. Linnaeus did
not give the etymology of the name, but it is evidently from the Latin
Scopae, meaning broom, an allusion to the habit of the plant (Pennel
1935).

Ridley (1930) reports that ‘J. Rotheram, a pupil of Linnaeus, who
died in 1804, has writtenin his copy of Linnaeus “‘ Species Plantarum ”’,
a manuscript note to the effect that the plant was used in Guinea, West
Africa, as a drug for venereal diseases’. This shows that the plant had
arrived in Guinea much before 1804; ships connected with the slave
trade might have carried the plant from South America. Loureiro saw
this plant in Indo-China in 1773, perhaps brought by Jesuit missionaries
asa drug. The plant was found by Robert Brown in Australia in Shoal
Waterbay on the north-east coast in 1802. From Hong Kong the plant
was reported in 1853 and 1856, and was used by natives as a drug for

consumption. The earliest record of this plant from Malay Peninsula |

1 Experimental work was done at the Department of Botany, Banares Hindu
University, Varanasi,

DISTRIBUTION OF SCOPARIA DULCIS L. 223

is 1884. The Malayans call it ‘ TeMacao’ (Macao Tea), implying that
it came from China (Ridley 1930).

Ridley (1930) visualises two secondary centres of dispersal of this
plant. Scoparia dulcis first migrated from West Indies to Africa in the 18th
century ; then the Jesuits, either accidentally, or in cattle fodder or as
a drug, carried it from South America to the Philippines and from there
through cattle to Malay Archipelago and Malay Peninsula and to China.
The cause of its absence in India in the earlier part of the 19th century
may be due to the fact that there was no cattle trade from either Africa
or Malaya to this country.

S. dulcis was reported in India in 1845 by Voigt at Serampore (Fischer
1921), though Fischer (1932) himself in the list of the specimens at Kew
Herbarium observes that Thompson collected the plant in July, 1843,
at Moradabad in the United Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh).

Fischer (192la) remarked : ‘apparently this little plant has spread
from Serampore since 1845. It has extended throughout the peninsula
in suitable localities ; have met with it in Ganjam, Coimbatore and
Malabar. It is increasing in the localities occupied in abundance and it
may well become a pest. Itis an introduced species that has run wild
in the moist western deciduous forest only’. Fischer in 1925 reported
the plant on Lushai Hills.

Hooker (1885) observes: ‘though now a super-abundant Bengal
plant according to Mr. Clarke, it was unknown in Roxburgh’s time and
occurs in no Indian herbarium except Clarke’s. Voigt mentions it
(1845) as found about Serampore, whence probably it has spread quite
recently ’.

Blatter & Hallberg (1918) noted the great rapidity with which this
tropical American plant has spread over large areas of India. They also
mention that * Dalzell and Gibson in their BOMBAY FLORA (1861) do not
mention the plant’. In 1918 the plant was to be found all over Bombay
Island.

It is called a Bengal plant, perhaps because of its dispersal from
Bengal. Whatever may be the exact date and place of its first report,
it is certain that this plant had come to India by the middle of the
nineteenth century.

In the later part of the nineteenth and the early part of the twentieth
century the plant became abundant ; in less than fifty years the plant
spread to nearly all the provinces of India. Cooke (1903-1906) says that
‘this weed, a native of tropical America, is becoming naturalised in many
parts of India, notably in |Bengal.’ . Woodrow (1897) reports having
found it in a salt swamp near Bombay. Duthie (1903-1920) writes :
~‘ often met with as a-weed of cultivated ground, more specially in the
Sub-Himalayan tracts of Rohilkhand and North Oudh’.

Kirtikar & Basu (1918) do not mention the plant in their INDIAN

224 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

MEDICINAL PLANTS (1918 edition), but the 1935 edition says : ‘In India
it is used in infusion in ague. In Guiana every part of the plant is used
as anemetic. Asa gargle the plant is used as a cure for toothache. A
decoction of the root is given in blennorrhagia and in excessive menstru-
ation. The root is considered astringent, mucilaginous. The Antnanka
of Madagascar use an infusion of the leaves in stomach troubles. In
Guinea, it is considered diuretic and is a popular remedy for children.
On the Gold Coast, the twigs are pounded and mixed with Guinea grain
or hire (a white clay) and with water, the liquor being drunk to cure sore
throat.’ Nath & Banerjee (1948) extracted ‘ antimellitus principle ’ from
fresh Scoparia dulcis plants and have used with success the decoction of
the plant for the cure of diabetes.

It is interesting to observe that this plant came to India in the middle
of the nineteenth century, and within about fifty years has become a weed
throughout India. What special characteristics the plant possesses that
it has become so abundant ?

With a view to examine the potentialities of the plant with regard to
its reproductive capacity both sexual and vegetative the following
experiments were conducted.

Field observations:

Number of fruits per plant, number of seeds per capsule and weight
per seed were recorded from plants of Scoparia dulcis collected from
different localities in Varanasi. The data have been given in the Table.

TABLE
Number of .
Weight of each
Capsules per :
plant Seeds per capsule seed in mg.
418 aT 4:2
590 203 1°5
507 221 4°5
471 280 cS
339 200 5°0
370 230 32
Average 449 235 3:3

Seed output=449 x 235= 105515

100 seeds were put between moist filter papers on 12th February-
1964, and after 6 days 95 seeds had germinated. Thus the percentage
germination was 95%.

DISTRIBUTION OF SCOPARIA DULCIS L. 225

The reproductive capacity (Salisbury 1942) may be indicated as

Seed output x percentage germination.

100
Accordingly the reproductive capacity of Scoparia dulcis
= W023 <2 = 10023925 or 100239.

The seedlings were seen in nature in the month of July and August;
plants attain their normal size within two or three months. After flowering
and fruiting the capsules dehisce and the seeds are dispersed by wind.

In nature very small plants also bear fruits and these plants were
found to have sprouted from underground parts perennating under the
soil. The vegetative propagation of S. dulcis takes place by sprouting of
axillary buds ; one single piece of underground stem may give rise to one
or more aerial shoots.

The plant is equipped with very efficient method of dispersal and high
reproductive capacity. This sexual method of propagation is supple-
mented with perennation and regeneration of vegetative parts under the
soil which also gives rise to adult fruiting plants.

DISCUSSION

Salisbury (1942) has shown that Linaria vulgaris Mill., a member of
Scrophulariaceae possesses the capacity of reproduction by seeds and
regeneration by vegetative means. Heis of the opinion that though the
viability of the seeds is low, yet its local abundance is due to prolific means
of vegetative multiplication by adventitious shoots from the roots. The
latter fact has been confirmed in the same plant by Bakshi & Coupland
(1960). Shah (1966) has shown in the case of Bacopa monnieri that seeds
are not the effective means of reproduction but the regeneration of a
single node or a single leaf with an axillary bud has facilitated the plant
for migration from coastal sea shores to inland fresh water. Thus
Scoparia dulcis possesses both efficient migratory mechanism with high
viability of seeds supplemented by regeneration by vegetative means ;
these may be the causes of the widespread distribution of the plant in
India within a short period of time.

SUMMARY

Scoparia dulcis Linn., a member of the family Scrophulariaceae,
is distributed throughout the tropical regions of both the hemispheres.
A historical sketch of its distribution has been attempted. The plant
was first reported in the middle of the nineteenth century in India and

226 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

within fifty years it has become a common weed. The widespread distri-
bution and local abundance of S. dulcis can be explained by the efficient
migratory mechanism, high reproductive capacity and prolific method
of regeneration by vegetative means. |

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author acknowledges with grateful thanks the valuable guidance
and help of Prof. R. Mishra, F.N.1., Head of the Department of Botany,
Banares Hindu University, Varanasi. The facilities provided by Rev.
Father H. Santapau, Director, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta,
to see the herbarium sheets at the National Herbarium, Calcutta, is
acknowledged with thanks.

REFERENCES

BAKSHI, T. S. & COUPLAND, N. T. KIRTIKAR, K.R. & BAsu, B.D. (1918) :

(1960) : Vegetative propagation in Linaria
vulgaris. Canadian J. Bot. 38 : 243-249.

BLATTER, E. S. J. & HALLBERG, F.
(1918) : New Indian Scrophulariaceae and
some notes on the same order. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 25 : 426-427.

CHATTERJEE, D. & BHARADWAJ, R. C.
(1955): Revision of Scrophulariaceae
of the Upper Gangetic plain and adjoin-
ing areas. Excerpt from the Bulletin
of the Bot. Soc. Bengal 9 (2): 127-153.

CookE, T. The flora of the Presidency
of Bombay. Reprinted by Bot. Sur.
Ind., Calcutta. 1958. IT.

DuruHiE, J. F. Flora of Upper Gan-
getic Plain and adjacent Siwalik and
Sub-Himalayan tracts, Vols. I-III. Re-
printed by Bot. Sur. Ind., Calcutta.

FISCHER, C. E. C. (1921): Scoparia
dulcis Linn. J. Indian Botany 2: 57.

———— (1921): Flora of the Anai-
malais. Rec. Bot. Sur. India. 9(1): 127.

———— (1925): Flora of Lushai
Hills. ibid. 10 (2): 116.

———— (1932): Scoparia dulcis Linn.
J. Indian Bot. Soc. 11 : 348.

Harnes, H. H. (1921-1925) : Botany of
Bihar and Orissa. London.

Hooker, J. D. (1872-1897): The Flora
of British India, Ashford, Kent.

Indian Medicinal Plants, Allahabad. .

———— (1935): Indian Medicinal
Plants (2nd. Ed.), Allahabad.

NatTH, M.C. & BANERJEE, S.R. (1943) :
New antidiabetic principle (amellin)
occurring in nature. I. Biochemical pro-
perties. II. Effect on Glycosuria and
Hyperglycemia in cases of human dia-
betes. Ann. Biochem. Exp. Med. 3: 2.
62, 63-84.

PENNEL, F. W. (1935): The Scie:
phulariaceae of Eastern North temperate

America. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia
Monograph 1: 108.
(1943): The Scrophularia-

ceae of the Western Himalayas. ibid.
5: 1-1963.

RIpLey, H. N. (1930): The dispersal
of Plants throughout the World.

SHAH, J. D. (1966): Studies on the
growth and development of Bacopa
monnieri (L.) Penn.—a medicinal herb.
Thesis accepted for Ph.D. degree, Banares
Hindu University, Varanasi.

SALISBURY, E. J. (1942) : The Repro-
ductive Capacity of Plants. London.

Wooprow, G. M. (1897): Plants ofa
Bombay Swamp. J. Bombay. nat. Hist.
Soc. 11: 88-94.

The Tiger in India: An enquiry—
1968-69

J. C. DANIEL
Curator, Bombay Natural History Society

The status of the tiger in India is a cause for anxiety to conservatio-
nists. Though definite data are not available that the population has
gone down in numbers, the progressive deforestation of most of the tiger
habitats and available information of uncontrolled and unethical shooting
and other methods of killing justify this anxiety. No information is
available on the status of the species in the various states of the Union.
Estimates of the total population based on conjecture, for example the
estimate of 4000 tigers made by the late Mr. E. P. Gee, are undesirable
as they are likely to be interpreted as the actual position. The tiger has
adapted itself to live in all but the extreme life zones in the country and
the population in the various zones would vary according to the environ-
mental conditions ; knowledge of the situation in one or two life zones
cannot be used as a basis for estimating the position in other areas and
such statements on the tiger population become meaningless. _

A census is very necessary but beyond the capacity of a single indi-
vidual to undertake considering the vastness of the tiger habitat in the
country. However, it was felt, that information on the position of the
tiger in the various states could be immediately obtained through a
questionnaire circulated among the field staff of the Forest Departments
at the level of foresters, who.are the most likely to see tigers or their tracks.
The Chief Conservators of Forests of the various states were approached
and those of the States of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Mysore, Andhra
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Assam, Madras, and W. Bengal
very kindly agreed to circulate among their field staff, a questionnaire
seeking information on the tiger/tigers in their range or beat and whether
their information is based on sighting or tracks, whether resident or Visi-
tors, if visitor cause for migration, and information on when a tiger was
last seen and when a tiger was last shot in the area. Completed question-
naires covering either the whole or part of the States of Maharashtra,
Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Assam
were received and the data obtained are discussed below :

228 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Maharashtra

Out of the 26 Civil districts in Maharashtra completed questionnaires
were received from 12 districts only covering 18 forest divisions (Table 1).
Tigers probably occur in the Ghat areas of Kolhapur, Satara, and Poona
districts and in the 4 Vidarbha districts of Buldana, Amaravati, Nagpur,
and Yeotmal. How far the data obtained represent the true pcsition is
discussed in the concluding part of this note. Where it was once well
known the tiger has now become almost extinct or has disappeared.

TABLE |

POPULATION ESTIMATES OF TIGERS IN FOREST DIVISIONS OF -MAHARASHTRA

Number of
Civil District Forest Division tigers
reported

Ratnagiri Sawantwadi 5
Kolaba Kolaba 15
Thana Thana 6
Nasik East Nasik 1
West Nasik 13

Dhulia North Dhulia 4
West Dhulia 0

Jalgaon East Khandesh 4
Yawal 4

Aurangabad Aurangabad 0
Nanded Nanded i
Akola Akola 9
Wardha _ Wardha .9
Chandrapur East Chanda 32
Bhamragad 33

West Chanda TS

South Chanda 8

Bhandara Gondia 17
Total 267

Madhya Pradesh .

The information obtained is not complete coming from only 5 out of
43 Civil districts and covering six forest divisions (Table 2). This is
unfortunate as Madhya Pradesh still has some of the best tiger habitats in
the country and a report covering the whole state is essential for precise
estimates of the total population.

THE TIGER IN INDIA; AN ENQUIRY

lo
ho
Not

TABLE 2

POPULATION ESTIMATES OF TIGERS IN FOREST DIVISIONS IN MADHYA PRADESH

Number of
Civil District Forest Division tigers
reported
Betul West Betul 14
Raigarh Jashpur 9
Sehore West Bhopal 17
Mandla North Mandla 3
South Mandla Whew
Seoni South Seoni 18
Total 139

Rajasthan

The reports from five forest divisions of Rajasthan cover five out of
the 26 Civil districts and represent probably all the available tiger habitat
in the State (Table 3). The tigers of Rajasthan represent the western
limits of the population in the Gangetic Plain at the present time.

TABLE 3

POPULATION ESTIMATES OF TIGERS IN FOREST DIVISIONS IN RAJASTHAN

Number of
Civil District Forest Division tigers
reported

Ajmer Ajmer 0
Bharatpur Bharatpur 4
Jhalawar Jhalawar 3
Bundi Bundi 6
Tonk Sawaimadhopur 7,

totale 20

Uttar Pradesh

The reports received cover 16 out of the 54 Civil districts and 31
forest divisions and appear to represent almost all areas in the State
holding the tiger (Table 4). It is noteworthy that the tiger is restricted to
the districts bordering the Himalayas and districts in the south and east

230 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

bordering tiger habitats in Madhya Pradesh and Bihar. The districts

adjoining Nepal appear to have the largest population.

TABLE 4

POPULATION ESTIMATES OF TIGERS IN FOREST DIVISIONS IN UTTAR PRADESH

Fstge. Number of
Civil District Forest Division tigers
reported
Varanasi Varanasi 10
Jhansi Bundelkhand- 2
Banda 6
Lakhimpur Kheri North Kheri a2
South Kheri 39
Pilibhit Pilibhit 50
Gorakhpur Gorakhpur 15
Gonda North Gonda 74
South Gonda 0
Bahraich Bahraich 28
Garhwal Landsdowne 23
Kalagarh 18
Corbett Nat. Park 50
Bijnor Landsdowne if.
Bijnor Plantation 5)
Jaspur (W) 6
Pauri Garhwal Landsdowne 6
Kalagarh 4
Nainital Ramnagar 39
_ Tarai & Bhabar 16
Haldwani 20
Pilibhit 8
Rampur Rohilkhand 3
Dehradun Dehradun (East) 12
Dehradun (West) 10
Sahranpur Siwalik 13
Allahabad Allahabad 0
Mirzapur North Mirzapur 4
Varanasi 2
Dudhi 4
Son 2,
Total:..528

West Bengal
The three civil districts of North Bengal appear to hold the majority

of the tigers in West Bengal (Table 5). There are eps a few in the

Midnapur and 24-Parganas districts. -

THE TIGER IN INDIA: AN ENQUIRY 231
TABLE 5

POPULATION ESTIMATES OF TIGERS IN FOREST DIVISIONS IN WEST BENGAL

Ate Number of
Civil District. Forest Division Tigers
reported

Jalpaiguri Cooch Behar 17
Jalpaiguri 1

Darjeeling Kalimpong 12
Cooch Behar Cooch Behar 23
Total 53

Assam

The reports from the 18 forest divisions of 10 civil districts cover all
the major tiger habitats in the State (Table 6). Districts on the north
bank of the Brahmaputra appear to hold the majority of tigers.

TABLE 6

POPULATION ESTIMATES OF TIGERS IN FOREST DIVISIONS IN ASSAM

Number of
Civil District Forest Division Tigers
reported
Mizo Hills Mizo Hills iy!
Kamrup : Wild Life 6
South Kamrup 15
Sibsagar Kaziranga © 30
_ Sibsagar 170
Garo Hills Garo Hills 1
Darrang Darrang 158
North Kamrup 52
Goalpara North Kamrup 5
Goalpara West 0
Kachugaon 3
Goalpara East 5
Hathigaon 5
Cachar Cachar 1
United Khasi and United Khasi and

Jaintia’ Hills Jaintia’ Hills 5
Lakhimpur District Dibrugarh 19
Digboi 42
Nowgong Nowgong 15
Total 516

232 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Other States

Some isolated responses were received from other states. In
Himachal Pradesh, the Nahan Forest Division of Sirmur District reports
a tiger (Table 7). This is apparently the limit of the western distribution |
of the species in India.

The Secretary of the High Range Game Associations (Kerala) lists
4 tigers as occurring in the Kanan Devan Tea Concession area of the
Anaimalai Hills. A member of the Society in Adilabad District, Andhra -
Pradesh, feels that there are perhaps 12 tigers in the Nirmal Forest
Division of the district.

TABLE 7

POPULATION ESTIMATES OF TIGERS IN FOREST DIVISIONS IN OTHER STATES

Number of
States Civil District Forest Division - tigers
Aoi sry moteomieiGi: o-ohiet poate PHA reported
HIMACHAL PRADESH Sirmur Nahan : 3 1
KERALA Anaimalai 4
ANDHRA PRADESH Adilabad Nirmal 12
Totals: 417

TABLE 8

TOTAL POPULATION ON THE BASIS OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE

at

Maharashtra 267
Madhya Pradesh 139
Rajasthan 20
Uttar Pradesh 528
West Bengal 53
Assam 516

Himachal Pradesh, Kerala and Andhra
Pradesh 17
Total 1540

DISCUSSION

The main difficulty in assessing the data obtained through the question-
naire is that unless the person evaluating the information has personal
knowledge of the areas covered by the reports it is impossible to have an
accurate assessment. For instance, in a Forest having four beats one
tiger may be reported by each of the four beat officers and it would be

THE TIGER IN INDIA: AN ENQUIRY 233

impossible without personal knowledge to determine whether one or
more than one tigeris involved. However, the study of the reports shows
that in the majority of cases the officials concerned have reported con-
servatively and avoided exaggeration. It is difficult to accept the large
numbers reported from one area on the basis of tracks, as it is extremely
unlikely that the person reporting has the knowledge to separate tracks
with that amount of accuracy. I am also unable to accept the figures of
30 tigers for Kaziranga and 50 for Corbett National Park. Similarly,
-I view with considerable scepticism the estimate from the Western range
of Darrang Division, Assam, which reports 100 tigers, all non-resident
visitors ! The estimates for Darrang and Sibsagar districts require very
cautious interpretation. The majority of the replies received speak of
visits during particular months of the year and reports of resident tigers
are few. 2

This note was circulated in draft form among persons with experience
of conditions in various parts of Maharashtra State. Opinions expressed
suggest that it is very unlikely that 15 tigers occur in Kolaba District

and possibly leopards are meant. It was also suggested that resident
} tigers are unlikely in the districts of Thana, Kolaba, Nasik, Ahmednagar,
Poona, Satara and Kolhapur. According to Mr. G. V. Bedekar of the
Society’s Executive Committee a census on 1961-62 showed a total of
467 tigers in the State. It is quite likely that the data obtained from the
various states may need considerable revision when examined by
knowledgeable persons in those states.

In view of the difficulties in assessing the data the information
obtained can only be considered as giving a clue to the total population
of the tiger in India. The number of tigers in the States of Maharashtra,
Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Assam
totals 1523 in the areas covered by the completed questionnaires ; the
excess listed is perhaps countered by the animals existing in areas from
which information was not obtained. Tigers do not occur in Punjab,
Haryana and Kashmir and even if half the number for the six states for
which data are available, are added to the total to cover tigers in the States
of Gujarat, Mysore, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa,
N.E.F.A., Nagaland, and Manipur, the total still remains below 2500.
This is by no means a conservative figure.

The tiger should be considered a species in danger of extinction and
should be protected against both shooting and the poisoning of its kills
with zinc phosphide, endrin, folidol, and other insecticides, which along
with deforestation were given in the completed questionnaires as the
main reasons for their decline. The trend is for the population of tigers
in different parts of the country to become isolated. Shooting of tigers
is banned in some states but without a ban on the shooting of its food

7

234 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

spécies, the tiger will come into conflict with human interests and will be
exterminated. :

It is essential that serious efforts be made to obtain precise infor-
mation on the tiger. All forest officials of the cadre of foresters and
rangers in the tiger habitat should be asked to maintain a diary of sight-
ing records in their area and the information so-obtained should be
evaluated every three months by a senior official of the State Forest
Department and independently by a very senior forest official of the all
India cadre who should be enabled to visit all tiger habitats in the country
to evaluate reports and form his own estimates.

The Thalassinoidea (Crustacea,
Anomura) of Maharashtra

BY

K. N. SANKOLLI,?
Marine Biological Research Station, Ratnagiri

(With four text-figures)

Though Thalassinoidea to which mud-lobsters or ghost-shrimps
belong, has been accepted as a distinct superfamily of Decapod crustacea,
there have been contradictory opinions regarding its taxonomic status.
Alcock & Anderson (1894), de Man (1925 and 1928) and Holthuis
(1956) have included it in Macrura, while Borradaile (1907), Calman
(1909), Balss (1927 and 1957) and Barnard (1950) are of the opinion that
it belongs to Anomura. Gurney (1938) working on the larvae of Thalas-
sinoidea and Nephropsidea, suggests separation of Thalassinoidea into
two groups, a Homarine and an Anomuran. In the present study,
however, the changes effected by Calman (op. cit) have been followed in
the inclusion of Thalassinoidea in Anomura.

In India, studies on Thalassinoidea have been mainly maeeeten
with reference to the deep sea forms (Miers 1884; Henderson 1893 ;
de Man 1887-88; Alcock & Anderson 1894; Anderson 1896 ; Alcock
1901 ; Borradaile 1907 and Kemp 1915). Comparatively much less work
has been done on the coastal forms : on the east coast, Southwell (1906)
deals with Thalassinids from Ceylon ; Gravely (1927) while working on
the fauna of Krusadai Island, deals with 1 species of Callianassidae
which he refers to subgenus Calliadne (=Gebiopsis) ; Chopra (1933)
discusses the taxonomic position of Entrichocheles modestus in the family
Axiidae. On the west coast, Pillai (1954) deals with Callianassa maxima
in brief and Sankolli (1963) deals with the occurrence and natural history
aspect of Thalassina anomala. Thus practically no work has been done
on the intertidal forms along the west coast and more especially along
the Maharashtra coast.

In Maharashtra, the superfamily Thalassinoidea is represented by 4
species belonging to 3 families, collected from intertidal areas. Of these
one species, Laomedia astacina de Haan is a new record to India and two

1 Present Address :—-Marine Zoology & Fisheries Div., Dept. of Zoology, Kar-
natak University, Dharwar-3, Mysore State.

236 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

species, Callianassa (Callichirus) kewalramanii and Upogebia (Upogebia)
kempi are new to science.

SS — 2 ne ly ee eee PY Datla Site a Ne

Identification of the present material is mainly Me on de Man

(1888, 1927, 1928a & b).

KEY TO THE FAMILIES OF THALASSINOIDEA

I. No linea thalassinica; both movable and fixed antennal thorns present
though sometimes minute ; abdominal pleura large.............. Axiidae

II. Linea thalassinica present (except in Callianidea) ; fixed antennal thorn want-
ing, scale (movable thorn) reduced to a flattened vestige or wanting ; abdo-
minal pleura usually small.

1. Sutures on both the rami of uropods ; abdominal pleura of good size..
ge 8 we eli p's Entice MSs Seek Oar Ce Uti, aoe a cr a ks Se a Laomediidae

2. No:sutures on uropods ; abdominal pleura small.

(a) Second leg chelate or simple ; no podobranchs on legs; third to
sixth abdominal Meo broad ; antennal scale present as a
vestige.”. Gur ae ee epi aise Callianassidae

(b) Second leg sub-chelate ; podobranchs on first to third legs; all
abdominal appendages narrow ; no vestige of antennal scale..
Fd oval d fy RIROE Lal ee GAR ale atch es EES Ge eee Thalassinidae

Family LAOMEDIIDAE

Remarks: This family contains 2 genera and in Maharashtra, it is
represented by a single genus Laomedia.

Genus Laomedia de Haan

1. Laomedia astacina de Haan (Figs. 1-2).

Laomedia astacina, de Haan, 1849, p. 165; Ortmann, 1892, p. 51; Borradaile,
1903, p. 540 ; Kamita, 1957, pp. 105-106 ; Sakai, 1962, pp. 27-34.

Carapace (Fig. 1, a): Rostrum fairly long reaching nearly to the
middle of the penultimate joint of the antennal peduncle ; provided
with 3 minute teeth on either lateral margin near the tip. Length
more or less equal to breadth at base. Antennal angles fairly well-
developed. No tubercles or hairs on carapace except for short hairs
on the antennal and maxillary margins. Cervical groove distinct,

dividing the carapace into two equal parts, the anterior and the

posterior.

Linea thalassinica is rather well-developed. The eyes reach slightly

more than 3 the length of the rostrum.

tdi sieve

THALASSINOIDEA OF MAHARASHTRA ae

tt see
ar

Fig. 1. Laomedia astacina de Haan. a—anterior part of animal (legs etc. not shown),
b—antenna, c—mandible, d—first maxilla, e—second maxilla, f—first maxilliped,
-&—second maxilliped.

238 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Antennule (Fig. 1, a): The basal segment falls short of reaching the
rostrum. The penultimate joint is almost half the length of the ultimate
joint.

Antenna (Fig. 1,b): The antenna consists of 5 segments and a flagel-
lum. The peduncle extends slightly beyond the antennular peduncle,
whereas in the Japanese specimens, it extends well beyond the antennular
peduncle as figured by Sakai (1962). The coxopodite shows the opening
of the antennal gland. The 2nd segment is divided into two parts and
these two parts are clearly seen in the outer-lateral view of the peduncle.
The inner part distally bears the scale which is triangularly oval and the
outer part bears the antennal thorn which is not that well-developed as

the scale or scaphocerite. The 3rd segment which is hardly seen in the

dorsal view, is situated latero-ventrally. The 4th segment is slightly
longer than the last segment. The antennal peduncle is stouter than the
antennular peduncle.

Mandible (Fig. 1,c): The cutting edge of the ventral plate is provided
with 9 unequal teeth and that of dorsal has 3 teeth. The palpis 3-jointed.

First maxilla (Fig. 1, d): The lower endite is broad and more or less
rounded, the upper endite is almost as broad as the lower and the palp is
well-developed with its tip deflexed.

Second maxilla (Fig. 1, e): Both its endites are bilobed, the
upper lobe of the lower endite being verysmall. The palpis long, narrow
and does not reach the inner margin of the upper lobe of the upper endite.
The scaphognathite is large with a convexity near the distal half on the
outer margin. The posterior end bears about 11 very large setae which
are minutely spinulose distally except at the tip portion where it is naked.
There are several bent hook-like projections present on the inner margin
and. a few such projections are also present on the anterior portion of the
inner margin.

First maxilliped (Fig. 1, f): The endites are separated by a distinct
notch, the palp is well-developed and has a broad, roughly triangular
lobe at its distal end. The exopod is well-developed and has a flagellum
whichis almost as long as the non-flagellated portion and is sub-divided

into several joints.

Second maxilliped (Fig. 1, g): It is normal in shape, with. well-

developed endopod and exopod. A small, elongated epipod and a single _ |

podobranch are present.

Third maxilliped: The dactylus is longer than the propodus and the
propodus in turn is slightly longer than the carpus. The merus is longer

THALASSINOIDEA OF MAHARASHTRA 209

than the dactylus and the ischium is longer than the merus and is provided
with about 12 teeth onits inner margin. The exopod almost reaches the
middle of the merus and is segmented in the distal part.

Pereiopods: The first pair of legs is equalin size and shape and much
stouter than the second pair.

Cheliped (Fig. 2,a): The ischium is short (as long as the fixed finger)
and bears about 18 or more minute and fine teeth almost all along the
posterior margin. The merus is shorter than the propodus and its
anterior marginis plain. The posterior margin is provided almost along
the proximal half with several minute and fine teeth of which the proximal]
ones are more prominent than the remaining ones. The carpus is about
~ 4 the length of the merus and its inner upper surface is armed in its distal
half with small rounded tubercles, of which the distal ones are more
prominent. The propodus is longer than broad and is about 1.3 times
the length of the merus. The fixed finger is almost as long the ischium
and its cutting edge is provided with several minute teeth of which the
proximal 3rd to 7th are larger. The dactylus is more than 4 the length
of the propodus and its upper surface is traversed by a thin, longitudinal
ridge, which begins near its articulation with propodus, runs a short
distance obliquely outwards and then joins the anterior margin. The
cutting edge is armed with 2 blunt, tooth-like processes at the proximal
portion and then onwards there are several minute teeth more or less
uniformly arranged. In the Japanese specimens (Sakai 1962), none of
the segments bear tubercles or spines.

Fingers cross each other.

Second leg (Fig. 2, b): It is simple, non-chelate. The dactylus is
narrow and less than 4 the length of the merus. The propodus measures
about 14 the length of the dactylus and the carpus is nearly 4the length
ofthe merus. None of the segments bear any spine or tubercle.

Third leg (Fig. 2,c): The dactylus is slender, though slightly broad
near the base. Miunute, elongated tooth-like spines are arranged com-
pactly along its posterior margin on the dorsal surface. The propodus is
broader than the dactylus and is about twice the length of the latter.
The carpus is nearly 2 the length of the propodus and the merus is
nearly as long as the dactylus and propodus combined.

Fourth leg (Fig.2,d): Itis very similar to the third leg. The dacty-
‘lus is twice the length of the propodus and the carpus is slightly more
than $ the length of the propodus. The merus is nearly 3 times the length
of the dactylus, |

240 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Fifth leg: The dactylus is absent. The propodus is nearly as |
long as the merus and the carpus is almost 3 the length of the merus. a

e f \

Fig. 2. Laomedia astacina de Haan, a—first leg, b—second leg, c—third leg,
d—fourth leg, e—first pleopod, (telson with uropods.

Abdomen: It is normal in shape and is about 14 times the length of
the carapace. The pleura are well-developed. The first segment is the
smallest, the 6th is more than 11 times the Ist, and the 2nd to the 6th
are more or less equal in size, but the Ist and the 6th are slightly narrower,

ee Tn

THALASSiINOIDEA OF MAHARASHTRA | 241

Pleopods (Fig. 2,e): The Ist abdominal segment does not bear
pleopod and there are 4 pairs of pleopods present on the 2nd to Sth
segments. Each pleopod consists of a long and stout basal stalk and
sabre-like, membranous endopod and exopod. The endopod and exo-
pod are more or less of the same size and shape and are slightly larger
than the basal stalk.

Uropods and Telson (Fig. 2, f): The protopod of the uropod bears
3-4 microscopic blunt teeth on its posterior margin facing the endopod.
The exopod and endopod are quite similar in shape—roughly oval,

though endopod is slightly smaller than the exopod. The anterior
- margin of either ramus is convex and terminates distally in a distinct

notch from where the convex distal margin begins. From this lateral
notch starts a very thin, wavy horizontal ridge which bears several minute
but prominent teeth and extends almost beyond the ? area of the ramus.
The exopod bears on the lateral notch 3 minute teeth of which the one

near the junction of the distal and anterior margins is larger than the

remaining two. There are 14-16 such teeth on the horizontal ridge of the
exopod. Inthe endopod there are two minute teeth on the lateral notch
and about 10 teeth on the horizontal ridge. No mid-longitudinal suture
was observed.

Telson (Fig. 2,f): Itis longer than broad with its lateral and posterior

_ margins convex, the posterior margin being more convex than the lateral.

There is on either side a shallow notch at the junction of the posterior and
lateral margins. There are no teeth, tubercles, spines or carinae on the

telson.

MATERIAL
A single specimen (male) was collected at the edge of Karla creek
(Ratnagiri) while digging for Thalassina anomala (Herbst).

ines
Length of carapace=8'00 mm. , a
Length of abdomen=13°5 mm. Total length=21.5 mm.

Variation :

The Japanese specimens as described by Sakai (1962) differ from the
single Ratnagiri specimen in the following :
— Rostrum has 5 lateral teeth ; all the joints of the chelipeds are smocth
with no tubercles or teeth ; in the abdomen, the 6th segment is more than
3 times the Ist segment, the 2nd and 3rd are larger than the 6th, and the
4th and 5th are more or less of the same size ; no lateral notch on the rami
of the uropods, protopodite without tubercles, a mid-longitudinal suture
on the rami ; no lateral notch on the telson.

242 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

DISTRIBUTION : Tokyo Bay; Rukuoka, Amakusa; Kagoshima; —
Iriomote-jima, Ryukyu ; Schuan, Korea.
This species is recorded for the first time from India.

Family THALASSINIDAE Dana

The family is monotypic.

Genus Thalassina Latreille

2. Thalassina anomala (Herbst) (Figs. 3-4).

Cancer (Astacus) anomalus Herbst, 1804, p. 45 ; Thalassina anomala de Man,
1915, p. 445 ; 1928 b, p. 5; Sankolli 1963, p. 600.

Carapace: As observed by de Man (1928 b), there are considerable
variations in the armature of the carapace, chelipeds and the anterior
margin of the sterna of the second to fifth abdominal segments of
T. anomala. He has given fairly substantial account of these variations —
in the 22 specimens of the species, examined by him. However, whether
these variations occur due to sex, size, season or locality have not been
ascertained. As such studies from this viewpoint were extended to 70
specimens collected by me over a period of 44 years. Though recorded,
it is considered superfluous to include here an elaborate description of
all the characters much less specimenwise in all the 70 specimens
examined by me. However, an account of the range of variations in
each of the characters is furnished as under :

The rostrum is triangular, with a slight median furrow and extends to
the distal end of the last but one segment of the antennular peduncle. Its
lateral.margin is dentate. The teeth are small, broad and their number
varies from minimum of 8-9 and maximum of 14-20 on either side in
males, and from 3-6 to 17-19 in females.

The eyes are small and the cornea is generally antero-laterally placed
and not dilated, but in a few cases, it is anteriorly situated. |

The gastric region is practically smooth except for a few punctae
situated anteriorly and several rugae-like irregular depressions posteriorly
on the sides (Fig. 3a & b).

The cervical groove is deep and armed with 2-12 spine-like tubercles.

_ The cardiac region which extends from Ist cervical groove to the
4th transverse furrow in front of the posterior spine, is divided into
anterior and posterior (P.C.R.) portions by the 3rd transverse furrow
or the 2nd cervical groove. |

The anterior cardiac region, in turn, is further divided into anterior
(A.A.C.R.=A,+A,) and posterior (P.A.C.R.) portions by the 2nd
transverse furrow. The anterior portion of the anterior cardiac region is

THALASSINOIDEA OF MAHARASHTRA 243

again divided into two halves (A, and A,) by the Ist transverse furrow.
The A, region is armed with 1-2 spines on either side and a few punctae.
Generally the Ist transverse furrow is distinctly visible. In two males,
however, the furrow was very indistinct and A, region was provided with
5 spines. The A, region is also armed with spines which vary from 0-4
on either side, though 2 seems to be the common number. The 2nd

—antecardiac regne,
II Cegre « Ist ‘Cer groove (C gre)

IV Tr. fr PeCeoRo

Linea thalassini ca
(Lethe)

Posterior Bent of l.the

§ pine (P.5.)

A AeC RS Gastric regne

Oblique ridge
of posterior
spine —

(Obere)

Line 'q!?
PS.

Oblique ridge
of PeSe

Thalassina anomala (Herbst) (Diagrammatic)

Fig. 3. a. Dorso-lateral view of anterior part of body, b. Dorsal view of anterior
part of body.

transverse furrow is generally-indistinct. A.P. (=P.A.C.R.), i.e. the
posterior portion of the anterior cardiac region, is provided with 0-10
small spines, except in a male, 124 mm. long, which had 14 such spines.

The posterior cardiac region (P.C.R.), presents a lot of variations in
its armature. There are 0-9 spines which are blunt to sharp and some
-punctae or irregular depressions. It is very rarely smooth.

244 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

The posterior spine (P.S.) region shows 0-4 tubercles which are blunt
to sharp with irregular depressions.

The oblique ridge on either side of the posterior spine is armed with
3-4 sharp, erect spines, with their tips bent anteriorly.

The lower half of the branchial region (Br.r.) is studded with minute,
sharp tubercles and in the anterior half, the tubercles become more sharp
and prominent. The upper half between the J/inea thalassinica and the
oblique ridge (Ob.r.) is provided with sharp spines which are fairly larger
than those on the lower half. The remaining middle area of the branchial
region is almost smooth with minute punctae. The oblique ridge is
provided with 11-18 sharp, long spines.

The hepatic region is armed with granular but acute tubercles along
its anterior border and the remaining part of its surface is smooth.

The antennal margin, situated between the lines ‘b’ and ‘d’ bears
5-15 small spines to irregular tubercles and the region between these two
lines, is quite smooth.

The front between the rostrum and the line ‘b’ is armed with 2-6
acute spines of which the one nearest to the rostrum is generally much
larger than the remaining ones, though sometimes it is twice as large as
the others.

Chelipeds (Fig. 4, g): The chelipeds are equal, subequal and similar
or often unequal and dissimilar, the right or left being larger.

Dactylus: Its upper surface is smooth with a few punctae in the
middle ; the upper border is often minutely dentate. The upper inner
margin is armed almost to the tip with 24-28 compressed, small teeth,
decreasing in size distally. A row of minute granules is present on the
inner surface, more or less parallel to its cutting edge and a broken row
of 3-5 unequal, minute tubercles present on the proximal half near the
upper inner margin and is often armed with a large blunt tubercle at its
base. Between this row and the cutting edge, which is armed with 24-26
unequal teeth, the proximal 1-3 of which are larger, there are 2-3 unequal
but large, blunt tubercles proximally. The blunt tubercles are very large
in larger specimens.

Propodus: The outer surface is studded entirely with small granules
which are quite prominent in the lower half and near the carpal arti-
culation ; the surface is smooth near the articulation with the dactylus.
The upper inner margin is provided with 13-23 compressed teeth, which
decrease in size distally. The upper outer border is armed with about

30-48 sharp teeth which are often depressed and quite low in larger speci-

mens, and decrease in size distally. A row of 37-41 much depressed flat
tubercles is present on the mid-lateral surface; this row sometimes

as ies i
a ao A hae ig
5" ad qh ee, te whore? «ae 2

PAGE SD PENSE 6 BETAS

THALASSINOIDEA OF MAHARASHTRA 245

ah
Ts

5

\\

“q

Fig.4, Thalassina anomala (Herbst).-a—mandible, b—first maxilla, c—second

— maxilla, d—first maxilliped, e—second maxilliped, /—third maxilliped, g—cheli-

ped, A—second leg, i—third leg, j—fifth leg, kR—first pleopod of male, /—second
“pleopod of male. m—first pleopod of female, second pleopod of female,

246 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

practically fades away near the distal margin. The outer lower margin is
armed with 24-34 compressed teeth all along upto the base and not to the
tip of the fixed finger. The inner surface is covered with fairly large
conical tubercles in its lower proximal portion and with finely granulated
tubercles on the rest of the area, as on the outer surface. There are two
parallel rows, on the inner surface, of well-developed conical tubercles
running near and along the outer lower margin, these two rows finally
uniting into one near the distal + and continuing almost to the tip of the
fixed finger. There is generally, a semicircular row of 4-14 tubercles at
the base on the inner side of the fixed finger but in very few specimens
this row is absent. The outer surface of the fixed finger is practically
smooth in my material. The oblique row of 12-13 tubercles on the outer
surface of the fixed finger, as mentioned by de Man (1928b), is not present
in my specimens.

The fixed finger is + to 4 the length of the dactylus and its cutting
edge is armed with 11 low, flat teeth of which the proximal 1-3 are larger
in many specimens.

In males, the proportion of length to breadth of palm was 1°37: 1
and in females it was 1°56: 1.

Carpus : The upper inner border is armed with 6-12 teeth of which
the distal teeth are larger. The outer surface is almost smooth
except for granular tubercles in the distal portion along the outer lower
margin. There is, sometimes, a row of 2 small and 2-3 slightly larger
tubercle-like teeth on the upper half of the outer surface, almost parallel
to the upper inner margin. The inner surface, sometimes, has in the
middle 4-5 granular tubercles, otherwise it is generally smooth.

Merus: The upper margin has generally 14-18 acute, small teeth of
which the distal 3-4 are larger, though in a few specimens, the number of
teeth was 24. The outer lower margin is armed with 14-23 spines, 15-18
appears to be the common number ; the distal 3-8 are generally larger.
The mid-ventral line is fringed with long setae and armed with 3-9 unequal
spines, 3-6 being the common number. The inner lower margin is with
21-24 low, short teeth which decrease in size distally.

Ischium: Its mid-ventral surface is armed with 5-9 unequal spines
of which generally the distal 3-5 are thick and strongly developed. These
spines are edged on the outer side with long setae as in the merus.

Smaller cheliped: In all the specimens examined, it does not differ
much from the major cheliped except for the smaller size and the length of
the propodus which is 1°53 times its breadth.

Second leg (Fig. 4, h): It is subchelate. The propodus is highly

flattened with its lower distal portion forming the chelate structure with |

a = :
ee ee ae ee ee

THALASSINC:DEA OF MAHARASHTRA 247

the dactylus. The basi-ischial joint is armed with 6-11 unequal spines of
which the distal 1-2 are the largest. The upper margin of the merus is
provided with 5-8, unequal anteriorly bent sharp spines and its lower
border is smooth. This segment of the second leg is much broader
than the corresponding segment of the remaining legs.

Third leg (Fig. 4, 1): The merus bears on its anterior margin 3-17
unequal spines, 6-11 (6-9 common) on outer posterior margin, of these
the distal ones are larger than the rest. The inner posterior margin has
3-4 unequal tooth-like spines, the distal ones being larger. The basi-
ischial joint has 3-9 spine-like tubercles, though 2-3 is the common
number. The coxopodite is provided with 3-6 spine-like tubercles in the
mid anterior margin.

Fourth leg: The anterior margin of the merus is provided with 3-10
small spines ; the inner posterior with 7-12 unequal spines. The outer
posterior border bears 4-9 unequal spines. The basi-ischium is armed
with 2-7 unequal spines. The coxopodite has 3-9 spine-like tubercles
arranged along the mid-anterior portion, the number of tubercles rarely
reaching up to 12.

Fifth leg (Fig. 4, }): The merus has on its anterior margin 2-9 un-
equal spines or teeth and 2-8 very small teeth on its inner posterior margin.
Its outer posterior margin is provided with 2-7 small, unequal teeth.
_ The basi-ischium does not bear any spines or teeth. The coxopodite
bears 3-9 unequal spines on its posterior margin.

Abdomen: In length the 4th abdominal tergum is 1°40 times its
breadth. The lateral ridge of the second segment has 6-10 granular
tubercles which are often indistinct. The lateral ridge of the third seg-
ment is less developed and in the subsequent segments this ridge becomes
less and less prominent than that of the first segment and is provided with .
punctae. The pleural margin of the second to sixthabdominal segments
is generally distinctly tuberculate, though sometimes with rudimentary
tubercles.

The sternum of the second abdominal segment is provided at the
middle with a single prominent and rather sharp tubercle which is either
anteriorly or ventrally directed and the side tubercles are entirely absent.
The median tubercle of the third segment is somewhat blunt and the side
tubercles are generally absent but in one specimen (male, 124 mm.) a
single distinct tubercle was present on the left anterior margin. In the
fourth and fifth segments, the median tubercles though prominent, is
posteriorly directed and the side tubercles are absent, but in the specimen
mentioned above i.e. male, 124 mm., the fifth sternum has 2 distinct tuber-
Cles on either anterior margin. In the sixth segment, the median tubercle

248 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

is almost invariably absent, though in a male, 141 mm. there is a promi-
nent tubercle just on either side of the middle and also in a female,
120 mm., a single very small tubercle is present on the middle. The side

rubércles are usually absent but in a male, 150 mm., there is onetubercle —

present on either anterior margin and in another male, 138 mm., 2-3
minute indistinct tubercles are present on the right anterior margin only. —

Antennal scale: Itis generally absent but in a female (120 mm. long),
a triangular, well-developed, movable, entire antennal scale was present
on the right side only. The scale extended beyond the distal end of the
last but one segment of the antennal peduncle. On the left side, however,
the scale was found to be completely broken. Also ina male (145 mm. —
long), a partially broken scale was observed on the left side only, Whereas —
on the right side it was altogether broken. ;

de Man (1928b, p. 9) remarks regarding a young male (116 mm. foley

from the mouth of the river Barito, that the specimen presented, perhaps, —
on each antennal peduncle, a scaphocerite. But he could not observe —

it with certainty. Also regarding var. squamifera he expresses ‘.. .. it
must be left to the later researchers to examine whether characters of this
variety are indeed constant so that the possession of the scaphocerite ;
constantly coincides with the characters of the sternal ridges.’ Ofcourse, —
the knowledge of squamifera is based on 4 specimens only—1 male and 3 —
females. Hence, it is possible that the presence or absence of the antennal
scale may not be a reliable character in separating out the var. squamifera —
from the typical species T. anomala, as per above observations. |

MATERIAL :

About 70 specimens were collected from the following localities :
Karla and Mazgaon (Ratnagiri) ; Vengurla (Ratnagiri District) and
Versova (Bombay suburban). 4

The males ranged from 86 to 155 mm. ; non-ovigerous females from
95 to 143 mm. and ovigerous females from 150 to 160 mm.

[have seen colonies of mounds of 7. anomala in the mangrove
swamps off Karla, Mazgaon and Vengurla in Ratnagiri District and in |
Versova and Port Navha in the Bombay suburban area, The detailed —
observations on the ecology of this animal is dealt with elsewhere |
(Sankolli 1963).

Only once, a few (3) berried females were collected in the month of |
October 1963. Thereafter, I have not been able to collect berried |
females. 7

Remarks :
This study reveals that variations are individual rather than due _
to sex, size, season or locality. ;

THALASSINOIDEA OF MAHARASHTRA 249

Also, the presence or absence of antennal scale or scaphocerite appears
to be a variable character and probably it is not a reliable taxonomic
character.

DISTRIBUTION: Mergui Archipelago ; North Coast of Nias; Sumatra ;
Indonesia ; Singapore; East China‘ Sea; Philippines ; British New
Guinea ; New Guinea; North West Australia; New Britain; Fijj
Islands ; Samoa Islands.

(to be continued)

Pre-foliation in Scindapsus
officinalis Schott

BY

: .T..- A. DAVIS.
Indian Statistical Institute, Calcutta-35

(With a text-figure)

INTRODUCTION

This brief paper deals with the way the lamina and the petiolar sheath
of the araceous ever-green climber, Scindapsus officinalis, are rolled in the
bud. The relationship of the ptyxis of one leaf to that of its immediate
neighbouring leaves has also been studied.

Scindapsus officinalis, a tropical Himalayan weak-stemmed shrub is
distributed from Sikkim eastwards along West and East Bengal, Burma
and the Andaman Islands.

Hooker (1894) described this species as having astem as thick as the
little finger. The leaves are green. The peduncle is solitary, terminal
and much shorter than the petiole. The spathe is about 4-6 inches long,
green outside and yellow within. The spadix is as long as the spathe,
greenish yellow and it elongates in fruit. The stigma is elongated but the
fruit is hemispheric. The few berries that ripen are fleshy. The seed is
ovate-cordate.

One of the varieties of Scindapsus officinalis, commonly known as

Money Plant, is a popular ornamental plant on account of its variegated — |

jeaves with entire and/or incised margins. Its capacity to thrive even
under partial shade for long periods makes it an deal drawing
room plant. The presence of numerous nodal and internodal climbing
roots enables the plant to be a successful epiphyte on large trees.

ASYMMETRY OF THE LEAVES

The leaves of Scindapsus officinalis are clearly alternate and are more
or less distichous on shoots that creep firmly ona wall or similar support.
But when the slender branches hang, as many of them do gracefully in
large plants, the leaves are spread out in all directions. Where the leaves
are arranged in two rows, every third leaf falls on the same row, as may be

t
i}
i

PRE-FOLIATION IN SCINDAPSUS OFFICINALIS SCHOTT 251

\\\ \i\ \y
YY N
\

. \

Scindapsus officinalis Schott

252 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

expected. There is a prominent petiole which is conspicuously sheathed
at its lower three-fourths of the length. When young, the sheath encloses
the immediate younger leaf, and the free margins of the sheath overlap
each other. In some leaves, this overlapping is clockwise (left-handed),
and in others,counter-clock wise (right-handed) (Fig. 1B & A respectively).
The lamina is obovate to cordate and the area of one half is slightly
greater than that of the other. The rolling of the lamina while in bud is
either convolute or involute. Convolution may be either left-handed or
right-handed. The directions of the overlapping of the sheath and the
convolution of the lamina are determined by holding the leaf vertically
with its lamina over the petiole. Where it rolls left-handed, the sheath
of the same leaf overlaps right-handed, and vice versa, where the lamina
has right-handed convolution. But when the lamina is involute, the
overlapping of the sheath is rather difficult to predict since in some such

leaves, the overlapping is left-handed and in others, right-handed. The -

tip of the sheath on one margin grows beyond the level of that on the
other margin. Ifthe leaf sheath overlaps right-handedly, its right margin
happens to be longer compared to that of the other (Fig. 1C). If the
sheath is left-handed, its left margin becomes longer (Fig. 1D). Leaves
showing left convolution, involution, and right convolution are repre-
sented by L, I and R of Fig. 1 respectively.

OBSERVATIONS

50 shoots from three large Scindapsus officinalis plants growing on
huge mango trees at the premises of the Indian Statistical Institute,
Calcutta, were labelled and the type of the ptyxis on the 627 leaves
produced on them during 75 days commencing from the first of May
1965 were studied, The data are presented in Table 1, a-c.- On an
average, a shoot produced about 12°5 leaves during the 75 days of the
pre-monsoon period. That is, a leaf was produced almost every six
days. During the monsoon months of July-September, the rate of leaf-
production is much greater.

Table 1, a-c gives data on the sequence of production of left- and right-
convoluting as well as involute leaves in the individual plants. Plant 3
produced equal numbers of left- and right-convoluting leaves, while for
plants 1 and 2, the lefts are greater although the differences are not
statistically significant. The occurrence of involute leaves seems to vary
from plant to plant. Plant 1 has the highest proportion (53°33 %)
followed by plants 2 and 3 with 23°11 and 18°30 percentages respectively.
Since the data were collected simultaneously from three plants standing
close to each other, one plant showing a very high proportion of involute

—_———_—_——_—_—_——_——— ——_—__—__——

PRE-FOLIATIGN IN SCINDAPSUS OFFICINALIS SCHOTT 253

leaves has to be regarded as a peculiarity of this individual. As the
data relate to a short period, it is not known whether the proportion of
leaves showing involute and convolute ptyxis would vary significantly
with season.

A perusal of the data suggests that among the convoluting leaves,
there is a tendency for a leaf with left-handed convolution to be followed
or preceded by one with right-handed convolution. To verify this, the
type of each leaf in relation to its immediate older one was determined.
The data are presented in Table 2.

TABLE la

Scindapsus officinalis :; PRE-FOLIATION (PLANT 1)

- Shoot Directions of rolling of laminae L RI Total
feces | ota el Eon Ol oP ek Teor kyr Tat 18 ° 20
De ORS Tl RI. R. 33— 6
Se wk ee ig Re ee ded he Ral ob eb Ee Talk. Ts 3310 16
eee lee) We ele ee ep eel = ean Re yer eg a Ie
Seo ls Rel, (Rio be Re ERR] 45 1] 10
Geek eR wi ew el Eee Re be Re Bb Ftd I 64 8 18
aU eRe eetieled:. ale oy Tl eee i bb) Peo 52% 92-16
See Re te oR ea ORe Pak ear |) bh Rok RB BS ie ia kt UY

Total 32 24 64 120
TABLE 15

Scindapsus officinalis ; PRE-FOLIATION (PLANT 2)

Shoot Directions of rolling of laminae ER Total
1 LRIL LIL LIL RIL RIL RIL 9 4— 13
2; Reg lcepleas eae I, PL Ro lo | so | Dee! 12
3 yee bee Ra de he RE. MRO -ReER 61°62 14
4 PeR LD Rob RE Ri ESR | oR 6 6 — 12
5 (AR Wales eae Roe wR oR PI R:| i Mee es 14
6 Ree bop Re We Re Bld RE LT] ao De 5S 14
a) R LIL LIR Li R LR E)L R 75— 12
8 Rote ak | RR eLwRe Tw Re TL Tir. or Res) Wigs: 16
9 Se eas oe eRe keds Po Ded ioe 6; sao A]
10 ROR eR ia RHE Ld | 5 4— 9
11 nie) Reba Re Tp ial T sR: Yaa 12
12 IpeeReie: Raine. Ree Re eR ee RR: | 6 6 — 12
13 | gpa 54 1 es 8 | 3 2— 5
14 Pie Me ee heer Tek RVR GRE ORS. 6 «7 18
15 Poi Re Pak Re LR E |<] 6 4 6 16

Total 82 68 46 196

254. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

’ TABLE 1c

Scindapsus officinalis :- PRE-FOLIATION (PLANT 3)

Shoots Directions of rolling of laminae L RI Total
1 L¢RI Rl! Ro LTR LR E ROL ie, 6 6— 12
2 RL R dT LR ODA aa le ie a) Sel 18
3 L R|L-I |i R/-L-R|L RIL RIE RIE R eB teed 16
4 LL ROLL Rak eR ARs dR Pe RG SiGe 15
52) NE RA ILs eR | Bema ue | yi es 7
6 L RIL RR EAR RR LR 5 JT— i2
i, R LR LIRR LR 2 RoE R 5 6— 11
8 CLR ER ae 4 3— 7
9 Te Rah: Sele (RE ea a ee Ras oleae ol 6 4 4 14
10 L RIE Raw Te SR Ro Re as ee 32H6: 675 16
iI Ls Ree as aR Rae le Roe RG) de OE Fas 8 17
12 TOR Re Roa Seas ee eRe ae 5 5— 10
13 L RL Ree Rae 44— 8
14 j Red epi) Bie Pees FIP etd a De | 3 4 3 10
15 ReL YR Ea Re Ree a Ral eRe le aE 6.56 5 17
16 Le RIT 2b aa) RES er aR aa 204049 15
17 Ls ARS ele Re alc a) AR ae Re ae (hee Pogo 15
18 I ARolds OReaE eR Te 4 3— |
19 oy ARS PL eRe ae peas 43— ‘|
20.8 Roe RA es eR SL elsy Mle al oe Ie rans |e, Gy i4-5 15
Die ee aRGe BRe |e aol alee Re alas ale 6) 34 10
22 Re RE Ra Rae 3 4— u
23 pf URi as Red ARs a Reale aR ole sae eo 6 6 2 14
240 | BRE Ry LR ala: 3 4— WI
25 R RIR RILORIR RIP Rit L 26 Ved 13
26 R RIL RIL ; 23— 5
2a, R ae Re dea eR 3 3— 6
Total 127 A277 3 |
L—leaf with left-handed convolution. |
R—leaf with right-handed convolution,
I—leaf having involute lamina. |
TABLE 2

Scindapsus officinalis : PtTyxts OF LEAVES

Second leaf
First leaf er rs Total
Left Right Involute

Left convolution 20 155 | 44 219
Right convolution 150 A41\ 34 } 205
Involute 47 16 90 153

Total Dig 192 168 S77

PRE-FOLIATION IN SCINDAPSUS. OFFICINALIS SCHOTT — 255

The hypothesis that the ptyxis of the first leaf and that of the second
leaf are statistically independent is rejected since the x* value with 4
degrees of freedom turns out to be 330°80. Therefore, a left-handed
lamina is followed or preceded by a right-handed one in a significant
number of cases. However, in the case of involution, there is greater
chance of a leaf to be an involute if the immediate older one is already
involute. Data relating to the involuting leaves were tested to find out
whether the involutes that were followed or preceded by a left-handed
convolution were greater than those that followed or preceded by a right-
handed convolution. It was found that the LI or IL were occurring more
frequently than the RI or IR, and statistically significantly. The fre-
quency of an involute leaf following another involute leaf is significantly
more than a left- or right-convoluting leaf following an involute
leaf.

Since the sheath and the lamina of the same leaf roll oppositely, it was
considered necessary to study the condition of the sheaths of leaves
having involute laminae. A number of leaves from different shoots of
two plants were examined in March 1967. It was seen that if a left-
convoluting leaf having a right-handed sheath (which is generally the
rule) is followed by an involute leaf, the latter leaf will have left-handed
sheath, and vice-versa if it follows a right-convoluting leaf. In a shoot
where many consecutive involute leaves are produced, the sheath shows
more or less a left followed or preceded by a right-handed overlapping.
However, it is not always steady, and some leaves moved erratically.

DISCUSSION

The ptyxis in Scindapsus officinalis varies considerably. The ten-
dency that a left-convolution (of lamina) is followed or preceded by a
right convolution, or vice versa may be attributed to the distichous nature
of the leaves. This situation is similar to that found in many grasses
where the leaves are distichous and their laminae show a right followed or
preceded by a left convolution. In some other species of Araceae such
as Colocasia antiquorum or Alocasia indica, all the leaves of a shoot show
more or less the same kind of convolution as evidenced by the data
collected on many plants, a small portion of which is presented in Table 3,

256 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)
TABLE 3

Pryxis IN Alocasia indica

Shoot Convolution of lamina of consecutive leaves Total
ER
a
1 LL | Liiva p on eee 15
2 RR RRIRRIRRRRRRRRR ee
BOD GL EES, Ee WR) ie eee 13 ihe
4 RE RRIRRRRRRRRRRR 1 a4
| | |

Total BE” ail

Though a shoot maintains more or less the same type of convolution
throughout, the individual shoots in a clump of Colocasia antiquorum
show either left-handed or right-handed convolution as per data collected
on 19 clumps at Calcutta during 1967 and presented in Table 4.

TABLE 4

Colocasia antiquorum ; LEFT- AND RIGHT-HANDED SHOOTS PER CLUMP

Convolution of shoots

Clump —
Left Right (L+R) (L—R)

1 7 Bel 10 4
2 3 4 if |
3 9 6 15 3
4 5 4 9 1
5 4 5 9 —1
6 5 3 8 2

7 3 6 9 ~3 |
8 4 3 7 1
9 3 4 if —1
10 3 3 6 —
11 6 2 8 4
12 a 5 5 —5
13 3 4 7 ~1
14 1 6 qi —5
15 4 3 “t i
16 3 4 i ~1
17 4 3 7 1
18 5 4 9 I
19 if 1 8 6
Total We 73 152 6

2
x ; = 0-207

PRE-FOLIATION IN SCINDAPSUS OFFICINALIS SCHOTT 287

The left- and right-handed shoots in a clump are distributed more or
less in the ratio 1: 1.

In the case of Dieffenbachia sp. (Araceae), the leaves are arranged in
two spirals and they run clockwise in one shoot and counter-clockwise
in another. In a shoot having a left-handed foliar spiral, the ptyxis of
the lamina is always right-handed, and vice versa, in a shoot with right-
handed foliar spiral. However, in many species of Cordyline and
Dracaena of Agavaceae, where the shoots show clear spirality like Dieffen-
bachia, in a left-handed shoot, the ptyxis is invariably left-handed, and
right-handed if the shoot has right-handed foliar spiral. However, in
the case of Cordyline rubra, 18°69 per cent of the shoots have their foliar
spiral and ptyxis veering along opposite directions (Davis & Ghosh 1969).
An examination of the rolling of the leaf sheath and lamina in these 18°69
per cent of Cordyline rubra showed that the leaf sheath always rolls in
accordance with the foliar spiral, but only the lamina portion gets reversed.
This ‘ abnormality ’ in the case of C. rubra seems to be the general rule in
‘Scindapsus officinalis, because in a leaf with left convolution, the sheath
always shows right convolution and vice versa. Where the lamina is
involute, it is difficult to predict the direction of the sheath even though
there is a tendency for the odd numbers of leaves of a shoot to bear one
kind of overlapping of sheath, and the even numbers the opposite kind.
In some Scitaminous species of Musa, Canna, Maranta and Ravenala,
though the leaves are two-ranked, the ptyxis of the lamina is always right-
handed (with about 5 per cent reversals in Ravenala). Insome species of
Heliconia, Curcuma and Zingiber of the same family, a left-convoluting
leaf is followed or preceded by a right-hander as a general rule.

SUMMARY

The leaves of Scindapsus officinalis are alternate and arranged more or
less distichously. Both the leaf sheath and the lamina roll in the bud
stage. The lamina either convolutes or involutes. Convolution may
be either left-handed or right-handed. The margins of the leaf sheath
overlap either clockwisely or counter-clockwisely. If the lamina con-
volutes clockwisely, its sheath will overlap counter-clockwisely, and vice
versa, if the lamina convolutes counter-clockwisely. The sheath of an
involuting leaf may overlap either clockwisely or counter-clockwisely.

In the three large Scindapsus officinalis plants from where data were
collected, the leaves showing right-handed and left-handed ptyxis were
observed to produce almost equally. One plant produced a higher
percentage of involute leaves than in the others. There is a strong ten-
dency that a leaf with left-handed ptyxis is followed or preceded by a

258 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

right-hander. Also the probability of a leaf to be involute if it follows
an involute leaf is very high. ;

The drawing is by Mr. S. K. De, Senior Scientific Assistant of the
Indian Statistical Institute.

REFERENCES

Davis, T. A. & GHOosH, S. S. (1969) : Hooker, J. D.(1894) : Flora of British
Foliar spiral and ptyxis in Cordyline India VI. L. Reave and Co., London.
rubra. Proc. Nat. Inst, Sci. B., 35: 267-272.

Foraminifera of the Gulf of Cambay

BY

K. KAMESWARA RAO
National Institute of Oceanography, Bombay

[Continued from Vol. 66 (3) : 596]

(With 37 figures in three plates)

Genus Nodosaria Lamarck 1812

Nodosaria calomorpha Reuss (Fig. 32)

Nodosaria calomorpha Brady, 1884, vol.9, p.497, pl.61, figs. 23-27 ; Brady, Parker &
Jones, 1888, vol. 12, p. 223, pl. 44, figs. 1, 4 ; Cushman, 1913, 71 (3), p. 48, pl. 25,
fig. 6.

Description: Test straight with usually three chambers ; first
chamber subglobular, later chambers slightly oval in outline. Wall
smooth and translucent. Aperture entosolenian and situated at the
centre of the tip of the ultimate chamber without a neck.

Length: 0°41 mm.
Locality: Station A.

Distribution : North Pacific, Hawaiian Islands, Ki Islands, Philip-
pine Islands, Arabian Sea and Atlantic.

Nodosaria radicula (Montagu) (Fig. 33)
Nodosaria radicula Williamson, 1858, p. 15, pl. 2, figs. 36-38 ; Sethulekshmi Amma,
1958, ps 53, ple 2, fig. 79.

Description: Test elongate with two to five chambers; initial
chamber larger than the succeeding ones and with a blunt spine. Wall
calcareous and marked with conspicuous longitudinal costae. The last
formed chamber drawn into a neck with a round aperture at the end.

Length: 0°40 mm.
Locality: Station A.

Distribution : British Isles and Arabian Sea.
[14]

260 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Nodosaria roemeri (Neugeboren) (Fig. 34)
Nodosaria roemeri Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 505, pl. 63, fig. 1 ; Cushman, 1913, 71(3),
p. 55, pl. 24, figs. 4-6.
Description: Test elongate with a few chambers; later chambers
slightly inflated. Sutures slightly oblique. Wall calcareous and smooth.

Eengih: (0°37 mm:
Locality: Station A.

Distribution: Hawaiian Islands, Midway Islands and near Guan,
and Arabian Sea.

Nodosaria perversa Schwager (Fig. 35)

Nodosaria perversa Brady, 1884, pl. 64, figs. 25-27, p. 512 ; Cushman, 1933, 161(2),
p. 13, pl. 3, figs. 13-15 ; Dakin, 1906, vol. 5, p. 235.

Description: Test elongate with the initial chamber provided with a
slight blunt spine, ultimate segment drawn into a short and narrow neck,
primordial chamber small and later formed chambers increasingly larger. |
Surface of the test marked with numerous longitudinal parallel costae.
Aperture radiate.

Length: 0°38 mm.
Locality: Station A.
Distribution: Indo-Pacific Region, and Ceylon coast,

Nodosaria subperversa Cushman (Fig. 36)

Nodosaria subperversa Cushman, 1917, vol. 51, p. 655 ; Cushman, 1921, 100, vol.
4°). 208; pl: 37mg. 3:

Description: Test long with a few chambers, primordial chamber
slightly larger than the subsequently formed ones. Sutures distinct.
Wall smooth but marked with fine longitudinal striations. The ultimate
chamber without a neck. Aperture terminal.

Length: 0°55 mm.
Locality: Station A.

Distribution: Pacific Ocean, east coast of Mindanao and Arabian
Sea.

Genus Lagena Walker & Jacob 1798

Lagena globosa (Montagu) (Fig. 37)

Entosolenia globosa Williamson, 1858, p. 8, pl. 1, figs. 15, 16; Lagena globosa
Brady, 1884, vol.9, p.452, pl. 56, figs. 1-3 ; Dakin, 1906, vol. 5, p.234 ; Cushman:
1913, 71(3), p. 3, pl. 4, fig. 2 ; 1923, 104(4), p. 20, pl. 4, figs. 1,2; 1933, 161(2)
Pi 3 pl.4, figs. 10 a, b ; Sethulekshmi Amma, 1958, p. 54, pl. 2, fig. 80.

FORAMINIFERA OF THE GULF OF CAMBAY 261

Description : ‘Test nearly spherical, apertural end slightly produced.
Wall smooth and translucent. Aperture slit-like with an entosolenian
neck.

Length: QO 27mm.
Locality: Station A.

Distribution: North Pacific, off Chatham Islands, Honolulu,
Tropical Pacific, Philippines, Ceylon coast, off Gulf of Mannar, Arabian
Sea, Atlantic and British Isles.

Lagena marginata (Walker & Boys) (Fig. 38)

Lagena marginata Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 476, pl. 59, figs. 21-23; H. B. Brady,
Parker & Jones, 1888, vol. 12, p. 222, pl. 44, figs. 27, 29, 30, 32; Cushman, PASS
KG) speciapl.22uese I-71) 1921 100; vol. 40 p82 > 1933; 161(2): 1. 17,.pl: 4:
figs.9 a,b, 11, 12, 14-16 ; pl.5, figs.2.a,b, 4a, b,6a, b, 8, 9; Sethulekshmi Amma,
1958. p. 56; pla ll, fig..85:.

Description: Test more or less globular, compressed, rounded at
both ends. Apertural end slightly narrow. Periphery with a marginal
keel. Aperture entosolenian.

Length: 0°18 mm.
Locality: Station B.

Distribution : North and Eastern Pacific, Hawaiian Islands, off Japan,
Arabian Sea, Atlantic and British Isles.

Lagena striata (d’Orbigny) (Fig. 39)

Lagena striata Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 460, p1.57, figs. 22, 24; Cushman, 1913, 71(3),
Palo ple 7. tes. 4s 531921100) vols 4, p..177; 1933, 16! (2), p. 32, pl. 8, figs.
11, 13 ; Sethulekshmi Amma, 1958, p. 56, pl. 2, fig. 86.

Description: Test oval with an elongated neck at the apertural end.
Wall marked with numerous fine longitudinal costae starting from the
aboral end of the test to the base of the neck. Wall calcareous and
translucent.

Length: 0°23 mm.
Locality: Station B.

Distribution: North Pacific, off Philippines, Red Sea, Arabian Sea,
Atlantic, and British Isles.

Lagena quadrata (Williamson) (Fig. 40)

Lagena quadrata Williamson, p. 11, pl. 1, figs. 27, 28 ; Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 475,
pl. 59, figs. 3, 16; Bagg, 1908, vol. 34, p. 142; Cushman, 1913, 71(3), p. 35, pl. 14,
fig. 9 ; Sethulekshmi Amma, 1958, p. 58, pl. 2, fig. 89.

[16]

262 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Description: Test ovate, periphery with a marginal keel. Wall
smooth and tease Aperture entosolenian; apertural orifice

slit-like.
Length: 0O'12 mm.
Locality: Station B.

Distribution: North Pacific, off Hawaiian Islands and between
Guam and Yokohama, Arabian Sea, Atlantic and British Isles.

Lagena orbignyana (Seguenza) (Fig. 41)

Lagena orbignyana Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 484, pl. 59, figs. 1, 18, 24, We Brady.
Parker and Jones, 1888, vol. 12, p. 222, pl. 44, fig. 20 ; Dakin, 1906, vol. 5, p. 234 ;
Cushman, 1913, 71(3), p. 42, pl. 19, fig. 1.

Description: Test oval in outline with _a prominent marginal keel
having within a secondary kee!. Surface of the test smooth with large
pits. Aperture slit-like with an entosolenian neck.

Length: 0O'14 mm.
Locality: Station A.

Distribution: Tropical Pacific, off Levuka, Fiji, off Ceylon coast,
Arabian Sea and British Isles.

Family NONIONIDAE
Genus Nonion Montfort 1808

Nonion boueanum (d’Orbigny) Hada (Fig. 42)

Nonionina boueana Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 729, pl. 109, figs. 12, 13 ; Dakin, 1906,
vol. 5, p. 240; Nonion boueanum Daniel, 1949, p. 71, fig. 114 ; Cushman, 1933,
161(2), p. 42, pl. 10, fig. 3 ; Sethulekshmi Amma, 1958, p. 21, pl. 1, fig. 32.

Description: Test circular in outline, chambers numerous, involute,
nine to fifteen chambers in final whorl. Sutures depressed and curved
towards the umbilicus ; umbilicus slightly depressed and filled with
granular material. Wall calcareous, smooth and _ finely punctate.
Aperture a curved slit lying at the base of last chamber.

Diameter: 0°30 mm.
Locality: Station A.

Distribution : Pacific, China Sea off Hong Kong and Tawi Tawi,
off Japan, Red Sea, Mauritius, Kerimba Archipelago, Gulf of Mannar off
Ceylon coast, and Indian seas.

[17]

FORAMINIFERA OF THE GULF OF CAMBAY 263

Nonion pompilioides (Fichtel & Moll) (Fig. 43)

Nonionina pompilioides Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 727, pl. 109, figs. 10, 11 ; Millet,
1904, p. 601 ; Bagg, 1908, vol. 34, p. 164 ; Cushman, 1914, 71(4), p. 25, pl. 17,
fig. 2. Nonion pompilioides Cushman, 1933, 161(2), p. 41, pl. 10, figs. 1, 2 :
Ganapati & Satyavati, 1958, p. 108, pl. 3, figs. 83, 84.

Description: Test circular with several chambers, the final whorl of
ten chambers. Peripheral margin rounded. Sutures limbate and
distinct. Wall with coarse perforations. Aperture a curved slit lying at
the base of the last chamber.

Diameter: 0.37 mm.
Locality: Station C.

Distribution : North Pacific, Bering Sea, off Japan, Hawaiian Islands,
between Hawaiian and Midway Islands, between Guam and Japan, and
Indian seas.

Nonion pacificum (Cushman) (Fig. 44)
Nonion pacificum Cushman, 1933, 161(2), p. 44, pl. 10, figs. 9 a, b.

Description: Test circular, compressed with a few chambers, eight
chambers in the final whor!; chambers involute. Peripheral margin
rounded. Wall calcareous, smooth and finely foraminated. Aperture
a long slit at the base of last chamber.

Diameter: 9°14 mm.
Locality : Station D.

Distribution: Pacific Ocean and Arabian Sea.

Nonion depressula (Walker and Jacob) (Fig. 45)

Nonionina depressula Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 725, pl. 109, figs. 6, 7 ; Brady, Parker &
Jones, 1888, vol. 12, p. 229, pl. 43, fig. 25; Bagg, 1908, vol. 34, p. 164; Cush-
many HOt 74). ps 235 pls 17; fig. 3.

Description: Test circular with ten to twelve chambers in the final
whorl, chambers slightly inflated, sutures depressed. Peripheral margin
lobulated. Umbilical region slightly depressed and filled with a clear
granular shell material which extends outward along the sutures.
Aperture a narrow curved slit lying at the base of last chamber.

Diameter: 0°12 mm.
Locality: Station D.

Distribution: North Pacific, off Hawaiian Islands, off Japan and

between Japan and Guam, and Arabian Sea.
| [18]

264 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)
Genus Elphidium Montfort 1808

Elphidium -crispum (Linnaeus) (Fig. 46)

Polystomella crispa Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 736, pl. 110, figs. 6, 7; Cushman, 1914,
71(4), p. 32, pl. 18, fig. 1. Elphidium crispum Cushman, 1933, 161(2), p. 47,
pl. 11, fig.4 a, b.; Elphidium macellus Gnanamuthu, 1943, No. 2, pt. 5, p. 16,
Elphidium crispum Daniel, 1949, p. 74, figs. 115-116; Sethulekshmi Amma.
1958p22 ply ietiess:

Description: Test biconvex, circular in shape with numerous
chambers. Sutures slightly raised and distinct with retral processes which
extend between the sutures. Peripheral margin acute, umbonal region
raised. Aperture consists of numerous pores on the apertural face of last
chamber.

Diameter : 0°29 mm.
Locality: Station A.

Distribution: Pacific, Atlantic, British Isles, Mediterranean, Gulf
of Mannar, and Indian seas.
Elphidium jenseni (Cushman) (Fig.47)

Elphidium jenseni Cushman, 1933, 161(2), p. 48, pl. 11, figs. 6, 7.

Description: Test flat, many chambered. Peripheral margin with a
slight keel. Sutures slightly raised with retral processes which bridge the

gap between sutures, the areas between the sutures somewhat depressed,
umbilical region with slight projections.

Diameter: 0°38 mm.
Locality: Station A.

Distribution: In Pacific Ocean from Fiji Islands, Marshall Islands
and Landrone Islands, off Australia, and Arabian Sea.

Family CAMERINIDAE
Subfamily Camerininaé
Genus Operculina W@Orbigny 1826

Operculina granulosa (Leymerie) (Fig. 48)

Operculina granulosa Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 744, pl. 112, figs. 6, 7, 9, 10 ; Cushnias,
1933, 161(2), p. 56, pls. 14, 15, 16, figs. 1-3; Sethulekshmi Amma, 1958, p. 19,
pl.1, fig. 29, a, b,c; Ganapati & Satyavati, 1958, p. 108, pl. 4, fig. 92.

Description: Test compressed, bilaterally symmetrical, the final

whorl composed of numerous chambers. Sutures evenly curved. Wall
Bae!

FORAMINIFERA OF THE GULF OF CAMBAY 265

ornamented with beads or bosses along the suture lines and usually con-
centrated at the centre space and scattered in the interspaces. Aperture
at the base of last chamber.

Diameter: 0°40 mm.
Locality: Station C.

Distribution : Pacific Ocean, Honolulu, Red Sea, Ceylon, and Indian
seas. :

Operculina gaimairdi d’Orbigny (Fig. 49)

Operculina gaimairdi Cushman, 1921, vol. 4, No. 100, p. 375.

Description: Test strongly compressed with an adult coil of about
fifteen chambers with a large central area. Sutures marked with beads
with interspaces smooth.

Diameter : 0°32 mm.
Locality: Station A.

Distribution: Philippines, in the vicinity of Jolo, Sulu Archipelago,
Siasi, Tawi Tawi group; between Burias and Luzon, in the Gulf of
Davao and Arabian Sea.

Family PENEROPLIDAE
Subfamily Orbitolitinae
Genus Sorites Ehrenberg 1838

Sorites marginalis (Lamarck) (Fig. 50)

Orbitolites marginalis Carpenter, 1883, vol. 7*, p. 20, pl. 3, figs. 1-7, pl. 4, figs. 1-5 ;
Cushman, 1917, 71(6), p. 92, pl. 38, figs. 1-2. Sorites marginalis Cushman, 1930,
104(7), p. 40, pl. 18, figs. 1-4 ; Sethulekshmi Amma, 1958, p. 28, pl. 1, fig. 41.

Description: Test circular in shape with numerous chambers in a

single plane, the primordial chamber opens into the second chamber,
followed by numerous chambers arranged spirally in one plane. Each
chamber divided into numerous small chamberlets having connections
with the adjacent ones of previous and following annular chambers.
Wall smooth. Apertures numerous along the periphery of the test.

Diameter : 0°31 mm.
Locality: Station C.

Distribution: North Pacific, Hawaiian Islands, Red, and Arabian
Seas, coast of Madagascar and Mediterranean Sea.

* Rep. Voy. Challenger, Zoology.
[20]
9

266 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)
Family BULIMINIDAE
Subfamily Bilis |
Genus Bulimina d’Orbigny 1826

Bulimina marginata d’Orbigny (Fig. 51)

Bulimina marginata Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 405, pl. 51, figs. 3-5 ; Cushman, 1911,
71(2), p. 83, text-fig. 136 a, b ; 1922, 104(3), p. 91, pl. 21, figs. 4-5 ; Sethulekshmi
Amma, 1958, p. 44, pl. 2, fig. 66 a, b.

Description: Test oval in outline, many-chambered, tapering, later
chambers more inflated than the earlier ones ; lower margin of each
chamber provided with spines or crenulations. Wall calcareous, smooth,
and opaque. Aperture slit-like situated at the inner face of last chamber.

Length: 0°16 mm. ee ;
Locality : Station D. |

Distribution: Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico, Gulf of Southern Ocean,
Mediterranean, Adriatic, British Isles, Arabian Sea and North Pacific.

Subfamily Virgulininae
Genus Virgulina d@Orbigny 1826

Virgulina squamosa d’Orbigny (Fig. 52)

Virgulina squamosa Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 415; Cushman, 1911, 71(2), p. 91,
text-fig. 145 ; Sethulekshmi Amma, 1958, p.45, pl. 2, fig. 67.

Description: Test elongate, thin and tapering towards the initial
end with few obliquely arranged chambers. Peripheral margin some-
what lobulated. Sutures slightly depressed. Wall calcareous, smooth,
punctate and translucent. Aperture loop-shaped. |

Length: 0°22 mm.
Locality: Station B.

Distribution: Atlantic, Mediterranean, Red Sea, Antarctic, Arabian
Sea and North Pacific.

Genus Bolivina d’Orbigny 1839 |

Bolivina punctata d’Orbigny (Fig. 53)

Bolivina punctata Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 417, pl. 52, figs. 18, 19 ; Cushman, 1911,
71(2), p. 32, text-fig. 53 ; 1921, vol. 4, No. 100, p. 136, pl. 26, fig. 5.
[21]

FORAMINIFERA OF THE GULF OF CAMBAY 267

Description: Test very long, compressed, tapering and many cham-
-bered with a blunt apical end. Sutures somewhat depressed. Wall
smooth and finely punctate. Aperture an elongate slit situated at the
inner margin of last formed chamber.

Length: 0°44 mm.
Locality: Station D.

Distribution: North and Eastern Pacific, Hawaiian Islands, off
Japan, Gulf of Mannar off Ceylon coast, and Indian seas.

Bolivina nobilis Hantken (Fig. 54)

Bolivina nobilis Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 424, pl. 53, figs. 14, 15 ; Chapman, 1895,
p. 24; Cushman, 1911, 71(2), p. 39, text-fig. 64 ; Sethulekshmi Amma, 1958,
p. 45, pl. 2, fig. 68.

Description : Test elongate, compressed and tapering with a blunt
apical end, chambers numerous, slightly inflated. Test wall about
half portion from the apical end covered with many fine longitudinal
costae, the other half smooth and finely punctate. Sutures depressed.
- Aperture oval in outline placed at the apertural face of last chamber.

Length: 0°28 mm.
Locality: Station D.

Distribution: North and South Pacific, Hawaiian Islands, Philip-
pines, Arabian Sea, Mediterranean and British Isles. '

Bolivina aenariensis (Costa) (Fig. 55)
Bolivina aenariensis Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 423, pl. 53, figs. 10, 11; Cushman,
1911, 71(2), p. 44, text-fig. 71. |

Description: Test compressed and tapering with many chambers,
the apical end with or without a spine and when there is no spine it is
usually blunt. Sutures depressed. Wall covered with two or more
- longitudinal thickenings or costae. Aperture long slit-like with a lip
placed on the apertural face.

Length: 0°25 mm.
Locality: Station C and D.

Distribution: North Atlantic, West and North-west of Ireland,
North Pacific, off Philippines, off Japan, coast of California, Hawaiian
Islands and Arabian Sea.

[22]

268 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Bolivina vadescens Cushman (Fig. 56)

Bolivina vadescens Cushman, 1942, 161(3), p. 15 ye 5, fig.4 ; Ganapati & Satyavati,
1958, p. 109, pl. 4, fig. 99.

Description: Test long and many chambered, later formed sheinabees
somewhat inflated. Peripheral margin rounded. Sutures sigmoid and
distinct. Wall smooth and finely foraminated. Aperture loop- -shaped,
situated at the base of ultimate chamber.

Length: 0°22 mm.
Locality: Station_C.

Distribution: Tropical Pacific Ocean, Fiji, Levuka, Viva Anchorage,
Makemo Lagoon, Paumotu Islands, Rotonga, Guam Anchorage,
Landrone Islands and Indian seas. |

Bolivina rhomboidalis (Millett) (Fig. 57)

Bolivina rhomboidalis Cushman, 1922, 104(2), p. 44-; 1942, 161(3), p. 19, pl. 6, figs. 7,
8.

Description: Test triangular and longer than broad ; seven chambers
on one side and six on the other side excluding the primary chamber,
later chambers increasing in size as added. Periphery obliquely truncate.
Sutures oblique and distinct. Wall smooth. Aperture long, situated at
the inner wall of last chamber. :

Length: 0°41 mm.
Locality : Station C. a

Distribution: Pacific Ocean, Hawaiian Islands, Malay Archipelago
and Arabian Sea.

Bolivina nitida Brady (Fig. 58)

Bolivina nitida Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 420, pl. 52, fig. 30 a, b; Cushman, 1942,
161G), pi 25,‘pl.:7, fig: 'S:

Description: Test long, compressed, tapering towards commence-
ment with a few broad and flattened chambers. Peripheral margin
rounded and subcarinate. Sutures limbate, distinct and obliquely set ;
a narrow band of clear shell material at the sutures and around the peri-
phery. Aperture long, narrow slit placed obliquely extending almost
the whole length vf the inner margin of last chamber.

=

Length: 0°25 mm.

Locality: Station D.
[23]

FORAMINIFERA OF THE GULF OF CAMBAY 269

Distribution: Tropical Pacific, Eastern Mancoeur Island, Bass
Strait, off Raine Island, Torres Strait, East of Wollongong off Australia
and Arabian Sea. :

Genus Loxostoma Ehrenberg 1854

Loxostoma limbatum (Brady) (Fig. 59)

Bolivina limbata Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 419, pl. 52, figs. 26-28 ; Cushman, 1911
71(2), p. 47, fig. 78 a, b, c. (in text). Loxostoma limbatum Cushman, 1942,
161(3), p. 35, pl. 10, fig. 1. Loxostomum limbatum Ganapati & Satyavati, 1958,
p. 109, pl. 4, fig. 102. |

Description: Test somewhat twisted, longer than broad and com-
pressed with biserially set chambers, later formed chambers inflated and
broader than long. Sutures distinct and limbate. Wall smooth and
coarsely perforated. Aperture an elongate slit at the terminal end of
last chamber.

Length: 0°25 mm.
Locality: Station C.

Distribution: Indo-Pacific, West Indies and Indian seas.

Subfamily Uvigerininae
Genus Uvigerina d’Orbigny 1826

Uvigerina tenuistriata Reuss (Fig. 60)

Uvigerina tenuistriata Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 574, pl. 74, figs. 4-7 ; Chapman, 1895,
p. 35 ; Cushman, 1913, 71(3), p. 95, pl. 42, fig. 4.

Description: Test cylindrical in shape, longer than broad, with a
narrow apical end. Wall ornamented with numerous distinct longi-
tudinal costae, the last formed chamber often without costae. Aperture
with a phialine lip at the terminal end of a short neck. .

Length.: 0°34 mm.
Locality : Station C.

Distribution ;: North Pacific, off Philippines and Arabian Sea.
[ 24]

270 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Family ROTALIDAE
Subfamily Spirillininae
Genus Spirillina Ehrenberg 1841

Spirillina vivipara Ehrenberg (Fig. 61)

Spirillina perforata Williamson, 1858, p. 92, pl. 7, fig. 202. Spirillina vivipara
Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 630, pl. 85, figs. 1-5 ; Dakin, 1906, vol. 5, p. 237;
Cushman, 1915, 71(5), p 3, pl.1, figs. 1,2; Sethulekshmi Amma, 1958, p. 63
pl. 3, fig. 96.

Description: Test planispiral, flat, the first formed coils narrow
compared to the later formed ones. Sutures depressed and distinct.

Peripheral margin round. Wall with large perforations. Aperture

circular at the end of the tube.
Diameter: 0°13 mm.
Locality : Station B.

Distribution: Arctic, North and South Atlantic, North and South
Pacific, Indian and Southern oceans, Mediterranean and Red seas, Ceylon
and Arabian Sea.

‘Spirillina limbata Brady (Fig. 62)

Spirillina limbata Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 632, pl. 85, figs. 18-21 ; Dakin, 1906,
vol. 5, p. 237 ; Cushman, 1915, 71(5), p. 5, pl. 2, figs. 1,2 ; 1931, 104(8), p. 8,
pl. 2, fig. 2 a, b ; Sethulekshmi Amma, 1958, p. 63, pl. 3, fig. 97.

Description: Test planispiral with both faces somewhat flattened or
slightly concave. Peripheral margin square. Sutures slightly raised
because of the presence of a ridge of shell substance. Test wall finely
foraminated. Aperture more or less compressed lying at the end of the
tube. ;

Diameter: 0°27 mm.
Locality: Station A.

Distribution: North and South Pacific, North and South Atlantic,
Mediterranean, Ceylon coast and Arabian Sea.

wpe PD AAS

oe aa a ee re

FORAMINIFERA OF THE GULF OF CAMBAY 211
Subfamily Discorbinae

Genus Discorbis Lamarck 1804

Discorbis globularis (d’Orbigny) (Fig. 63)

Discorbina globularis Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 643, pl. 86, figs. 8, 13. .Cushman,
1915, 71(5), p. 11, pl. 9, fig. 4; 1931, 104(8), p. 22, pl. 4, fig. 9 a-c; Sethulekshmi
Amma, 1958, p. 66, pl. 3, fig. 101 a, b.

Description: Test planoconvex, chambers numerous. All the
chambers visible on the dorsal side but only those of the last whorl of
about five chambers on the ventral side. Sutures depressed and distinct.
Peripheral edge round and carinate. Test wall with coarse perforations.
Aperture an elongate slit on the ventral side of inner edge of ultimate
chamber. |

"Diameter: 0°19 mm.
Locality: Station C.

Distribution: Yndo-Pacific region, North Pacific, Atlantic, British
Isles, Western Europe, Eastern channel of Korean Strait.

Discorbis rosacea (d’Orbigny) (Fig. 64)

Discorbina rosacea Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 644, pl. 87, figs. 1, 4 ; Dakin, 1906, vol. 5,
p. 238 ; Cushman, 1915, 71(5), p. 13, fig. 13; Gnanamuthu, 1943, p. 20, pl. 4,
fig. 16 ; Sethulekshmi Amma, 1958, p. 65, pl. 3, fig. 100 a, b.

Description: Test many chambered, dorsal side conically convex,
ventral side flat or slightly concave. Sutures depressed and distinct.
Test wall finely foraminated. Umbilical region on the ventral side filled
_ by a thickening of shell substance. Aperture a large elongate opening

situated at the inner margin of last chamber.

Diameter: 0°23 mm.
Locality : Stations A & C.

Distribution: North Pacific, Atlantic, Faroe Islands, shores of
Shetland, Ceylon coast and Indian seas.

‘Discorbis vilardeboana (d’Orbigny) (Fig. 65) |

Discorbina vilardeboana Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 645, pl. 86, figs.9, 12 ; pl. 88, fig. 2 ;
Dakin, 1906, vol. 5, p. 238 ; Bagg, 1908, vol. 34, p. 157 ; Cushman, 1915, 71(5),
p. 14, pl. 9, fig. 2 ; Sethulekshmi Amma, 1958, p. 67, pl. 3, fig. 103 a, b.

Description: Test planoconvex with numerous chambers, the outer
whorl with five to seven chambers. Peripheraledge rounded. Sutures

somewhat depressed and distinct. Wall finely foraminated. Aperture
26}

272 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

an arched slit situated on the ventral side of test lying close to the um-
bilical region.

Diameter: 0°27 mm.
Locality: Station A.

Distribution : North Pacific, Hawaiian Islands, Laysan Island, Japan,
Atlantic, Ceylon coast and Arabian Sea.

Discorbis bertheloti (d’Orbigny) (Fig. 66 a, b)

Discorbina bertheloti Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 650, pl. 89, figs. 10-12 ; Brady, Parker &
Jones, 1888, vol. 12, p. 227, pl. 46, figs. 7, 8; Dakin, 1906, vol. 5, p. 238;
Cushman, 1915, 71(5), p. 20, pl. 7, fig. 3.

Description: Test planoconvex, compressed, periphery acute and
slightly carinated. Dorsal side of test somewhat flat, ventral side convex.
Outer whorl of five to seven chambers. Sutures depressed. Wall
punctate. Aperture a narrow slit situated ventrally at the inner edge
of ultimate chamber. :

Diameter: 0°22 mm.
Locality : ’ Station A.

Distribution: North Pacific, Chatham and Laysan islands, off Guam,
Japan, Philippines, Ceylon coast and Indian seas.

Discorbis nitida (Williamson) (Fig. 67)

Rotalina nitida Williamson,-1858, p. 54, pl. 4, fiz. 106-108. Discorbis nitida
Cushman, 1931, 104(8), p. 26, pl. 6, fig. 1 a-c ; Sethulekshmi Amma, 1958, p. 70,
pl. 3, fig. 109.

Description: Test trochoid, many chambered with a little more than
two coils, final whorl composed of about six chambers. Peripheral
margin with a distinct keel. Sutures slightly depressed below and flush
with the surface above. Wall smooth, finely foraminated and trans-
parent. Aperture on the ventral side at the base of the final chamber.

Diameter: 0°14 mm.
Locality : Station D.

Distribution: Atlantic, European coast, British Isles and Arabian

Sea.
[27]

a

i ‘sting se

J. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 67 (2) PLATE IV
Kameswara Rao: Foraminifera

(AO
Figs.32-35,37,42,43.

___0.25mm_,
Fig.36.

‘ 0.1mm ;

Figs. 38-41,44-46,

Fics. 32-46 : 32. Nodosaria calomorpha ; 33. Nodosaria radicula; 34. Nodosaria roemeri ;
35. Nodosaria perversa; 36. Nodosaria subperversa; 37. Lagena globosa; 38. Lagena
marginata; 39. Lagena striata; 40. Lagena quadrata; 41. Lagena orbignyana; 42.

Nonion boueanum ; 43. Nonion pompilioides ; 44. Nonion pacificum ; 45. Nonion depressula ;
46. Elphidium crispum.

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 67 (2) PLATE V
Kameswara Rao: Foraminifera.

i
oe

=

ee
somes

RAEI.
Veena

fi

yop

0.2mm
Figs. 47-51,53,54
po Ome
Figs.52,55,57

0.1mm
Fig. 56

Fics. 47-57: 47. Elphidium jenseni; 48. Operculina granulosa; 49. Operculina gaimairdi;
50. Sorites marginalis; 51. Bulimina marginata; 52. Virgulina squamosa; 53. Bolivina
punctata ; 54. Bolivina nobilis ; 55. Bolivina aenariensis; 56. Bolivina vadescens; 57. Bolivina

rhomboidalis.

J. BoMBAy NaT. Hist. Soc. 67 (2) PLATE VI
Kameswara Rao: Foraminifera.

Figs.59,60,62,64,65,68.

' 0.1mm ;
Figs.58,61,63,66,67.

Fics. 58-68 : 58. Bolivina nitida; 59. Loxostoma limbatum; 60. Uvigerina tenuistriata
61. Spirillina vivipara ; 62. Spirillina limbata ; 63. Discorbis globularis ; 64. Discorbis rosacea
65. Discorbis vilardeboana; 66. Discorbis bertheloti—a, dorsal view ; b, ventral view ; 67.
Discorbis nitida ; 68. Rotalia calcar.

wewe

FORAMINIFERA OF THE GULF OF CAMBAY Pa)

Subfamily Rotaliinae

Genus Rotalia Lamarck 1804

Rotalia calcar (d’Orbigny) (Fig. 68)

Rotalia calcar Brady, 1884,vol. 9, p. 709, pl. 108, fig. 3, fig. 4?; Dakin, 1906, vol. 5,
p. 239; Cushman, 1915, 71(5), p. 69, pl. 28, fig. 2, pl.29, fig.2. Sethulekshmi
Amma, 1958, p. 73, pl. 3, fig. 113 a, b; Ganapati & Satyavati, 1958, p. 110, pl. 5,
figs. 118, 119. ;

Description: Test many chambered with both faces of the test
convex, all chambers visible on the dorsal side and on ventral side only
those of the last whorl. The outer whorl consists of ten chambers.
Sutures limbate. Peripheral margin of each chamber drawn into a
pointed end. Test wall finely foraminated. Aperture a narrow slit
between periphery and umbilicus on ventral side.

Diameter : 0°28 mm.

Locality: Stations A & C.

Distribution : North Pacific, Hong Kong Harbour, Cebu, Philippines,
Ceylon coast and Indian seas.

(to be continued)

[28]

Eco-toxicology and Control of Indian
Desert Gerbil, Meriones hurrianae
(Jerdon)

VI—One-Shot Baiting Technique

ISHWAR PRAKASH AND A. P. JAIN
Animal Studies Division,
Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur

INTRODUCTION

The idea behind the one-shot baiting technique is to impregnate a
single unit of bait material with the lethal dose of a poison and then to —
mix it with unpoisoned ones in a particular proportion. This mixture —
is then used for control operations. The unpoisoned materials providea
built-in prebaiting system and, thus, by providing poisoned and un-
poisoned baits together, the cost and time of prebaiting is saved simul-
taneously. Gooding (1961) tried one-shot baiting method for the control
of wild rabbits in Western Australia by incorporating the lethal dose of
Sodium mono-fluoroacetate (1080) in a single oat grain by the vacuum :
impregnation process and then using these in the field for killing rabbits
after mixing with unpoisoned ones in the ratio of 1 lethal oat : 99 un-
poisoned oats. In the present study, instead of using any foodgrains as
the medium for poisoning the desert gerbil, air-dried fruits of Zizyphus ;
nummularia (ber) were used as the baiting material. This material was:
chosen-on the basis of our earlier studies on the intake of seeds of various __
plant species by desert gerbils (Prakash, Purohit & Kametkar 1967).

METHODS - |

For finding out the acceptability of air-dried fruits of Zizyphus num-
mularia (ber) to desert gerbils in the field where other foods are also
available to them, 5 ber were placed near each of ten active burrow
openings of these animals. Their consumption was watched from a |
distance with the help of binoculars. The burrow openings were checked _
at hourly intervals and the unconsumed fruits were counted. Al
The air dried ber were soaked in solutions having different concen- — |
trations of 1080 poison to make each ber lethal with 1 mg. to 3 mg./kg. |

PRO. ach aes iy
+ er 8 A

ECO-TOXICOLOGY & CONTROL OF INDIAN DESERT GERBIL 275

dosages. One ber each having a different concentration of the poison
was given to sets of ten gerbils for each concentration and their mortality
was observed.

Before mixing the poisoned fruits with unpoiscned ones, it was
checked if the desert gerbils can distinguish between the two. One ber
of each type was given together to each of 10 desert gerbils in captivity
and their preference was noted.

For determining the proportion in which the unpoisoned ber should
be mixed with poisoned ones, they were mixed in the ratio of 1:4, 1:9
and 1:14 and were tried in the laboratory as well as in the field. In
the field each proportion was tried in replications of four in units of ten
active burrows. Population estimation of desert gerbils both before and
after the one-shot baiting operation was made by the burrow closing-
opening technique (Prakash 1963).

RESULTS

_ Acceptability of ber fruits in the field: It was observed with the help
of binoculars that the gerbils started feeding on the pulp of the berry as
soon as they came out of the burrows. They did not eat the seeds at the
beginning but later on a majority of them were eaten. Out of 50 ber
placed near ten burrow openings, 72 per cent were consumed within an
hour and all were consumed within a four hour duration. These obser-
vations indicated that the air-dried ber are quite acceptable to the desert
gerbils.

_ Distinguishing capability of desert gerbils: One each of air-dried,
unpoisoned ber and poison-soaked ber were given to 10 desert gerbils in
individual cages to see if they can differentiate between the two. It was
found that the consumption of poisoned ones was more than the others,
probably, due to availability of moisture in them. Since the desert
gerbils were not able to differentiate between the two, it was safe to mix
unpoisoned ones (prebaiting) and poisoned ones (poison baiting).

Incorporation of lethal dose in a single ber: 1001 air-dried ber absorb
25 cc. of water in 24 hours. Therefore, the requisite amount of poison
according to the dosage with which a ber has to be made lethal should be
incorporated in 25cc. of water. In an earlier study (Prakash, Fitzwater &
Jain 1969), it was found that by administering the various dosages of
1080 by stomach tubes, its LD;, for desert gerbil was 0°6 mg./kg.
Keeping this in view, ber were soaked in solutions having 1080 to impreg-
nate 1, 1°5, 2 and 3 mg./kg. dosage in every ber. One each of poison-

1 Average Weight 32 gm,

276 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

impregnated ber of various dosages was given to 10 desert gerbils in indi-
vidual cages. The per cent kill and hours of death are presented in
Table 1. Although 100 per cent kill was observed when desert gerbils
fed ber having 1°5 mg./kg. dosage of 1080, hours to death extended up
to 48 hours but when ber were soaked to impregnate them with 3 mg./kg.
dosage, this time was reduced to 24 hours, the kill being 100 per cent.
Hence, this dosage was selected for further trials.

TABLE |

THE PER CENT KILL AND HOURS TO DEATH OF DESERT
GERBILS WHEN FED ON 1080 IMPREGNATED ber

Dosages of 1080 (mg./kg.) No. of animals % kill Hours to death

in which ber was soaked tried
1 10 80 18-48 hrs.
1-5 10 100 30-48,
2°0 10 90 -30-48 ,,
3°0 10 100 24

PROPORTION OF LETHAL AND UNPOISONED BER, AND KILL RATIOS

In the Laboratory: Poisoned Zizyphus fruits with 3 mg./kg. dosage
were mixed in three proportions with ordinary fruits: 1:4, 1:9 and
1 : 14 and each proportion was tried on ten desert gerbils. The results
are shown in Table 2.

TABLE 2

KILL PER CENT AND HOURS TO DEATH OF DESERT GERBILS WHEN FED ON
POISONED AND. UNPOISONED ber IN VARIOUS PROPORTIONS

Proportion of lethal No. of animals % kill Hours to death
and ordinary ber tried
1:4 10 90 24 hrs.
1:9 10 80 24 ,;
1:1

> 14 10 40 24

It is obvious that the per cent kill decreased with the increase inthe

proportion of unpoisoned ber in the one-shot baits in as much as that the
kill was only 40 per cent where 1 : 14 proportion of lethal and non-lethal
ber was tried. But in all the trials the rodents died within 24 hours which
further indicates the feasibility of impregnating the 3 mg./kg. dosage in
each ber.

Ri eeHE

ECO-TOXICOLOGY & CONTROL OF INDIAN DESERT GERBIL 277

In the Field: Results of field trials indicate that per cent kill of
desert gerbils was highest when lethal and unpoisoned ber were mixed in
the ratio of 1: 4(Table 3). The per cent kill of desert gerbils decreased
with the increase in the proportion of unpoisoned fruits which is in con-
formity with the results of experiment done in the laboratory. The
per cent kill values were transformed to the Arcsin scale and analysis of
variance was carried out but it was found that the differences between the
per cent kill due to lethal ber mixed with various proportions of
unpoisoned ones were not significant. However, the maximum kill was
observed in the ratio 1 : 4 and therefore, it will be appropriate to use this
proportion for field operations.

TABLE 3

SHOWING PER CENT KILL OF DESERT GERBILS IN FIELD WHEN POISON BAITING
WAS DONE WITH ONE LETHAL Zizyphus FRUIT IN VARIOUS PROPORTIONS OF
ORDINARY ONES

EEO

Habitat Proportions of lethal and unpoisoned

Zizyphus fruits and kill per cent

1:4 hg) 1:14

I 80 70 90

II 90 80 60

Ill 90 70 50

IV 70 80 50
Mean 82°5 75:0 62°5

EGONOMICS OF THE METHOD

~The shrub, Zizyphus nummularia ‘grows abundantly throughout the
desert region and the farmers can collect berries without incurring any
expenditure. The labour involved will be meagre as compared to other
methods (Chitty 1954; Prakash 1963 ; Srivastava 1966 ; Narayangowda
1966 and Batra 1966) which require prebaiting for 2-5 days before poison-
baiting for 1-3 days: as in one-shot baiting technique, both prebaiting
and poison-baiting are done simultaneously. The cost of poison required
for poisoning 100 desert gerbils per hectare will be only one Paisa. Sardar
Singh (1966) described the cost of anti-rat measures with various poisons
and by fumigation to be ranging from Rs. 0.62 to 15°78 per hectare.
Comparing these figures, the one-shot baiting technique will prove to be
the cheapest among the ones in vogue in India.
Pingale (1966) mentioned that about 300 gm. of food grains
are required for the control of each rodent. The one-shot baiting method

a

278 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

does not require any food grain for pre- or poison-baiting as it is based
on a wild growing fruit which is quite palatable to desert gerbils. Thus
this method will save a large amount of food grains for human consump-
tion which would have otherwise been utilised for baiting rodents. How-
ever, the poison 1080 is very toxic and, therefore, it should be used with
great care and should be handled only by trained personnel.

This method also opens avenues for trying different wild fruits for
baiting various rodent pests in India.

SUMMARY

One-shot baiting technique for the control of the Indian desert gerbil,

Meriones hurrianae Jerdon, is described. The method utilizes the fruits
of wild Zizyphus nummularia and does not involve any requirement of
food grains. In this method, air-dried fruits of Z. nummularia are soaked
in solution of Sodium mono-fluoroacetate (1080) impregnating a
3mg./kg. dosage in every fruit so as to make every one of them lethal to
desert gerbil. The lethal fruits are mixed with unpoisoned ones in the
proportion of 1: 4 and are placed inside the burrows of desert gerbils in

fields.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks are due to Dr. G. C. Taneja, Director and Shri C. P. Bhimaya,
Ex-Director, for taking keen interest in the study ; and to Shri H.
P. Sharma, Junior Scientific Assistant for assistance.

REFERENCES

BATRA, H. N. (1966) : Results of rat rodent of desert grassland. Gosam-

control operations in Intensive Agri-
cultural Districts Programme. Proc.
Indian Rodent Symp. pp. 139-143.
Cutty, D. (1954): Control of rats
and mice. Oxford, Clarendon Press.
GoopiInc, C. D. (1961): One-shot
baiting—A recent development in rabbit

poisoning technique. Rabbit Control
Symp. Perth 2: 1-9.
NARAYANGOWDA, S. D. (1966): A

Short note on rodent control in Kolar
district, Mysore State, as part of the
plague control operations. Proc. Indian
Rodent Symp. pp. 291-299.

PINGALE, S. V. (1966): Studies on
development and control of rat popu-
lations. ibid. (In press).

PRAKASH, ISHWAR (1963) : Destructive

vardhana X1: 15-18.

PRAKASH, ISHWAR, PUROHIT, K.G. &
KAMETKAR, L. R. (1967) : Intake of seeds
of grass, shrub and tree species by three
species of gerbils in Rajasthan desert.
Indian For. 93: 801-805.

————., Firzwater, W. D. & JAIN,
A. P. (1969) : Toxic chemicals and baits
for the control of two gerbils, Meriones
hurrianae Jerdon and Tatera indica Hard-
wicke. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 66:
500-509.

SINGH, SARDAR (1966): Organisation
of Field rat control and its economics.
Proc. Indian Rodent Symp. pp. 305-314.

SRIVASTAVA, A. S. (1966) : Evolution,
development and standardisation of a
technique for the eradication of field
rats. ibid. pp. 283-290.

as

— ee ee ee - aa

A Catalogue of the Birds in the
Collection of the Bombay Natural
History Society—7

Scolopacinae (part), Phalaropinae, Rostratulidae,
Recurvirostridae, Dromadidae, Burhinidae, Glareolidae,
Stercorariidae, Laridae

BY

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

ees from Vol. 67 (1): 56]

404 Capella solitaria solitaria (Hodgson) (Nepal) Eastern Solitary
Snipe 563257
15: 4.68. 3: 228-0?
3 Chitral, N.W.F.P.; 1 Patiala, 1 Dharmsala, Kangra ; 1 Srinagar, 1 Dabbian,
Lidar Valley, 1 Puga Valley, Rupshu ; 1 Mussoorie, 1 Almora ; 1 Lachung, N.
Sikkim ; 2 Balipara, 1 Shillong, 1 Manipur.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail
$2 159-169 av.165 65-74 av. 70°6 32-35 av. 33°7 68-75 av. 71:6
(153-169) . (67-77) (c. 28-38) (55-63)

405 Capella nemoricola (Hodgson) (Nepal) Wood Snipe 6: 255

M21 Ss. 2-99. -1l.0?
1 Thana, 1 Talegaon, Poona; 1 Almora, U.P.; ee, Khasia Hills ; 1 Kaliawa, 7 Taung-
gyi, Upper Burma, 1 Burma.
The measurements differ from those in FAUNA quoted in INDIAN
HANDBOOK.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail
38 139-152 av. 145 64-72 av. 67°5 35-38 av. 36 49-62 av. 54
(133-141) (61-67) (c. 30-36) (63-74)

406 Capella stenura (Bonaparte) (Sunda Islands) Pintail Snipe
6 : 263 |

B= 9 SS'C10 OP: 80?

3 Bombay, 2 Thana, 1 Panvel, Sisal: 2 Karwar, 1 Bangalore; 1 Gudalur,
Nilgiris; 1 Muthukuzhi, 5 Tenmalai, 1 Thekkady, Periyar Lake, Kerala; 1 Bakhri,
Monghyr, Bihar ; 1 Birbhum, 1 Calcutta Market, Bengal; 1 Khetri, Assam ;
2 Andamans ; 2 Sagaing, Upper Burma, | Klongyai, S.E. Siam.

5S of them (Bombay, Panvel, Ratnagiri, Assam, and Burma) are

_ isabelline in colour with varying degrees of markings on the upper parts.

[119]

as.

280 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Another from Bangalore (No. 14952) has the markings all over very much
paler than in the norma! plumage.

bd oo
Wing 128-139 av. 132 129-137 av. 133°7
(125-134) - (130-138)
Bill 56-65 av. 61 59-71 av. 63°7
(57-61) (59-64)
Tarsus 30-33 av. 31°6 32-36 av. 33°9
) (3 2 32-36)
Tail 44-50 av. 47 46-50 av. 47°3
($2 45-52)

In some specimens the bill is appreciably longer than accepted in
IND. HANDBOOK quoting from Stuart Baker.

407 Capella megala (Swinhoe) (Between Takoo and Peking, China)
Swinhoe’s Snipe 6: 264
8 1375 22 20?
1 Malangad, 1 Thana, Bombay; 1 Walmer, Nilgiris; 2 Tindivanam, S.I.; 1 Tharra-
wady, Lower Burma;1 Ampang, near Kuala Lumpur, Malaya; 1 Temple of
Heaven, Peking, China.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail
be 135-144 av. 140 64(3), 66 33-37 av. 35°5 51-60
(128-139 Baker, (59-74 ; 61-72) (c. 32-34 ; 33-35 5 (52-57 ; 55-62)
142-151 La Touche) . 37, 38)

See Miscellaneous Note, JBNHS 67: 108. One more specimen,
obtained in 1952 and put aside for confirmation, was discovered after
the publication of this note. Except fora5l mm. tail, the measure-
ments are within the limits indicated in my note.

408 Capella media (Latham) (England) Great Snipe 6: 261

9: 1g:4 22, 407
1 Basra, Mesopotamia; 5 Katunak, near Shiraz ; | Bangalore; 1 Walmer, Nilgiris;

1 Moulmein, Burma.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail
$2 138 (frayed)-150 av. 143°7 60(2),62,66 32-40 av.36 50-57 av. 54:2
(139-150) (57-69) (3 33-37) (3 51-59)

See Miscellaneous Note JBNHS 67: 109.

409 Capella gallinago gallinago (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Common or
Fantail Snipe LiF tg 6: 259

35:11 gs 18 22 60? (2 albinoids) :

1 Hawi Plain, Samara, 1 Mesopotamia; 2 Shiraz, 1 Arabistan; 1 Chitral,
1 N.W.F.P.; 1 Darazpur, Ambala, Punjab ; 2 Kohistan, 1 Pithora, Sind; 1
Jaipur ; 1 Dhari, Amreli, 1 Kaira District ; 4 Nasik Dist. ; 2 near Bombay, 3
Thana, 2 Panvel, 1 Alibag, Kolaba ; 2 Karwar, 1 Bangalore; 3 Bakhri, Monghyr;
1 Calcutta Market ; 1 Prome Dist.; 1 Bangkok. .

No. 14951 (Bangalore) and 19434 (Bombay) are albinoid with a buffish
wash all over, generally similar to the albinoid C. stenura.
| 120]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—17 281

Wing Bill - Tarsus Tail.
83 129-136 av. 132 64-71 av. 66°5 31-34 av. 32°7 57-65 av. 59°7
(128-138) (60-71°5) (29-33) . (53-61)
@©@ 128-137 av. 133°4 62-72 av. 63 31-36 av. 33°3 53-60 av. 55°6
(130-140) (64-73)

The outermost tail feathers are tipped with white Gustead of brown)
in 7 of the 11 males and in only one of the 18 females.

41@ Capella minima (Briinnich) (E. Christians6, Denmark) Jack Snipe
6: 265

20:4336. 14 92 2 0? (1 albinoid, 1 melanistic)

1 Thar and Parkar ; 1 Ambala, Punjab ; 1 Chaduva, Kutch; 1 Jaipur; 1 Kaira
District ; 2 Ghoti, 3 Thana; 1 Kalianpur, Cawnpur, 6 Meerut; 1 Tirhut,
1 Bakhri, Monghyr ; 1 no locality, albinoid.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail
3d 111, 114, 115, 116 38, 39, 39,41 = 23, 23, 24, 24 47, 48, 49, 49 ©
(108-117) (39-41) (23-25) (46-51)
QQ 106-113 av. 108 38-43 av. 40°6 23-25 42-52 av. 47
~ (107-115) (40-43) — —

411 Scolopax rusticola rusticola Linnaeus (Sweden) Woodcock 6 : 252

15:733 8 2@ (also 2 pairs wings only, 1 Chitral and 1 Assam)

(a) 2 Bandar-e-Gaz, near Astrabad, Caspian Province ; 1 Birjand, Persia; 1 Kilia,

1 Drosh, 2 Chitral, N.W.F.P. ; 1 Katha Dist., Upper Burma.
(b) 2 Simla, 1 Palanpur ; 1 Ootacamund, Nilgiris ; 2 Lobha, Garhwal; 1 Temi,
West Sikkim ; 1 Laitlyngkot, Assam, 1 Chin Hills.

The material available falls into two distinct groups which I have
listed separately above. The birds in group (a) are paler above, while
those in group (b) show darker and more pronounced barrings with the
pale interspaces less white. The rufous on the upper tail coverts is also
appreciably deeper thaninthe western birds. Keeping both sexes together
they measure | ;

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail
(a) 193-207 av. 200°7 69-80 av. 74°5 36-41 av. 38°7 74-87 av. 82
(b) 192-197 av. 195 72-81 av. 76 36-41 av.38 71-85 av. 81
(184-208) (67-80) (34-38) (71-82)

Except for one bird from the Chin Hills, group (a) lies west of group
(b). The pair of wings from Assam are notice phy darker than any of the
others.

_ I would have been inclined to consider recognition of Hodgson’s
indicus from Nepal and/or Koelz’s ul/imus from Sangau, Lushai Hills,
had not both forms been so positively ignored in recent literature. I
trust that somebody with more material available for examination will
examine this matter more closely. .

10 ie int

282 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

412 Calidris canutus canutus (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Knot 8 : 698
2:12 10? Point Calimere, Thanjavur Dist., Tamil Nadu.
Though there is a single record for Ceylon, these specimens obtained
by the B.N.H.S. Bird Ringing Camp considerably extend the known
range of this species.

413 Calidris tenuirostris (Horsfield) (Java) Eastern Knot 6: 243
1Q Muthupet, Thanjavur Dist., Tamil Nadu.

Wing 178 (165-185) ; bill 44 (39-47); tarsus 34 (34-38) ; tail 66 (63-69).

This bird obtained by the B.N.H.S. Bird Ringing Camp is also a
valuable record. The map in IND. HANDBOOK (2 : 291) appears to indi-
cate that there are many records from the east coast, but I cannot
trace any earlier ones. Jerdon’s record for Madras may refer either to
this species or canutus (Whistler, JBNH'S 39 : 258)

414 Calidris albus (Pallas) (Coast of the North Sea) Sanderling 6 : 231

A Bag Ok ae 2

1 Charbar, 1 Tanb Island, Persian Gulf ; 1 Karachi ; 1 Gorai, Bombay.
Wing 119, 121, 121, 123, (¢2 117-130)

Bill 22, 23, 24, 27, ($ 2 23-29)

Tarsus 23, 25(3) (62 22-26)

Tail 47, 47, 48, 52, (3 2 46-55)

415 Calidris ruficollis (Pallas) (Southern Transbaikalia) Eastern
Little Stint poctenrers ae |
3:1 2 Chilka Lake, Orissa; 13 1 9, Osaka, Japan. :
Sp. No. 14793 collected by Maj. H. J. Walton at Chilka Lake on 10th
June 1902 is marked Tringa ruficollis but being indistinguishable in
colour from Calidris minutus has remained under that name. However,
its 112 mm. wing and 21 mm. bill from feathers are both noticeably larger
than in minutus (90-102 and 17-20). Though presumably recorded from
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (JBNHS 61: 519)! and ‘ occasional
specimens appear to be found in India, west of the Bay of Bengal’
(Blanford 4 : 274), I cannot trace any specific published records from the
Indian continent, whence it is omitted in the SYNOPSIS. In IND. HANDBOOK |
(2: 301) it is said to have been recorded from Rameshwaram Island |
Tamil Nadu. |
: |

416 Calidris minutus (Leisler) (Hanau am Main, Germany) Little |
Stint 6: 234 |

63:2788 2692 100? 7 |
2 Baghdad; 3 Pushtkuh Khasan; 1 Baluchistan; 1 Chitral; 4 Kandla, Kutch; |

25 Bombay, 7 Thana, 6 Kolaba ;.1 Pt. Calimere, Tamil Nadu ; 3 Chilka Lake, |
. Orissa; .1 Meerut, U. P.; 4 Darbhanga, 2 Bakhri, Bihar; 2 Calcutta Market;
1 Henzada, Burma. | : |

1 See also JBNHS 64: 162.
[ 122]

are a er a

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST, SOCIETY COLLECTION-~-7 283

417 Calidris temminckii (Leisler) (Hanau am Main, Germany)
Temminck’s Stint 6 : 237
D666. 9.29)..60?

2 Mesopotamia; 1 Ladak; 1 Sind ; 6 Bombay ; 1 Cawnpore ; 2 Calcutta Market ;
1 Rajputee, 3 Monghyr, Bihar ; 2 Burma ; 2 China.

418 Calidiis subminutus (Middendorff) (Western slopes of the Stanovoi
Mountains and mouth of the Uda) Longtoed Stint 6 : 236
8:25d 699

1 Bakhri, Monghyr District, Bihar ; 1 Calcutta Market; 4 Port Blair, Andamans ;
1 Hsipaw, Shan States, 1 Kyethe, Prome District, Burma.

Wing 3d 87,91 29 89-98 av.92°6 (32 87-95)
Bill g217-20 av. 19 (17-19)

419 Calidris acuminatus (Horsfield) (Java) Asian Sharptailed Sand-
piper 6 : 239
Dee ae FO?
1 Tientsin, China, 4th May 1901 ; | Osaka, Japan.

420 Calidris alpinus alpinus (Linnaeus) (Lapland) Dunlin 6: 241
nil.

421 Calidris alpinus centralis (Buturlin) (Yakutsk, eastern Siberia)

BLISS 9.29202

1 Abadi, 1 Amara, 1 Sheik Saad, 1 Hawi Plain, Mesopotamia; 1 Charbar,1 Sanauch,
Persian Gulf; 4 Pasni, 1 Baluchistan; 2 Karachi; 1 Kandla, Kutch ; 2 Salsette,
Bombay, 1 Panvel, 4 Rewas, Kolaba ; 1 Calcutta Market.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail
bd 112-119 av. 116 31-38 av.33 22-28 av. 24:5 44-51 av. 48°5
Ticehurst (Sind) 112-121 29-36 24-27 _—
BR. HANDBOOK 111-116 28°5-31 vi 23-29 48-52
ene) 114-122 av. 116°4 31-38 av.34 24-26 47-55 av. 50
Ticehurst (Sind) 116-123 34-39 25-27 —
BR. HANDBOOK 116-119 31-34°5 23-25°5 =

Stuart Baker referred only to the nominate form from Indian limits.
Later Buturlin (1932, Alauda 4: 265) when describing centralis suggested
that it (centralis) may winter in India. Witherby (BR. HANDBOOK 1940)
did not accept this form as separable from the nominate, but Ripley and
Sdlim Ali (SYNOPSIS & IND. HANDBOOK) have again, with no definite identi-
fications, agreed that it may occur in India.

The measurements of the present series as also those of the birds
from Sind measured by Ticehurst are generally larger, particularly as to
the wing and bill, than those of C. a. alpinus and of C. a. centralis (which
presumably does not differ in size from C. a. alpinus) ; also, none of the
specimens in the present series shows ‘a brownish, and not white outer
web to the outer secondaries’ as is said to occur in centralis. Martti
Soikkeli [On the variation in bill-and wing- length of the Dunlin (Calidris

284 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 63 (2)

alpina) in Europe (1966, Bird Study 13: (3) 256-259)] considers the mean
‘bill-lengths over a large number as 31°4:mm. in males and 34:2 in females,
and stresses the existence of a 3°9 + 0:2 mm. difference in size between
the bill measurements of sexes. This difference does not show in Indian
material. Oat

It could appear that this matter requires a closer snare with

4 oe pee ay

more material, particularly from eastern India. I have for the moment

queried the subspecific identification of both the races. IND. HANDBOOK
(2 : 310) has a typographical error in quoting Hartert’s measurements of
the wing of the race (sakhalina) showing 177-123 instead of 117-123.

EL Calidris alpinus schinzii (Brehm) (Ragen, Germany) Dunlin

1 3 in breeding plumage, Rossiten.

422 Calidris testaceus (Pallas) (Holland) Curlew-Sandpiper 6 : 224

13° 5°68 72 Ooo tio?
4 Kandla, Kutch ; 1 Bassein, 3 Gorai Washi, Bombay ; 2 Chilka Lake, Orissa ;
1 Calcutta Market ; 2 Tientsin, China.

. Wing Bill _ Tarsus. Tail
— Se 125-133 33-40 29-33 43-57
(124-137) (37-45 from skull) (28-32) (43-52)

Of the seven in breeding plumage the two from Tientsin appear
darker above than the others.

423 Eurynorhynchus pygmeum (Linnaeus) (Eastern Asia) Spoonbilled

Sandpiper 6: 232
nil.

424 Limicola falcinellus falcinellus ononp et (Denmark) Broad-

billed Sandpiper 6: 245
nil.

425 Limicola falcinellus sibirica Eves (Siberia and China) Basten

Broadbilled Sandpiper 6: 246

41:5gg 392 302 (No. 14862 Dharamtar Creek, missing)
2 R. Rohtak, near Sib, Persian Baluchistan; 1 Pasni, Baluchistan ; 1 Karachi;
5 Salsette, Bombay, 1 Rewas, 1 Dharamtar Creek, Kolaba.

Wing _ Bill Tarsus a: Tail
SS 99-107 av. 103°4 28-32 av.29°6 21-22 35-39 av. 37°4
22 105, 106, 110 31, 31, 34 228 28iges 36, 38, 38
($2 101-113 30-36. . 20-23 35-42)

Seven (Sth August to Ist September) are in breeding plumage. Two
obtained near Bombay on 5th. and. 28th August appear darker above
than the others, suggesting the nominate race, which would make others
obtained in the same area in different years sibirica. Without definitely

[ 124] ,

— a, ae

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST, SOCIETY COLLECTION--7 285

named specimens in similar plumage, the subspecific identity will have to
remain undetermined.

The bird from Karachi collected by J. A. ae in 1877, was listed
as-a Jack Snipe (Gallinago gallinula)!

425a Tryngites subruficolis (Vieillot) (Paraguay) Buffbreasted
Sandpiper. _ eae
426 Philomachus pugnax (Linnaeus) (Soutient Sweden) Ruff 6: 228

87:24 ss ASL (8 by wing size)
1 Western Europe; 2 Baghdad, 1 Mesopotamia ; 1 Sib, Persian Baluchistan ;
1 Baluchistan; 1 Sind ; 3 Ambala; 1 Bahawalpur ; 1 Delhi; 4 Bharatpur, 3 Jaipur ;
~ 1. Gwalior, M.P. ; 4 Nasik, 1 Bhyander, Bombay, 2 Panvel, 1 Alibag, Kolaba ;
1 Gundlupet, A cone: ; 1 Baghowni, 1 Tirhut, 1 ee ae 1 Gonda,
2 Kalianpur, Cawnpur ; 2 Calcutta Market.

peat hok:, 2 cas Wing - Mo Bilt Tarsus Tail .
WSS. - © = 179-194 av. 185°5 33-40 av.35 46-50 av.48 63-71 av. 66
So FAUNA - -173-190 _ 30-36 2 46-50 . 78-89*

- $$ BR. HAND. 186-198 34-38 45:5-52 61-68 -
12 29 144-157 av. 152 29-32 av. 30°3 37-43 av.40 50-59 av. 54
O° FAUNA 150-166 29-31 41-44 64-70
29 BR. HAND. 149°5-163 29°5-33 —_ —

The wing measurements of the males and females appear mutually
exclusive, and two of each sex which do not fit in have been excluded as
being presumably wrongly sexed. The only male from Europe is in
breeding plumage and has the bill appreciably larger than in the-others
(40 mm. cf. 33-36 av. 34°8). Part of this disparity may be due to reces-
sion of the feathering on the forehead.

The tail measurements for both sexes, reproduced in IND. HANDBOOK
from the FAUNA, appear to be completely out.

427 Phalaropus fulicarius paar (Hudson aS Grey aaah
§: 248

ties
i Phalaropusl lobatus (Linnaeus) (Hudson Bay) ads Phalarope

1G 249

So-3ac- 5 99 10?
1 Sib 3630’, Persian Baluchistan ; 1 Gane 3200’, 2 Manguli2500’, 2 Drakalo 4000’,
- Baluchistan ; 1 Chitral, N.W.F.P. ; 1 Bhavnagar, 1 off Rann of Kutch. —

Wing Billie wines) Tarsusas ee ais: ©
33 103, 108, 111 23, 24 20, 21-22. 44, 48, 50.
(106-110). (20-24) (19-20). (43-47)
29 105-111 av.106°8 20-24 av. 21:5 19-21 av. 19: * a a av. ous 4
(112-118) (20-25) —

The measurements in IND. HANDBOOK (2 : 325) reproduced from BR.

286 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

HANDBOOK (4: 222) indicate that the female is larger, but the present
small series does not support this.

429 Rostratula benghalensis benghalensis (Linnaeus) (Asia) Painted
Snipe 6:45
40:1633 1822 60? (2 pull.).
1 Rawalpindi, 1 Campbellpore, 4 Ambala, Punjab; 1 Thar Parkar, Sind;
1 Bharatpur; 1 Jhansi, C.P.; 7 Thana, 7 Bombay, 5 Panvel; 2 Karwar,
N. Kanara; 5 Darbhanga, Bihar; 2 Calcutta Market; 1 Prome District,
Burma ; 2 Japan.

Two in female plumage are marked 3, but are probably wrongly sexed.

430 Himantopus himantopus himantopus (Linnaeus) (Southern Europe)
Indian Blackwinged Stilt 6: 193

27: 1566 1022 20? 41 chick):

1 Amara, 1 Beled (?), Mesopotamia ; 1 Charbar, Persian Gulf; 1 Homa Lake,
Persia ; 1 Hajergang, Baluchistan ; 1 Gyantse (13,000’ ), Tibet ; 5 Pithoro, Sind ;
1 Kharirohar, 1 Mandvi, Kutch ; 1 Patan, Jaipur; 1 Delhi; 1 Dabka, Gujarat ;
3 Bombay ; 2 Thana ; 4 Tamarakulam 1100’, Palnis ; 1 Wangalu Tank, Nellore,
A.P.; 1 Kanpur.

3d ee
Wing 211-249 av. 235°5 215-242 av. 228
(240-253 ; 32 222-253) (222-240)
(ceylonensis 233-249) (ceylonensis 230-234)
Bill 57-69 av. 63 60-71 av. 65
(60-69) (54-69)
(ceylonensis 62-74 from skull) (ceylonensis 64°5-70 from skull)
Tarsus 108-136 av. 123°5 108-126 av. 120°5
(115-145) —
(ceylonensis 110-124) (ceylonensis 107-120)
Tail 76-89 av. 82°7 76-89 av. 79°5
(80-90) His
-(ceylonensis 73-85) (ceylonensis 73-80°5)

In 1951 (JBNHS 49 : 789-790), when recording the nesting of the stilt
near Bombay, I drew attention to the fact that both parents had white
heads (which were common in photographs of nesting birds in India and
elsewhere)—a character on which Whistler had described ceylonensis
from Ceylon. The race is accepted in IND. HANDBOOK (2: 331)
presumably for the same character.

Dementiev in BIRDS OF SOVIET UNION (1969, English translation, 3 : 309)
refers to the black tones growing purer and the head whiter, with age, and
this may be the correct explanation.

The distributional map in IND. HANDBOOK also excludes H. h. himan-
topus from an unnecessarily large area in western India,

[ 126]

77 Sie

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HiST. SOCIETY COLLECTION--7 287

431 Himantopus himantopus ceylonensis Whistler (Kalawewa, Ceylon)
Ceylon Blackwinged Stilt

nil.

No specimens are available in our collection and, in an attempt to
clarify the position mentioned under the nominate form, I requested the
British Museum (Natural History) to lend me material from Ceylon.
They have been good enough to send me 4 specimens which do not differ
from Indian birds in size and colour, except that the 3 adults (9 24 July,
gd 12 November, and 2 5 December) have almost pure white heads
against only two (both Kutch, g 12 March, and 2 28 July) among the
Indian specimens listed above.

One of the females is blackish, metallic green above, and, like Indian
birds, this character does not appear to be confined to the males.

The juvenile with its wings and bill not yet fully grown shows dark
grey on the head.

432 Recurvirostra avosetta Linnaeus (Italy) Avocet Gpp)95
8:43¢ 12 30?
2 Amara, Iraq ; | Bassein, 1 Bhyander, Thana ; 3 Kolaba ; 1 Tirhut, Bihar.
Wing | Bill Tarsus Tail
ao 220, 2215 225,232 85, others broken 89, 91(2), 95 81(2), 83, 90
2 yy) si 81 76
(S¢ 220-235 84-91 c. 84-90 86-96)
None of the specimens show a jet black head, as dark as the colour
on the wing ; the darkest was collected on 23 September, the others
November to February.

433 Ibidorhyncha struthersii Vigors (Himalayes) Ibisbill 6: 196

6:1g¢ 12 40? 2imm. without black heads and chins.
1 Peshawar Valley, N.W.F.P.; 1 Garhwal, U.P. ; 1 Sikkim ; 1 Dafla Hills, Assam ;
1 Kashgar 4400’, 1 Peking Market, China.
362 Wing 234, 235, 243, 248 (230-245)
Bill 70, 72, 73, 84 (68-80)
_ Tarsus 46, 48, 49, 51 (c. 47-49)

434 Dromas ardeola Paykull (India) Crab Plover 6:94

5:3 gs 2°99. |
1* Warba Island, 1 Buna Is. Persian Gulf ; 2 Pt. Calimere, Thanjavur Dist., Tamil
Nadu, 1 N. Button Island, Middle Andamans.

Wing Bill Tarsus
$3 220(3)* (202-225) 59, 62, 64* (55-61) 90, 92, 95* |
: 88-100
Qe 209, 215 (201-216) 55, 58 (54-56) 90, 91

Tail
63, 66*, 70)
64-76
08,735 J

[ 127]

288 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

435 Burhinus oedicnemus saharae (Reichenow) (Tunis) Persian Stone

Curlew OS EL TG gg.

4:18 30?

1 Lake Akkakurf, 1 (No. 14051) Shat-el-Adhain, R. Tigris, Iraq; 1 Frontier of

Arabistan (Khuzistan) ; 1 Gili (Jau) 190 m. southwest of Kalat, Baluchistan.

These birds are pale and rufcus above, being very distinct from those
from India under indicus. In addition to their larger wing 230, 236, 250,
252 (IH 228-244) cf. 206-222 av. 213 (1H 203-222), they differ in having
the white edge to the first primary noticeably longer (62-75 mm.).than in
Indian birds (25-5 av. 36). , :

The specimen from Gili is the easternmost record of saharae and the
material available does not support the statement in IND. HANDBOOK that
this form is resident in Kutch and Gujerat.

This race is actually paler and more buff than indicus and the key in
IND. HANDBOOK (3 : 1) appears to err in stating that it is Jess buff.

436 Burhinus oedicnemus indicus (Salvadori) (Himaiayas, i.e. north
India) Indian Stone Curlew ~ OG Te

1235667652 9)) Mo?

1 Bharatpur, Rajasthan; 1 Bhuj, 1 Nadiad, Gujerat; 1 Sanchi, Bhopal,
1 Gonda, M.P.; 1 Bulandshahr, U.P. ; 1 East Khandesh, 1 Karjat, Kolaba ;
2 Bellary, 1 Salein, Tamil Nadu ; 1 a

The birds from Kutch and Gujerat show tinges of rufous but are cer-
tainly very different from saharae. I would have included them with
harterti (2) but, being appreciably smaller (wings g 223 9 210) and lacking
the large white border to the first primary, they are for the moment left
with this form. The male from Bharatpur (wing 221) is typical indicus.

EL Burhinus oedicnemus harterti Vaurie (Kafir Qala, northeastern
Ve northeastern Iran)
is) to Cu tov

; Shat-el-Adhain (No. 14052), 1 Sheik Saud. Viceapdinetie 1 Shustar, Iran.

These differ from birds listed under saharae in their upper parts being
darker and very similar to indicus, except that two have larger wings (230,
245) and longer white edges to the primary (63, 75). The third, a male
from Sheik Saad has a 217 mm. wing and also a small 30 mm. white edge
to the first primary. The Mesopotamian birds were both obtained in
October and may well be winter migrants.

437 Esacus magnirostris recurvirostris (Cuvier) (Nepal) Great Stone
Plover 6:80
6:33¢ 3 29. a
1 Indus River, 1 Madhupur, Punjab; 1 Mandvi, Kutch : 1 ae: U.P
1 Daspalla, Orissa ; 1 Panvel, Kolaba, Maharashtra.

[ 128]

eee

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—7 _ 289

Oe tree si he Wes ches sees Bille 24) Tail
“SQ . 258-273 av.263 72-78. av. 74 112-119 av. 115
aie 052-273) ~ (14-87) | mae

The. pelted appearance of the billis greatly accentuated by the shape
of the lower mandible. The Shape of the whole bill is different from
that-cf the nominate form.

438 Esacus magnirostris magnirostris (Vicillot) (Australia) Australian
Stone Plover | 6:81

1 2 North Button Island, Ritchie’s Archipelago, ee
Wing 270 (266-277) ; bill 77 (76-82) ; tail 113 ; tarsus 81 (80-84).

439 Cursorius cursor cursor (Latham) (Kent) Creamcoloured Courser
6:85
- 11:586 522 10? Gjuv.).
1 Felujah, R. Tigris, Mesopotamia ; 1 Shaiba, Saudi Arabia ; 1 Shuster, S. Persia ;
2 Pirandar, 2000 ’, c. 190 m. SSW. of Kalat, 1 Chad, 5350’, 58 m. south of Kalat,
1 Kojdar, 27°48’ N.; 66°36’ E., Baluchistan; 1 Harunabad, Bahawalpur,
Punjab ; 1 Khavda, Kutch, | Palanpur, | Patan, Mehsana, Gujerat.

In addition to traces of barring on the back and the absence of grey
on head, the four juveniles have white tips to the inner primaries, which
are all black in the adults.

Among the adults the single specimen from Mesopotamia appears
paler above than any of the others. It may be worth noting that Vaurie
(1965 p. 452) accepts bogolubovi Zarudny as the form visiting our area, but
the description of this form in BIRDS OF SOVIET UNION (3: re does not
agree with any of the specimens. |

Wing | Bill Tarsus ae Val
Sh 156, 164, 165 BR ae 32558509 60, 64, 66
CH 160-171)
92 158, 160,162,164 23, 25(2), 26 53; D200, 37. 63(2), 64, 65
(1H 162-166) : i
($2 150-171 21-26 55-60 58-72)

440 Cursorius coromandelicus (Gmelin) (Coromandel Coast) Indian
Courser Whe 6: 66
P2029 33° 8 99 SFO: Te (2 juve e
1 Jullunder, 2 Ambala, Punjab ; 4 Kutch; 1 Karaghoda, 1 Rajkot, 1 Kodinar,
1 Deesa_;.1 Sinnar, Nasik, 1 Atgaon, Thana, 1 Andheri, Salsette, 1 Kirkee, Poona:
1 Dharwar, Mysore; 1 Bina, C.P.; 1 Rajputtee, Chupra, 2 Baghowni, Tirhut,
Bihar.
Pees ce Wines 22000 fu BHP. Cs. - . Tarsus io Pal poo
38 137-151 av. 146°4 19-22 av.20. 49-55 av.51°6 50-61 av. 54
92 147-162 av. 155°5 19-21 av. 20°6 48-58 av. 52°7 55-61 av. 57
(mz ¢9,143-163 23-30 (from 49-57 45-64]
skull)

( 129]

290. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Some specimens have darker heads than others but it is not possible
to associate this with sex, season, or place of origin. No. 14092 a female
from Kutch is a partial albino, having most of its wing quills white and
paler underparts.

441 Cursorius bitorquatus (Blyth) (Eastern Ghats) Jerdon’s Courser
| 6: 88
nil.

442 Glareola pratincola pratincola (Linnaeus) (Austria) Collared
Pratincole | 6: 89
1122636 12°92 2708:
2 Sera Tigris, 2 Feluja, Euphrates, Mesopotamia; 2 Ahwaz, Iran ; 1 Peshawar ; 1
Karachi ; 2 Coimbatore ; 1 no locality.

443 Glareola pratincola maldivarum J. R. Forster (Open sea in the
latitude of the Maldive Islands) Large Indian Pratincole 6: 90
SS ae eo?
3 Bhavnagar, Gujerat; 2 Bhyander, Bombay ; 1 Haphlong, Cachar; 1 Car
Nicobar ; 1 Mandalay, Burma.

Though Vaurie (p. 453/4) treats maldivarum as a separate species from
pratincola it is not easy to tellthem apart. In my Nicobar paper (JBNHS
64: 163) I referred to differences in the colour of the shaft of the first
primary, but I am afraid this was in error, and this is not an infallible
index.

444 Glareola lactea Temminck (Bengal) Small Indian Pratincole 6 : 92

24:833 1322 30? (4 juveniles*).

2 Madhopur, Gurdaspur, Punjab ; 1 Bulandshahr, U.P.; 1 Calcutta Market * ;
2 Nasik, 3 Panvel*, 4 Khangaon, Dhond, Maharashtra ; 3 Godavari Delta,
Andhra; 2 Chupra, Bihar ; 2 Orissa ; 1 Margherita, Assam ; 1 Prome, 2 Chindwin,
Burma.

The males (153-162 av. 156°5) have slightly larger wings than the
females (142-158 av. 149°5).

Three juveniles shot out of one flock have varying traces of spots on the |

throat and are greyer, less sandy above than the others. The last
character may be due to foxing, for those most recently obtained are the
greyest.

EL Glareola nordmanni Fischer (Steppes of southern Russia)
20? Feluja, R. Tigris, Mesopotamia.
These specimens constitute the only records of this species from Iraq—
see Marchant (1963) Bull. B.O.C. 83 : 52.

445 Catharacta skua antarctica (Lesson) (Falkland Islands) Antarctic
Skua
anil:
[ 130] ~

‘

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION— ‘7 = 291

446 Catharacta skua lonnbergi Mathews (New Zealand Seas) Brown
or Great Skua.

14 Malwan Coast, Ratnagiri Dist.
Wing c. 400 (397-400) ; bill 53 (53-58) ; tarsus 70 (70-79) ; tail 145 broken.

This was separated from antarctica ‘ by its much larger size : wing
433 mm.’ ; I cannot reconcile this with the specimen, which is accepted
as of this race both in SYNOPSIS and INDIAN HANDBOOK (3: 19).

446a Catharacta skua maccormicki (Saunders) (Possession Island,
Victoria Land) South Polar Skua.

1 0? Udipi, South Kanara.
Wing 377 (1H 390-410) ; bill 49 (IH 47-52) ; tarsus 59 (IH 62-66) ; tail 152.

This specimen which is the only record from India was ringed in the
Antarctic as of this race (JBNHS 62 : 565) but the wing and tarsus are
smaller than indicated for this race in IND. HANDBOOK (3: 18). It is
noteworthy that one of the Ceylon specimens originally identified as
maccormicki was said to be antarctica (SYNOPSIS p. 138) but is now again
listed in this group.

447 Stercorarius pomarinus (Temminck) (Arctic regions of Europe)
Pomatorhine Skua or Jaeger 6: 98
nil.
448 Stercorarius parasiticus (Linnaeus) (Coast of Sweden) Richardson’s
Skua

nil.
449 Larus hemprichii Bruch (Red Sea) Sooty Gull 6: 104
4:346¢ 19.
2 Aden, 1 Muscat, Arabia ; 1 Astola Is., Persian Gulf.
Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

SS 315, 336, 347 48, 49, 51 \3 595.55 112, 129
OSI | 45 51 114

( ¢ 320-348 43-48 50-58 139-159)

450 Larus argentatus heuglini Bree het Somaliland) Yellowlegged
Herring Gull 6: 107
5:13 4222 Bombay Harbour.
All are in adult plumage with all-white tails and yellow bills with very
- faint markings towards the tip. They are a darker grey above than the
adult under the next form. Birds in immature plumage are possibly
included in the latter.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail
1g 440 59 64 169
4292 410, 422, 434(2) 51(2), 55,62 62(2), 65, 66 159, 163, 165, 167
(3 ¢ tH 415-450 49-63 62-77 158-180)

[131]

292. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

451 Larus argentatus mongolicus Sushkin (Uriug-noor, NW. Mongolia)
Pinklegged Herring Gull 6: 109
: 7 (part)
Adult 3: 1g Bombay Harbour; 1 2 off Bombay; 10? Chitral, N.W.F.P.
_ Immature 8:4g¢ 3 22 10? (These may include specimens of other races).

1 near Kiti, 1 Karachi, Sind ; 1 Bombay, 4 Bombay Harbour, 1 off Bombay.
Those in adult plumage have the upper parts a lighter grey than in
the last. The bird from Chitral is the palest, has the outer primary
moulting and a short (51 mm.) and slender bill. No. 20879 collected off
Bombay, (Wing 401 + moulting, 61, 68, 165) is light grey above but has a
greenish-yellow bill marked with black towards the tip and with central
tail feathers not pure white but as in 3rd winter birds of the nominate race

(BR. HANDBOOK 5 : 92).
Wing Bill Tarsus Tail

Adult ¢ 422 59 66 167
Imm. ¢3 441, 447,465,466 53, 54,57,58 ~ 67, 68,69, 70 157, 169, 174, ie
Adult 2 401 moulting 61 68 165

Imm. 22 412, 415, 424 51, 52, 54 61, 64, 65 146, 154,159 -
(1H ex Stegemann BL Dn eee

ad. and imm.

435-480 av. 462 — 63-75 Hee

There is considerable variation in size and colour. The grey adults
of these two races were listed under L. fuscus while three specimens of
L. ichthyaetus and one bird yet unidentified (No. 14188 Bushire) were
included in this species. In the dry stage all the specimens appear to
have yellowish legs and feet rather than pale fleshy pink or bluish as
required in Vaurie (1965 p. 472). Asis generally admitted, further su

of this. group is necessary.

452 Larus fuscus fuscus Linnaeus (Sweden) Lesser Blackbacked Gull
6: 107

As mentioned above, the specimens listed under this species have been
found to be adults of Larus argentatus of two races. i

453 Larus ichthyaetus Pallas (Caspian pea) te NESE Gull

Oa: 101

~

7:16 292 40 ) (3 with black heads and all white tails). _
2 Bhavnagar, Gujerat ; 1 Trombay Is., Bombay ; 1 Kedra, Kanara ;3 Kerala.

- While many wing tips are broken, the largest isa ¢ from-Trivandrum,
Kerala, in non-breeding plumage which measures 461 cf. 475-510 ae
HANDBOOK 5 : 76). se Sie.

454 Larus brunnicephalus Jerdon (West coast of Indian Peninsulel # |
Brownheaded Gull es 6:103
18:8d$ 422 602 (5 brown-headed ; 4immature; with brown band on tail), |

1 Sheik Saad; 1 Bagor, Indus River ; 1 Kutch ; 1 Nasik, 4, Bombay, 1 Ratnagiri, |

[ 132]

eet wa NE

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION--7 293

_ 1 Honavar ; 1. Cannanore ; 1 Kayamkulam, 1 Neendakara, Kerala ; 1 Orissa ;
1 Tirhut, 2 Darbhanga, Bihar ; | Benares, U.P.

The immature birds with brown bands on the tail have chit primaries

all-black and do not show the ‘ mirror’ which identifies the adults.

455 Larus ridibundus ridibundus Linnaeus (European seas—England)

- Blackheaded Gull ts 6: 102

22:935 822 50? (8 immature, with band on tail).
1 Holland; 4 Sheik Saad ;2 Muscat ; 1 Persia ;2 Chitral ; 1 Kashmir ; 11 Bombay.
The measurements of the wings and culmen are slightly larger than in
IND. HANDBOOK (eX. BR. HANDBOOK). |
Wings & 293-325 av. 308 (1H 295-315, one 320).
| 53 @ 287-330 (fresh) av. 298°5 (1H 285-302).
Culmen ¢ 32-37 av. 35°8 (1H 31-36).
30-37 av. 33°7 (1H 29-33).
As in brunnicephalus the immature bird has a brown bar across the
tail, but in this species the pattern of the immature primaries is similar to
that of the adult. :

456 Larus genei Breme (Sardinia) Slenderbilled Gull 6 : 106
9:23¢ 322 40? (4 adults, with all-white tails).
1 Euphrates ; 5 Persian oe 1 Baluchistan ; 1 Bhavnagar, Gujerat ; 1 Greater
_ Bombay.
In the FAUNA, the wings of both sexes are said to be 280-316. Inthe
small number available, the males have slightly larger wings, 302-310,
than the females, 287-295. In both sexes the tails 104-122 are smaller

_ than the FAUNA measurements 119-144.

457 Larus minutus Pallas (Rivers of Siberia and in Russia=Berezovo,
Tobolsk, Siberia) Little Gull :

nil.

EL Larus canus canus Linnaeus (Sweden) Common Gull

—3:238 12 Sheik Saad, R. Tigris, Mesopotamia.
Wing 360, 369, 370.

458 Chlidonias hybrida indica (Stephens) (Cawnpore, India) Indian
Whiskered Tern . 6: 111
P2059 .566 .5 99 -602-*.,

1 (Sp. No. 14197) R. Euphrates, Ricoatanin.: 1 R. Rhotak, near Sib, Persian
Baluchistan ; 1 Hazariganj, Kalat, Baluchistan; 1 Kashmir ; 1 Delhi ; 1 Bharatpur,
1 Kandla, 1 Bhuj, Kutch; 1 Powai, Bombay, 1 Belapur, Thana; 1 Edanad,
Kerala; 1 Balugaon, Chilka, 2 Samastipur, Orissa; 1 Gorakhpur, U.P.; 1 Calcutta

- Market ; 1 Upper Burma, 2 Kyithe, Prome Dist.; 1 N. China.
¥ (lg, 2.9; 30 2) in breeding plumage with black caps and bellies are
dated from ‘ April’ to 15 August. 4 obtained between 19 September

[ 133]

294. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

and 28th December have brown markings on the back and presumably
indicate a juvenile phase.

Wing Bill _ Tarsus Tail
GS 221-231 av. 224 29-32 av. 30°5 21-23 av. 22 71-85 av. 77
(221-229) (32-37)* (22-23) (76-81)
OO 221), 223 26(2), 28(2) 20, 21(3) 76-84 av. 80
(213-219) ~ (32-36) (20-23) (77-80)

* These measurements are from the skull. The unsexed bird from Bharatpur
(October) has a 232 mm. wing.

EL Chlidonias hybrida hybrida (Pallas) (S. Russia, S. Volga and
Sarpa Lake). , |

1 3 Sheik Saad, Mesopotamia

This Sp. No. 14199 in non-breeding plumage has its wing larger (243)
than another in breeding plumage from Mesopotamia listed under C. h.
indicus. The latter has the tips of both first primaries blown off, but
judging from the second primary (221 mm.) would have been under 230.
It is possible that indica is resident and the nominate form a non-breeding
migrant.

459 Chlidonias leucoptera (Temminck) (Coasts of the Mediterranean)
Whitewinged Black Tern
4:233 20? (2 in breeding plumage, 30 April and 27 July).
2 Somaliland ; 2 Mesopotamia (one male marked shot on nest).

Wing 207, 208, 209 Bill 21, 22, 23,24 Tarsus 19(3),20 Tail 66, 69, 70, 74
(3 2 1H 192-210) _ GH 23-24) (1H 19-22) (IH 67-75)

459a Chlidonias niger niger (Linnaeus) (near Uppsala, Sweden) Black
Tern |

nil.

460 Gelochelidon nilotica nilotica (Gmelin) (Egypt) Gullbilled Tern — |

6: 117

26:1233 822 60? (5 with black caps).

1 Lake Akkakurf, Iraq; 1 Warba Is., 1 Bubiyan Is., Persian Gulf; 3 Mandvi, 1
Kandla, Kutch ; 2 Ghoti, Nasik, 1 Padgha, Thana, 7 Salsette, Bombay, 1 Pushpir
Is., 1 Arnala Is., off Bombay, 1 Panvel, 2 Rewas, 1 Rewdanda, Kolaba; 1
Edathur, 1 Neendakara, Kerala ; 1 Calcutta Market.

In an earlier note (1958 JBNHS 55: 169-170) I had referred to some of

the birds in the collection being smaller than indicated for the nominate ;

form, and suggested that they were affinis (Horsfield), type locality Java.

The five birds with black caps obtained between 26th March and 29th
May from Bombay and westwards are larger than the others, with white

[ 134]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION—7 295

heads, and are compared with three from near Calcutta presumably
affinis q.v.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail
32 With black caps 315-330 av. 320 36-39 av. 37°8 32-33 116-133 av. 125
Others 298-324 av. 34-40 av. 37°4 30-33 110-133 av. 119
306°5
affinis 293, 295,300 34, 38, 38 29; 32,33 110, 110, 114

Without topotypical material of both races we can only assume, not
unreasonably, that most of the specimens represent an intermediate
population. —

461 Gelochelidon nilotica affinis (Horsfield) (Java) Javan Gullbilled
Tern 162118
3:2 22 10? Khajir Bheri, Salt Lake, east of Calcutta. .

See remarks under 460.

462 MHydroprogne caspia caspia (Pallas) (Caspian Sea) Caspian Tern
| 7 6-115
Lae MeO OSES lat 0
2 Warba Is., 1 Persian Gulf; 1 Manchar Lake, Sind.

463 Sterna aurantiaJ.E.Gray (India) Indian River Tern 6: 125
Se oor eos. DO?
1 Chandigarh, 1 Mubarikpur, Punjab ; 2 Indus Delta, Sind ; 1 Bodeli, Baroda ;
1 Seoni, 1 Saugor, M.P.; 1 Poona, Maharashtra ; | Nellore, A.P.; 2 Shahje-
hanpur, Kheri, U.P. ; 2 Prome, Burma.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail
33 260-290 av.275 39-42- av. 40°6 20-21 134-215
2 276 38 20 200
($2 260-280 39-43 c. 20-22 178-228)

464 Sterna hirundo hirundo Linnaeus (Sweden) European Common
Tern 6: 130
So Og 4120" 162?
1 Somaliland ;2 Hindia Barrage, 1 Basra, 1 Sheik Saad, Mesopotamia ; 2 Warba
Island, Persian Gulf ; 1 Sib, Rohtak R., Persian Baluchistan.

Five of these were listed under Sterna repressa, from which they can
be separated by their longer wings and white, not grey, upper tail. Two
immature birds (Nos. 14284 and 14286) have pale grey upper tail coverts.
The broken wing tipsin one and the shortest wings (255) in the other to-
gether with the absence of definitely identified juvenile skins of repressa
renders their identification uncertain, unless the white underparts are a

certainly diagnostic character (Cave & MacDonald 1955, BIRDS OF SUDAN,
—p..159).
[ 135 ]

396 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

465 Sterna hirundo tibetana Saunders (Tibet) Tibetan Common Tern
~~ 6: 130
Zrii 1:2) tor : }
2 Kashgar, 1 Yarkand, China.
These birds differ from the nominate form in being slightly darker
above, and by a distinct greyish tinge below cf, white in the latter.

466 Sterna dougallii korustes (Hume) (Andaman Islands) Roseate or

Rosy Tern 6: 132
1 2 North Button Island, Middle Andamans.

bi ”
Len A ee

466a Sterna macrura Naumann (Island Nordstrand and coast —

of West Schleswig) Arctic Tern
nil,

467 Sterna repressa Hartert (Fao, Persian Gulf) Whitecheeked Tern
3 6: 128

Se1g7 738 2S re? :
2 Dora Island, 1 Kubhai Island, 1 Persian Gulf ; 1 Ratnagiri, Maharashtra.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail
32 235-244 32-35 19(5) 124, 133, 136, 140, 141
(227-254) (36-38) (c. 19-21) (124-154)

468 Sterna sumatrana sumatrana Raffles (Sumatra) Eastern Black- |
: 6:39

naped Tern 3
gig tae 5 OOO? North Button Island, Middie Andamans.

469 Sterna sumatrana mathewsi Stresemann (Aldabra Islands, type © |

from Ie Piquart) Western Blacknaped Tern

nil.

470 Sterna acuticauda J. E. Gray (Cawnpore, India) Blackbellied : |

Tern 6: 127
17° 830° 8 22 10276 with white underparts).

1 Ghaggar, 1 Madhopur, Punjab; 3 Delhi; 1 Saiat, Kaira, Gujerat; 2 Nellore, ;
| Godavari Delta, A.P.; 1 Golapalli, Bastar State, 1 Kymore, M.P.; 1 Daspalla,

Orissa ; 2 Meerut, 1 Nahrosa, Pilibhit, U.P. ; 1 Henzada, 1 Burma.

Wing Bill Tarsus Tail
Sg 228-242 av. 235 37-42 av. 38°5 14-15 123-163
O9 228-235 av. 233 33-36 av. 35 14-15 116-167
($2 221-240 | 32-40 c. 15-16 145-152)

The three birds with white underparts are dated Ith August and
22nd December (2), while those with black bellies are on various dates

between 14th August (moulting) and 6th April. .

Philippine Brownwinged Tern 6: 141

[ 136]

ee

A471 Sterna anaethetus anaethetus Scopoli (Panay, Philippine Islands) _

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST, SOCIETY COLLECTION—7 — 297

472 Sterna anaethetus fuligula Lichtenstein (Red Sea) Red Sea Brown-
winged Tern 6: 142

nil.

473 Sterna anaethetus antarctica Lesson (Mauritius and Calcutta)

Southern Brownwinged Tern

i :idd | 2 295.7 oi?

1 Muscat, 4 Persian Gulf; 3 Bandra, 1 Colaba, 1 Bombay, 3 Bombay Harbour ;

1 Alibag, Kolaba ; 1 Ross Island, 1 off Narcondam, Andamans.

There has been confusion regarding the identity of some of these
specimens. I am also unable to separate the three races accepted from
our area (Abdulali, /BNHS 67: 110).

474 Sterna fuscata nubilosa Sparrman (India Orientalis) Sooty Tern

6: 144
nil.

475 Sterna albifrons albifrons Pallas (Holland) Little Tern 6: 135
15 25:68. 6.92 40?
1 Somaliland ; 3 Mesopotamia; 1 Boonah Is., Persian Gulf; 1 Karachi ; 2 Kandla,
1 Jamnagar, 1 Bhavnagar ; | Bombay Harbour ; 4 Rewas, Kolaba.

476 Sterna albifrons saundersi Hume (Karachi, Sind) Blackshafted
Ternlet 6: 138

1 es Ars ens OS Bat FO
2 Karachi ; 4 Kandla, Kutch, 3 Pirotan, Gulf of Kutch.

477 Sterna albifrons sinensis Gmelin (China) Whiteshafted Ternlet

6: 136
GS Oo 3 ee. |
4 Uttan Washi, 2 Bhyander, Salsette, Bombay.

478 Sterna bergii velox Cretzschmar (Red Sea coasts) Large Crested
Tern 6: 120

ii 9 gg 20? . ()* fledgling 3).

1 Berbera, Somaliland ; 1 Muscat, 1 Quishim Is.,1 Persian Gulf ; 2 Astola Island,
off Mekran Coast ; 1 Karupadanna, Cochin, | Travancore,2 Kalyamkolumbur,
Kerala ; 1 Baliapanni Atoll, Laccadives (fledgling *).

It is curious that the nine sexed specimens are all males. The two
with all-black heads were obtained on Astola Island on 17th July 1906.
One of them being marked ‘Breeding’. The fledgling from the
- Laccadives was collected on 22 October, while the others in winter
plumage (with the black of the head speckled with white) are between
25 November and 29 May.

11 [ 137]

298 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

479 Sterna bengalensis bengalensis Lesson (Coasts of India) Indian
Lesser Crested Tern 6: 124

14:733 692 10?
1 Somaliland; 1 Buna Is., Persian Gulf ; 3 Versova, Salsette, 6 Bombay Harbour ;
1 Neendakara, Kerala ; 2 N. Button Is., Middle Andamans.

Three specimens obtained on 10th April (2) and 20th June have all-
black heads. The others 7th February [through March (2), April (2),
May (4)] to 29th May have black heads varyingly marked with white,
and white foreheads.

No. 14252 a male from the Persian Gulf has one wing 320 mm., the
other damaged and much shorter.

480 Sterna sandvicensis sandvicensis Latham (Sandwich, Kent,
England) Sandwich Tern 6: 119
2 la
1 Texel, Holland (juv.) ; 1 Samarrah (?), Persian Gulf.
481 Anoiis stolidus pileatus (Scopoli) (Philippines) Noddy Tern 6: 145
4°) 2-3 0w
3 Ormara, Mekran Coast, Baluchistan ; 1 Laccadives.

482 Anous tenuirostris worcesteri (McGregor) (Cavilli Island, Sulu
Sea) Whitecapped Noddy

nil.

483 Gygis alba monte Mathews (Seychelles) Indian Ocean White Tern
nil.

484 Rynchops albicollis Swainson (India) Indian Skimmer 6: 150

5:3g3 222 (* without head).
1 * Hyderabad, Sind ; 3 Bulandshahr, U.P. ; 1 Padung, Prome Dist., Burma.

Though most of the specimens are in poor condition and cannot be
correctly measured, the males appear to have appreciably larger wings,
bills, tarsi, and tails than the females.

(to be continued)

[ 138]

Studies in Indian Euphorbiaceae—IV'

The Genus Agrostistachys Dalz. in India,
Burma and Ceylon

BY

N. P. BALAKRISHNAN
Botanical Survey of India, Eastern Circle, Shillong

(With two plates)

INTRODUCTION

The genus Agrostistachys Dalzell (1850) aptly so named for its
inflorescence resembling the graminaceous spikes was based on A. indica
collected from an unspecified locality in northern parts of Western Ghats
‘in peninsular India. From the southern parts of the Western Ghats,
Wight (1852) described the monotypic genus Sarcoclinium based on S.
longifolium. Baillon (1858) and Mueller Argoviensis (1866) treat these
two genera separately. However, in 1880 Bentham united the two
genera, reducing Sarcoclinium as a section of Agrostistachys. This has
been followed by J. D. Hooker (1887) and Pax (1890). In DAS PFLANZEN-
REICH, Pax & Hoffman (1912) raised Sarcoclinium to the subgeneric
level when they monographed Agrostistachys.

While this genus is quite distinct and isolated in Euphorbiaceae, its
systematic position is rather obscure and comparatively difficult to assess.
It is obvious that this genus belongs to the subfamily Crotonoideae as
treated by most authors. Pax & Hoffman (1931) place it under the
subtribe Irregulares of the tribe Chrozophoreae. The closely related
genera are Pseudagrostistachys Pax & Hoffm. and Grossera Pax, both
natives of Africa and differing from the former in the presence of epise-
palous glandular disk and from the latter in the presence of pistillodes in
male flowers. The subgenus Agrostistachys differs, from subgenus Sarco-
clinium in the spikes being short, bracts closely imbricate and male bracts
l-flowered. The present study indicates that the earlier arrangement of
Pax & Hoffman (1912) of Sarcoclinium as a subgenus of Agrostistachys
to be appropriate.

Agrostistachys consisting of about 11 species is confined to the tropical
and subtropical regions of southeast Asia. Apparently the genus is of
East Malaysian origin, having its greatest diversity in the eastern parts

+ Part III in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 10: 245 (1968)

300 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

of Malaya. This genus is represented by three species and two varieties
in India, Burma and Ceylon. <A. hookeri and A. meeboldii var. coriacea
are endemic to Ceylon whereas A. meeboldii var. meeboldii is endemic to
southern parts of Western Ghats in peninsular India. A. indica var.
indica has a wide range of distribution in peninsular India, Ceylon, Indo-
China and Malaya. A. indica var. longifolia is endemic to southern Burma.

The specimens studied and cited in this paper are from three herbaria
of the Botanical Survey of India, namely, Central National Herbarium,
Calcutta (CAL), Southern Circle Herbarium, Coimbatore (MH) and
Western Circle Herbarium, Poona (BSI) and also from the herbarium of
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (K). I thank the Keepers of these herbaria
for their valuable help.

Agrostistachys Dalzell in Hook. Kew J. Bot. 2:41, 1850; Muell.
Arg. in DC. Prodr. 15 (2) : 725, 1866 ; Benth. in Benth. & Hook. f. Gen.
Pl. 3 : 302, 1880 ; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 5 : 405, 1887 ; Pax in Engler &
Prantl, Pflanzenfam. 3 (5): 43, 1890; Pax & Hoffm. in Engler, Pflanzenr.
57 : 98, 1912, et in Engler & Harms, Pflanzenfam. ed. 2, 19C ; 96, 1931.
-Sarcoclinium Wight, Ic. Pl. Ind. Or. 5: 24, t. 1887-1888, 1852 ; Muell.
Arg. l.c. 726, 1866 ; Baillon in Adansonia 11: 93, 1873. Argythamia
sect. Agrististachys Post & Kuntze, Lexicon 43, 1904. Heterocalyx
Gagnep. Not. Syst. 14 : 33, 1950.

Glabrous shrub or small tree. Leaves alternate, shortly petioled or
subsessile, entire or serrate, denticulate, coriaceous, pinnately nerved,
stipulate. Flowers dioecious, in axillary or supraxillary bracteate racemes
or spike which are solitary or clustered ; bracts concave, striate, rigid.
Male flowers : small, few or many within each bract, subsessile or shortly
pedicelled. Calyx globose, splitting into 2-5-valvate lobes. Petals 5,
rarely 6-8, shorter than calyx lobes or equal. Disk 5-glandular, epise-
palous, alternate with petals. Stamens 8-13, biseriate, outer epipetalous,
filaments nearly free, tips subulate ; anther-lobes pendulous from the
glanduliferous thick connective, free below, longitudinally dehiscing.
Pistillode usually large, entire or 2-3-fid. Female flowers : solitary in each
bract ; pedicels long. Calyx 5- or rarely 4-fid, lobes narrow, more rigid |
than male calyx. Petals longer than calyx lobes, deciduous. Disk of
5 glands, thick. Staminodes 0. Ovary 3-celled ; style bifid, spreading ;
ovules one in each cell. Capsule of 3 two-valved cocci, crustaceous or
sub-fleshy. Seeds sub-globose ; testa crustaceous, shining, ecarunculate ;
albumen fleshy ; cotyledons broad, laterally flat.

Type species: A. indica Dalzell.

Distribution: About 11 spp.; Peninsular India, Ceylon, Burma,
Malaya, Indo-China, and Philippines.

STUDIES IN INDIAN EUPHORBIACEAE—IV 301

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF Agrostistachys

1. Spikes short ; bracts closely imbricate,

male= bracts’ I-floweted’.. 20.5.0... ss Pt nger eee: Subg. Agrostistachys
2. Secondary nerves less than 15 pairs ;
margins of leaves spinulose-dentate.......... la. A. indica var. indica

2. Secondary nerves more than 16 pairs ;
margins of leaves distantly denticulate,
MOC EESIUMALOS ey. eae ee tee aot eve, cowtarsae we 1b. A. indica var. longifolia

1. Spikes elongate ; bracts distantly
placed, male bracts. many-flowered..........0....0.2..0008. Subg. Sarcoclinium
3. Stipules small, less than 1 cm. long,
broadly triangular.

4. Capsules about 13 mm. wide............ 2a.A.meeboldii var. meeboldii
4. Capsules about 8 mm. wide........ 2b. A. meeboldii var. coriacea
3. Stipules large, more than 5cm. long, lanceate, attenuate.............

3. A. hookeri

Subgenus I. AGROSTISTACHYS. Genus Agrostistachys Baill. Etud.
Gen. Euphorb. 318, 1858. Section Euagrostistachys Hook. f. Fl. Brit.
Ind. 5 : 406, 1887 ; Pax in Engler & Prantl, Pflanzenfam. 3, 5 : 43, 1890.
Subgenus Euagrostistachys (Hook. f.) Pax & Hoffm. in Engler, Pflanzen-
fam. ed. 2, 19c : 96, 1931.

Spikes of both sexes axillary or supra-axillary, serially glomerate like
short spines; bracts densely imbricate, 1-flowered, lowermost bracts
sterile. Pistillode entire.

1. Agrostistachys indica Dalzell in Kew J. Bot. 2 : 41, 1840 ; Dalz. &
Gibs. Bombay FI. 232, 1861 ; Muell.-Arg. in DC. Prodr. 15 (2) : 726,
1866 ; Beddome, Ic. Pl. Ind. Or. 1 : t. 241, 1874 ; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind.
5: 406, 1887; Trimen, Handb. Fl. Ceyl. 4: 55, 1898; Talbot, Trees
Bomb. ed. 2, 313, 1902 et For. Fl. 2 : 477, 1911 ; Pax & Hoffm. in Engler,
Pflanzenr. 57: 103, 1912 ; Gagnep. in Lécomte, Fl. Indoch. 5 : 466, t.
57, ff. 7-11 et. t. 58, ff. 1-2, 1926 ; Gamble FI. Pres. Madras 1317, 1925 ;
ibid Reprint ed. 921, 1957; Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bombay 2: 605, 1906;
ibid Reprint ed. 3: 102, 1958; Bor, Man. Ind. For. Bot. 179, 1953 ;
Airy Shaw in Kew Bull. 14: 47, 1960. A. /ongifolia ssp. genuina Muell-
Arg. in DC. Prodr. 15 (2) : 726, 1866. A. gaudichaudii sensu Hook. f.
Fl. Brit. India 5 : 406, 1887 (non Muell.-Arg. 1866). Heterocalyx laotica
Gagnep. in Not. Syst. ed. Humbert. 14 : 33, 1950.

Stout shrub, 1-2 m. tall, occasionally reaching up to 3 m. high, gla-
brous, except flowers ; branches tough, marked with scars of petioles and
stipules. Leaves numerous, crowded, alternate, elliptic-oblong or oblong-
lanceolate, spathulate, narrowed or cuneate at base, acuminate or bluntly
caudate at apex, coarsely and sharply serrate with incurved spinulose
teeth or minutely denticulate at margins, 12-48 cm. long, 4-15 cm. wide,
coriaceous, glabrous ; secondary nerves 8-18 pairs, arched, prominent,

302 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

tertiaries reticulate, faint ; petioles 2-6 cm. long, broad at base ; stipules
ovate-lanceolate, subulate, acuminate, early deciduous, + 1 cm. long.
Spikes of both sexes axillary or supra-axillary, glomerate, clustered to-
gether, shorter than petiole, 7-15 mm. long, terete or slightly compressed ;
bracts distichous, densely imbricate, ovate-acute, + 4 mm. long, +
3 mm. wide, finely serially ciliate outside and margins, basal bracts of
each spike sterile ; flowers of both sexes solitary in axils of each bract,
pedicellate. Male flowers: sepals 5, membranous, ovate-lanceate ;
petals 5-8, white, rounded or subquadrate, lanceolate to obovate, equa]
to sepals ; disk glandular, large, 5-lobed ; stamens 8-13, anthers apiculate ;
pistillode simple, undivided. Female flowers: solitary for each spike,
pedicels with 3-5 scale-like sterile bracts at base ; ovary glabrous or
minutely puberulous, disk cupular covering the base of ovary ; styles 3,
each bifid. Capsules + 1 cm. in diameter, 3-lobed, glabrous, reddish-
brown, seeds globose, smooth, pale brown, -+ 6 mm. in diameter.

Distribution: Peninsular India (Western Ghats), Ceylon, Burma,
Indo-China and Malaya.

la. var. indica.

Agrostistachys indica Dalzell in Kew J. Bot. 2:41, 1840. TYPE:
Dailzell s.n.! A. longifolia ssp. genuina Muell.-Agr. l.c. Heterocalyx
laotica Gagnep. |l.c. TYPE: Kerr 20895 (K !).

Leaves elliptic-oblong, acute at base, sharply spinulose-dentate at
margins, 12-40 cm. long, 4-15cm. wide : secondary nerves 15 or less pairs.

Flowering and Fruiting : February-May.

Distribution : Peninsular India (Western Ghats), Ceylon, Indo-China
and Malaya. |

Specimens examined : CEYLON: Without locality, Alston 261 (K) ;
without locality, Gardner 781 (CAL); Central Provinces, Gibson 2156
(CAL) ; without locality, Thwaites CP 2156 (K) ; without locality, Walker
30 (K). KERALA: Wynaad, Beddome s. n. (K); Travancore, Bourdillon
16 (CAL, K); 53 (MH); 526 (K); Attapadi, Malabar, Fischer 2798
(CAL, K) ; Devicolam, Travancore, Meebold 13467 (CAL). Tamit NADU :
Coimbatore Dist., Paralai, Barber 4053-(CAL, K, MH); Anamalais,
Beddome s. n. (K, MH); Anamalais, Beddome 80 (CAL); Ayyamalai,
Fischer 4051 (CAL); Akkamalai, Joseph 15540 (MH). Madurai Dist.,
High Wavy Mountain, Blatter & Hallberg 909 (CAL); High Wavy
Estate, Gopalan s. n. (MH). Tirunelveli Dist., Kannikatti, Barber 420 |
(MH) ; Tirunelveli, Beddome s. n.(MH) ; Tirunelveli, Bourdillon s. n.
(CAL); Ichikuzhi, Henry & Chandra Bose 19914 (MH); Naterikal,
Hooper & Ramaswami 38572 (K) ; 38641 (CAL) ; Naterikal, no collector’s
name 14471 (MH). Mysore: Without locality, Dalzell s. n. (Type in :

STUDIES IN INDIAN EUPHORBIACEAE—IV 303

CAL, K); Bababudan Hills, Law s. n. (CAL); Jog Falls, Puri 2083
(BSI) ; Madanad, Coorg, Puri 31778 (BSI); Concan, Stocks & Law 59
(CAL) ; Yellehole, Agumbe, Sundara Raghavan 86467 (BSI) ; Barakana,
Agumbe, Sundara Raghavan 97256 (BSI) ; Belgaum, Talbot 4003 (BSI) ;
N. Kanara, Talbot s. n. (BSI). NO LOCALITY: Herb. Wight, Wallich
7452 (CAL, K) ; Wight 2610 (CAL).

1b. var. longifolia Muell.-Arg. in DC. Prodr. 15 (2) : 726, 1866.
TYPE: Helfer 4921! A. longifolia (Muell.-Arg.) Kurz, Prelim. Rep.
Veg. Pegu, App. A: 111, App. B: 79, 1875 et For. Fl. Brit. Burma 2:
377, 1877. A. gaudichaudii Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 5: 406, 1887; Bor,
Man. Ind. For. Bot. 179, 1953 (non Muell.-Arg. 1866). A. indica ssp.
longifolia (Muell.-Arg.) Pax & Hoffm. in Engler, Pflanzenr. 57 : 107, 1912.

Leaves subentire, minutely denticulate, spathulate, oblanceate,
attenuate and narrowed at base, 24-48 cm. long, 5-11 cm. wide ; secondary
nerves 16-18 pairs. (Plate I).

Flowering and Fruiting: February-April.
Distribution : Endemic to south Burma.

Specimens examined: BURMA: Tenasserim, Helfer 4921 (Type in
- CAL, K); Island of Mergui, Tenasserim, Proudlock 51 (CAL); Heinze,
Russell 1953 (CAL) ; Valley of Sidi Chang, Tavoy, Russell 133 (CAL) ;
Tavoy, Sungyi 911 (CAL).

Subgenus II. SARCOCLINIUM (Wight) Pax & Hoffm. in Engler, Pflan-
zenr. 57: 99, 1912. Genus Sarcoclinium Wight, Ic. Pl. Ind. Or. 5: 25, t.
1887-1888, 1852 ; Baillon, Etud. Gén. Euph. 309, t. 11, ff. 17-18, 1858;
Muell. Arg. in DC. Prodr. 15 (2): 726, 1866. Agrostistachys sect.
Sarcoclinium (Wight) Benth. in Benth. & Hook. f. Gen. Pl. 3: 303,
1880 ; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 5: 406, 1887; Pax in Engler & Prantl,
Pflanzenfam. 3, 5 : 43, 1890.

Spikes of both sexes axillary, solitary or fasciculate, elongate ; bracts
distantly arranged, male bracts many-flowered, female bracts single-
flowered, pistillode 2-3 fid.

2. Agrostistachys meeboldii Pax & Hoffm. in Engler, Pflanzenr. 57:
100, 1912 ; Gamble, FI. Pres. Madras 1318, 1925; ibid Reprint ed. 922,
1957; Bor, Man. Ind. For. Bot. 179, 1953. Sarcoclinium longifolium
Wight, Ic. Pl. Ind. Or. 5: 24, t. 1887-1888, 1852; Thwaites, Enum. Pl.
Zeyl. 279, 1861 ; Muell. Arg. in DC. Prodr. 15 (2) : 727, 1866 ; Beddome,
For. Man. 205, t. 23. f. 1, 1873. A. longifolia (Wight) Benth. ex Hook. f.
Fl. Brit. Ind. 5 : 407, 1887, excl. var. malayana et var. latifolia (non Kurz,
1875) ; Trimen, Handb. FI. Ceyl. 4:56, 1898 ; Talbot, Trees Bombay, ed.
2. 313, 1902 et For. Fl. 2 : 478, 1911; Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bombay 2: 605,
1906 ; ibid Reprint ed, 3 : 103, 1958 ; Bourdillon, For. Trees Travancore

304. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

341, 1908 ; Pax & Hoffm.1.c. 100, 1912. A. coriacea Alston in Trimen,
Handb. FI. Ceylon 6 (Suppl.) : 265, 1931.

Large shrub or small tree, 3-6 m. high ; branches terete, stout, gla- -
brous, marked with scars of petioles and stipules ; bark thin, dark, resi-
nous ; wood pale brown, moderately hard. Leaves numerous, crowded
at the ends of branches, oblanceolate, spathulate, shortly or obtusely
acuminate at apex, narrowed and gradually tapering into the petiole,
entire, glabrous, coriaceous, leathery, 14-30 cm. long, 3-9 cm. wide ;
secondary nerves 10-15 pairs, arched, prominent beneath; petioles
broad at base, 5-15 mm. long; stipules -+_ 2 mm. long, ovate, acute,
coriaceous, caducous. Spikes of both sexes axillary, solitary, 8-14 cm.
long, shorter than leaves ; rachis rigid, subglabrous ; bracts distantly
placed, ovate, denticulate at margins, -- 2 mm. long. Male flowers
3-5 in each axil of bract ; pedicels 2-3 mm. long ; sepals 2-3, entire or
lobed, acute, broad at base; petals 5, ovate, denticulate at margins,
subacute to obtuse at apex ; disk 5-glandular ; stamens 10, 5 within the
disk, 5 outside, anthers apiculate; pistillode 2-cleft. Female flower
solitary in axil of each bract: sepal 5, free, ovate-acute to lanceolate-
acuminate ; petals 5, ovate, obtuse, entire ; staminodes 5, subulate ;
disk cupular, covering the base of ovary, entire; ovary puberulous ,
styles 3, each bifid. Capsale depressed-globose, + 6 or + 8 mm. long,
+ 8 or + 13 mm. wide, rugulose, minutely pilose or subglabrous; seeds
oblong, subglobose, 5-6 mm. in diameter.

Distribution : Western Ghats of Peninsular India and Ceylon.

2a. var. meeboldii. Agrosiistachys meeboldii Pax & Hoffm. l.c. Sarco-
clinium longifolium Wight, l.c. TYPE: Wight 2612! A. longifolia
(Wight) Benth. ex Hook. f. l.c. 1887 (non Kurz 1875).

Leaves 14-30 cm. long; capsule + 13 mm. wide, + 8 mm. long.
(Plate II).

Flowering : August-October ; Fruiting : December-February.
Distribution : Western Ghats of Peninsular India.

Specimens examined: KERALA: Wynaad, Malabar, Beddome s.n.
(MH) ; Wynaad, Gamble 15428 (CAL, K) ; Calatoorpoly, Travancore,
Lawson 102 (CAL, K); Udumbansholay, Travancore, Meebold 13079
(CAL). TamiL NApDu: Monica, Anamalais, Barber 3875 (CAL, MH);
Poonachi, Anamalais, Barber 8441 (MH); Anamalai Hills, Beddome 95
(CAL) ; Iyerpadi, Anamalais, Fischer 3713 (CAL) ; Sispara Ghat, Nilgiris,
Gamble 14465. (CAL, K); Kannikatti, Tirunelveli Distt., Jacob s.n.
(MH) ; Courtallam, Wight 2612 (Type in CAL, K) ; Naterikal, Tirunelveli

J. BompBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 67 (2) PLATE |

Balakrishnan: Genus Aerostistachys.

Agrostistachys indica var. longifolia

| Fig. 1. Flowering twig; 2. ¢ spike: 3. bract; 4. ¢ flower, with bracteoles ;

5. ¢ flower, spread out; 6. petal; 7. stamen; 8. 2 flower; 9. petal; 10. fruit;
11. seed.

J. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 67 (2) PLATE II

Balakrishnan: Genus Agrostistachys.

Agrostistachys meeboldii var. meeboldii

Fig. 1. Flowering twig; 2. part of male spike; 3. ¢ flower; 4. the same, spread
out; 5. stamen; 6. Q flower; 7. part of fruiting spike; 8. mature fruit: 9. seed.

STUDIES IN INDIAN EUPHORBIACEAE—IV 305

Distt., no collector's name 14513 (MH) ; Anamalais, no collector’s name
83564 (MH). Mysore: N. Kanara, Talbot 1600 (BSI, CAL).

_ 2b. var. coriacea (Alston) Balak. stat. nov. Sarcoclinium longifolium
sensu Thwaites, Enum. Pl. Zeyl. 279, 1861 (non Wight et auctt. plnr.),
A. longifolia sensu Trimen, Handb. FI. Ceylon 4 : 56, 1898 ; Pax & Hoffm.
in Engler, Pflanzenr. 57: 100, 1912 (non Kurz 1875). <A. coriacea
Alston in Trimen, Handb. FI. Ceylon 6 (Suppl.) : 265, 1931. TYPE:
Thwaites CP 596 A !

Leaves 10-20 cm. long ; capsule + 8 mm. wide, + 6 mm. long.
Distribution ; Endemic to Ceylon.

Note: This variety differs from var. meeboldii in having smaller
leaves and smaller fruits only. These differences do not justify a specific

rank.

Specimens Examined: CEYLON: Gardner 785 (CAL, K); Hills
of Kandy, Macrae 46 (K) ; Thwaites CP 596 A, B (Type in CAL, K) ;
Walker s.n. (CAL, K) ; Wallich 1318 (K).

3. Agrostistachys hookeri (Thw.) Benth. in Benth. & Hook. f. Gen.
PI. 3: 303, 1880 ; Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 5 : 406, 1887; Trimen, Handb.
Fl. Ceylon 4: 54, 1898 ; Pax & Hoffm. in Engler, Pflanzenr. 57: 103,
1912; Alston in Trimen, Handb. FI. Ceylon 6 (Suppl.) : 264, 1931 ;
Abeysundere & Rosayro, Checklist For. Trees Brit. Emp. 4: 26, 1939.
Sarcoclinium hookeri Thw. Enum. Pl. Zeyl. 4 : 279, 1861; Baillon, Etud.
Gén. Euph. 310, t. 11, ff. 17-18, 1858 ; Muell.-Arg. in DC. Prodr. 15 (2):
727, 1866. TYPE: Thwaites CP 3429 A !

Moderate-sized tree, 8-10 m. high; branches thick, glabrous.
Leaves subsessile, oblanceolate, spathulate, minutely glandulose-denti-
culate or subentire, cuneate to attenuate at base, shortly acuminate at
apex, coriaceous, 55-66 cm. long, 10-15 cm. wide ; secondary nerves 35-50
pairs, spreading horizontally, straight or slightly curved, prominent
beneath ; petiole thick, very broad-based, 5-20 mm. long ; stipules lan-
ceate, acuminate, broad at base, rigid, 3-6 cm. long, striate, brown,
subpersistent. Male flowers: unknown. Female flowers: Spikes
30-50 cm. long, equal to or shorter than leaves, slender, rigid, glabrous;
bracts distantly placed, ovate-lanceolate, -+- 3 mm. long ; pedicels solitary
in each bract axile, + 1:5 cm. long, articulate near middle, spreading
laterally ; calyx-lobes 4, minute, + 1°5 mm. long, triangular, subequal,
puberulous at margins ; disk 4-lobed ; ovary sparsely tomentose ; styles
3, thick, short, 2-fid up to middle ; branches emarginate, bifid. Capsule
sub-baccate, -+- 2 cm. wide, + 1°3 cm. long, trigonous, black ; cocci
obtusely angled ; seeds brown, subglobose, + 1°5 cm. in diameter.

306 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Distribution: Endemic to Ceylon.

Note: This species known only from the type collection is charac-
teristic in having very large leaves and stipules. The male flowers are
still unknown.

Specimens Examined: CEYLON: Thwaites CP 3429 A,B,C. (Type
in CAL, K). |

Reviews

|. THE VANISHING JUNGLE. By Guy Mountfort. pp. 286
(16X24 cm.). Illustrated with coloured and black-and-white photo-
gtaphs by the author, Eric Hosking and others. London, 1969. Collins.
Price 63s. net.

As the subtitle explains this is the narrative of the two expeditions
to Pakistan under the auspices of the World Wildlife Fund in order to
make a first hand assessment of the present status of the varied and
once prolific wildlife of the two wings of Pakistan. The expeditions,
under the author’s leadership, were undertaken at the invitation of
the Pakistan Government, with full official co-operation and the active
participation of knowledgeable naturalists residing in Pakistan.

Apart from his fame as joint author of A FIELD GUIDE TO THE
BIRDS OF BRITAIN AND EUROPE Guy Mountfort is best known to Nature
Conservationists throughout the world for his share in saving the
Coto Donana in southern Spain as a Nature Reserve from threatened
disintegration, and for his studies of the wildlife problems of Jordan
in 1963 and 1965 and the recommendations which led to the creation
of the Azraq Desert Nationa! Park and to other far reaching measures
for the preservation of the wildlife of that country. His present
recommendations also seem to have received full approval of the
Pakistan Government. Some of them have already been implemented
and it is to be hoped that others, for the creation of sanctuaries for
species endangered through the rapid industrialization of the country
and the destruction of their natural habitats, will also bear fruit. It
is unfortunate that the book saw the light just as President Ayub
Khan was quitting the political scene. It was from the President’s
personal interest and wholehearted co-operation that further adequate
implementation of the recommendation was confidently expected. One
can only hope that his successors wil) endorse the wisdom of the
measures proposed and do everything possible to put them through
with vigour and efficiency. Indeed, the status of several of the more
spectacular species such as the Markhor, Ibex and Shapu in West
Pakistan, and the tiger and most of the cats in East Pakistan seems
to be extremely precarious and becomes increasingly imperilled by
the absurdly high prices currently offered for their skins in the world
market. Unless such action as recommended by the survey team is
initiated immediately, it may be in one human generation or less that

308 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

some of these interesting animals become extinct. To those familiar
with the sordid story of the near-vanished Blackbuck on the sub-
continent this may not sound such a fanciful prediction.

The narrative accounts of the expeditions are of absorbing interest
as one would expect from the author of PORTRAIT OF A WILDERNESS
and of A RIVER, and A DESERT. They describe the country, its human
and animal inhabitants and their habitats, the descriptions of the
Cholistan Desert and Punjab Salt Range of West Pakistan, and the
Chittagong Hill Tracts of the eastern wing being the most fascinating
and vivid. The book is fully and appropriately illustrated with some
remarkable coloured as well as black-and-white photographs mostly
the author’s and Eric Hosking’s') They are of an excellence that is
inseparable from the work of this gifted nature photographer. Among
several other photographs the two I find especially commendable are
of a Lagger Falcon at p. 52 by the author himself, and of an adult
tigress at p. 212 by George Schaller—the latter amongst the finest
pictures of a wild tiger I have seen. At the same time I am con-
strained to observe that some imexplicable slip seems to have occurred
in captioning the lower photo at p. 220 as a Red Junglecock. It is
most definitely not that bird; the large comb, the loosely dangling
lappets and squamated plumage all belie its identity! |

There are also some other slips of fact and proof reading which
could easily have been avoided; thus on p. 46 Saccharum bengalensis
is referred to as a tall tree, and on p. 5! as a tall grass (on p. 114
spelt Saccarum). In the former case Ficus bengalensis is obviously
meant. On p. 72 Pycnonotus spelt with an i. On p. 113 hearing
of the song of the Malabar Whistling Thrush is mentioned; however,
East Pakistan is entirely out of the range of that species.

The four Appendixes giving the expeditions’ observations on the
mammals of Pakistan, a list of amphibians and reptiles, a list of
birds observed in Pakistan, and Notes on Photography (by Eric Hosking)
are of great usefulness. A selected Bibliography precedes the index.
Incidentally Corbett’s famous book is entitled MAN-EATEKS OF KUMAON
and not India as mentioned in the bibliography!

Apart from these minor though unfortunate blemishes the book
makes a valuable, timely, and highly readable contribution to the topic
of nature conservation in the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent and will
appeal to every lover of Nature.

Sens

REVIEWS 309

2. THE SPOTTED SPHINX. By Joy Adamson. pp. 224 (24x 16:5
em.). With numerous black and white photographs, and 14 coloured
plates. London, 1969. Collins & Harvill Press. Price 45s. net.

How wonderful Joy Adamson is. It is a unique achievement to
keep the affection and trust of a cheetah living in the wild, so that
she will take you to see her new-born cubs, sitting and waiting
patiently when you cannot go as fast as she can. Readers of the
Elsa books will know that it 1s not easy to rehabilitate a young carni-
vore, and this book makes it quite clear that to do it successiully
you have to arrange your life to suit the animal. Mrs. Adamson and
her assistants walked miles every day in difficult country, carrying
meat for Pippa and her cubs. who might be anywhere in a wide
territory, and who might not even be hungry. She also helped the
cheetah family through several illnesses, deticked them and fed them
vitamins, and worried endlessly over them. Her reward was the
knowledge that Pippa instead of being a pet was living a free, full,
and independent life, and a great deal of information about cheetah
behaviour which could not have been obtained in any other way.

A few miles away from Mrs. Adamson her husband George has
his camp, where he is rehabilitating lions, as described in BWANA
GAME. ‘There is a difference between them. One feels that Mr.
Adamson is accepted by the lions as a lion, and his camp is the
headquarters of the pride. Mrs. Adamson’s is the even greater achieve-
ment of a friendship on equal terms between a human being and a
wild animal, a relationship she had once before, with Elsa the lioness.
Pippa did not care for the camp and seldom visited it. She was also
much more secretive and less demonstrative than the lions in her
affection. Altogether, lions have much more personality than cheetahs.
But cheetahs grow on one the more one looks at the magnificent
photographs that illustrate this book. They are such elegant iong-
legged cats, whether jumping, running, climbing, or merely sprawled
on the ground; the cubs are charming and grew into leggy juveniles.
Those slender legs seem to be the cheetah’s weak point. Sprains and
fractures were frequent in Mrs. Adamson’s cheetah family. Al-
together, the mortality among Pippa’s cubs was very high: two of her
four litters were lost soon after birth. A Jittle leopard cub called
Taga makes a brief but memorable appearance.

Those of us who lack the capacity to live as Mrs. Adamson does,
but who enjoy living her life vicariously, will hope for another book
continuing the story of Piopa, who remains in many ways, the spotted
sphinx of the title.

RoR:

&

310 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

3. THE KINGFISHER. By Rosemary Eastman. pp. 159
(21-514 cm.). With four colour, and four black and white plates
and a map. London, 1969. Collins. Price 30s. net.

Out of the 84 existing species of Kingfishers in the world, only
one Alcedo athis is found in Europe and England. In India we have
a dozen species including Alcedo athis. They are, as everyone will
admit one of the most attractive group of birds, but because they
nest in tunnels excavated by themselves in mud banks, not much
has been known of their nesting behaviour in the early stages after
the young are born. The husband and wife team of Ron and Rose-
mary Eastman, by means of assiduous observation and ingenious
photography on the river Test around their home in Hampshire, have
produced a fascinating book in which they reveal the intimate secrets
of the life of the Common Kingfisher. To give one example their
photographs indicate that the final part of the dive inside the water
is executed with eyes closed. Obviously to get a photograph of this
nature an artificial tank was built inside the river, in the territorial
area most favoured by the pair under observation. The recording was
done at 300 Frames per second, and the camera focussed at a depth
of about 14 inches in the water. The results are magnificent. Apart
from the photographs of under-water dives, there is a unique photo-
graph of kingfishers mating, of a youngster with its black feet (as
against the red of the adults) and tiny white spot at the end of its
bill; of a female with its rose coloured under-mandible, the only
distinguishing external feature between the sexes.

To photograph young nestlings inside the nest Ron removed the
natural earthen ceiling of the tunnel and replaced it with a plywood
substitute. The next day in full sunlight the ceiling was removed by
slow stages and the six young were photographed. Surprisingly the
parents did not appear to be unduly disturbed by this unusual
situation.

The remarkable film produced by the Eastmans ‘The Private Life
of the Kingfisher’ has proved ‘one of the most sought after of all
natural history films’, and since then the Authors have an assignment
for the BBC for a ‘Private lives’ series which is eagerly awaited.

Vp 3

4. A WEALTH OF WILDFOWL. By Jeffery Harrison.
Illustrated by Pamela Harrison. Introduction by Peter Scott. pp. 176
(17X21:'5 cm.), with many illustrations. London, 1967. Andre
Deutsch Limited. Price 3Qs. net.

REVIEWS 311

This is the eighth of a series of “Survival Books’ published along
with television documentaries on wildlife. The name of the author,
together with an introduction by Peter Scott and illustrations by
Pamela Harrison, promises a wealth which certainly exists.

This book primarily deals with conditions in the United Kingdom,
but the main problems of providing ducks, geese, and swans with
secluded breeding and safe feeding grounds apply not only to all
parts of the world but also to all forms of wildlife. The damage
done by the reclamation of large areas of marsh-land, and by the new
sportsman (supplemented in India by the crop-protection licence-holder)
who ‘shoots at anything that flies caring nothing for the law’, is
accentuated by that caused by nuclear testing, electric powerlines, and
lead shot (one pellet swallowed is said to be sufficient to kill a bird).
Rapidly deteriorating conditions in the early fifties have been checked
by the ‘marriage’ between the wildfowlers and the conservationists
which appears to have been achieved in the United Kingdom. The
book examines. in detail the earlier efforts, the negotiations, and the
present successful collaboration.

Normal duck-shooting in India is different from wildfowling, but
twenty years ago every largish village pond in the Konkan near Bombay
held a few migrant duck and almost every snipe shoot produced a teal
or two flushed out of some secluded piece of water. The duck
population here (and perhaps all over India) was never so concentrated
as it appears to be in the United Kingdom (22,000 birds in Greater
London in the cold weather) but the same reasons, drainage and the
new sportsman, have changed conditions so that a duck is now rarely
seen except on the larger lakes and rivers.

The book goes into great detail, listing the food known
to be taken by the different species at different times of the year.
One method of preserving the whole alimentary tract for the
identification of its food is given in some detail. The author suggests
that plans for new reservoirs should be conditional on shallow areas
being set aside as reserves. In India, one can only hope for the
-early removal of the ‘hard-core conviction that all sportsmen are
villains’; unless this happens, the ‘marriage’ which is so essential for
conservation cannot be achieved.

This book should be read and studied by all interested in or
associated with wildfowl or any other form of wildlife, for it has
the pattern and knowledge which can only be exhibited by one who
is a personal example of the ‘marriage’ within himself.

H. A.

312 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

5. THE WHITE IMPALA: THE STORY OF A GAME RANGER.
By Norman Carr. pp. 190 (2114 cm.). One coloured and 17 half-
tone illustrations. One map. London, 1969, Collins. Price 36s. net.

The author spent his early childhood in. a British concession at
the mouth of the Zambezi River, where his imagination was fired by
travellers’ tales of hunting in the interior of Africa. As a schoolboy
in England he took little interest in scholastic studies, in the opinion
of his headmaster failing to attain even the ‘abysmally low standard’
he set himself. On rejoining his parents on a tobacco farm in what was
then Nyasaland he set out on the long longed-for hunting adventures,
and by the age of twenty had accounted for his fiftieth elephant;
he frankiy confesses that much of this was pure poaching, and it is
probable that many an elephant for the destruction of which he was
rewarded with the ground tusk could really not be tracked back to
a ‘garden’ which it had raided. Fortunately, before he had gone
long in this career he was called to responsible work, work entirely
to his heart, by being appointed Elephant Control Officer in the
I.uangwa valley in northern Rhodesia (now Zambia). As was to be
expected, he entered on his duties with enthusiasm and in his very
first season shot 200 elephants! After an interruption of five years
of military service during the Second World War he resumed duty
in the newly-established Game Department and, as not unusually
happens, his impelling motive imperceptibly changed from the urge
to kill to an interest in the animals themselves, both big and small,
and he found himself making observations of natural history interest and
thinking in terms of control by the establishment of extensive
sanctuaries at safe distances from human cultivation. After a_ spell’
as Game Warden, he finished up as a professional Hunter, in which
capacity he inaugurated his ‘wilderness trail’, his name for walking
tours in which a white hunter conducts a party of four or less.
tourists in a non-hunting round of the game reserves.

With his background, the author has much of interest to tell the ~
reader. I find it difficult, however, to accept his story of the wonder-
ful African porters who carried his baggage on erect outstretched
arms and walked across flooded streams with ‘their heads completely
immersed’. I am also unable to figure out from his map how, on
his way to report for military duty, his direct route from the Congo-
Tanganyika border was a trek ‘due west’ to Mpika, the headquarters
of the District Commissioner.

The book concludes with a chapter on wildlife control in which
the author points out that conservation of habitat is as important as
conservation of wildlife, meaning animal life thereby, and that pro-

REVIEWS | 313

per wildlife management may actually involve a regular ‘cropping’. of
wildlife and thus provide an additional source of income.

Several good photographs of wild animals add to the attraction
of the book. )

D.E.R.

6. INDIAN THYSANOPTERA. By T. N. Ananthakrishnan.
pp. 171 (24x16 cm.) with 10 plates and 38 text-figures. New Delhi,
1969. Publications and Information Directorate, C.S.I.R. (Zoological
Monograph No. 1). Price Rs. 26; 52s.; $ &.

Books on Indian entomology are few and ihose written by
H. M. Lefroy, T. B. Fletcher, C. F. C. Beeson, T. V. R. Avyar and
others, though very useful have become dated and are also of general
nature. The Indian Fauna volumes (Insects) mainly give descriptions
of adult insects. Only a very few exceptions such as Vol. V on
Moths, by Bell & Scott give life history and description of immature
stages. The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, therefore,
has done well in deciding to publish comprehensive monographs on
important subjects in zoology. The selection of Thysanoptera for the
first monograph is fortunate as there is no comprehensive compilation
on this group though a very large number of papers have been
published by various authors in a number of periodicals. The
extremely small insects of this order cause extensive damage to agri-
cultural and horticultural plants but the insects themselves are not
casily detected by laymen till the damage is done. The book will
fill a badly needed want in this field for college students, research
workers and the modern farmer.

The book is divided into six sections. The first deals with bio-
nomics in which ecology, variations in the population according to
the climatic and topographic conditions, their habit of deforming plant
tissues in a variety of ways, predation etc. are described and their
imsect enemies are mentioned. The second deals with taxcnomy,
including a general survey of the work so far done and keys to the
two main suborders, super families, families, subfamilies, tribes and Indian
genera. The keys are not quite clear. For instance out of the four
families in Terebrantia mentioned by the author, genera of only two
are described probably because there are practically no species in
India belonging to the other two families. If so this should have
been mentioned. Similarly under the suborder Tubulifera the arrange-
ment of genera is not made under each subfamily as is done in Tere-

12

314. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

brantia-—Thripidae. ‘These two suggestions, IT hope, will. be kept in
mind for the next edition.

General morphology is dealt with in the 3rd section and re-
production and development forms the 4th section. The 5th section
in which structural diversity in natural populations of thrips is dis-
cussed is very interesting. According to the author the differences in
individual adaptability to environments are brought about by diverse
gene patterns. How this works and variability is brought about even
in the sane species and populations is discussed. The sixth describes
economic importance of thrips in relation ta agriculture and horti-
culture, and important species of crop pests are mentioned. |

The book includes an useful appendix containing a classified list
of species of Indian Thysanoptera as well as an exhaustive list of
references. A number of good illustrations enhance the value of the
book. )

N.T.N.

7. WATERFOWL IN AUSTRALIA. By H. J. Frith, Chief,
Division of Wild Life Research, C.S.I.R.O. pp. xxi+328 (16x24 cm.)
with many illustrations. Sydney, 1967. Angus & Robertson Ltd.
Price $10.00.

Of the 23 species of Waterfowl in Ausiralia, two are introductions
(Mallard and Mute Swan) and two strays (Shoveller and Garganey) the
other 19 being resident with no regular breeding or non: beeediae
migrants unlike other parts of the world. |

A chapter is devoted to each species and the amount of in-
formation offered is in marked contrast to the little we know in our
country about our birds! The crop contents of several hundreds of
each species have been examined in detail and the proportion of
vegetable and/or animal food in different parts of the vear is indicated,
associating this with the change in water-level which appears to be the
main factor controlling the inland, but often extensive, movement of
waterfowl. Call notes of some of the species are expressed in sono-
grams, while banding has been carried te such a great extent that,
though a lake may appear to hold the same number of birds at
different times, it is possible to state whether it consists of the same
birds or there has been a change in individuals. |

As in other Australian groups, the waterfowl include strange and
exceptional species ike Bless swans, the musk duck, and the magpie
geese.

REVIEWS 315

_ Excellent photographs of birds in their natural habitats accompany
the text, including one of swans flying across in which neck-bands
placed on them for purposes of individual recognition: are visible.

The bibliography at the end contains 101 titles, including 16 by
the author himself who is conducting researches into the biology of
the different species on behalf of the ESERO. as Chief of its
Division of Wild Life Research.

While the book may not be of particular interest to the average
sportsman or bird-watcher in India, it contains a great deal of in-
formation (including some on the Cotton Teal, a race of which is
resident in Australia) and is indispensable as a work of reference on
any study of waterfow!. It can only be hoped that scme attempts
at such studies, which were obviously in close collaboration with
sportsmen, will be taken up in India before it is too late.

H.A.

8. HANDBOOK OF FERN GARDENING. By P. Kachroo.
pp. 39 (23:75X16 cm.) with 12 plates & 15 text-figures. New Delhi.
1968. Indian Counci! of Agricultural Research. Price Rs. 4.

The Indian Council of Agricultural Research is devoting consider-
able attention to gardening and has published several books dealing
with various garden plants.

This book like Prof. Kachroo’s ROCK GARDENING IN THE HILLS is
meant for the amateur gardener who takes an interest in the nature
of the plant material with which he deals. The chapters on potting
and culture are specially useful.

A large number of garden ferns are described with some very
good drawings, and photographs, which make identification quite easy.
One only wishes there were a few more drawings, as some of the
more difficult varieties to identify are not illustrated.

At the end is a glossary of botanical terms which should be most
useful. :

A.J.A.

9. THE COMPLEAT FLEA. By Biendan leehane. pp. ibe
(21-5 13-5 cm.). With 8 halt-tone plates and 7 illustrations in the text.
London, 1969. John Murray. Price 25s. net.

T his delightfully written little Book: is the oo of a writer’s
Peccasion with fleas, which developed. after he shared a. flat with. them

316 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

in Dublin. Few people can feel an affection for these pests—even
Mr. Lehane admits his fondness grew with absence; but fleas are
fascinating as compared with other parasites. In the first place they
are complicatedly and beautifully adapted to their way Of life; and in
the second, they are so active that catching them needs concentration
and skill and has something of the excitement of the chase. Anyone
who has hunted down and despatched animal fleas (the human variety
now having been banished from polite society by hygiene and D.D.T.)
will recognise the expression of quiet satisfaction and absorption of |
the lady in the picture reproduced opposite page 39 who is about to
crack a flea between her fingernails. The time was, however, when it
was considered no disgrace to have fleas, and a poet could address
a peem to his lady’s fleas without feeling that they detracted at all
from her charms. Fleas provided entertainment in flea circuses and
they had their supporters—in Aesop’s fables fleas play a firmly moral
role—, but William Blake expressed most people’s feelings when he
painted the ghost of a flea as a muscle-bound man with talons and
a bowl for collecting blood.

Scientific study began comparatively late. Robert Hooke made a
detailed engraving of a flea in 1665, and van Leeuwenhoek examined
them under his microscopes and refuted the theory of spontaneous
generation on their behalf. It was not tili 1898 that a Japanese
scientist, Ogata, suggested that rat fleas carry plague to man, and
1910 when the Plague Commission confirmed that this was the main
method of transmission. Mr. Lehane also touches briefly on more
recent work on fleas, especially that of the Hon. Miriam Rothschild
on the complicated life-history of the rabbit flea. :

The style is so easy that one tends to overlook the amount of
scholarship that has gone into the writing of this little book. There
is a lot here to amuse and delight scientist and non-scientist alike.

R.R.

10. PREHISTORIC ANIMALS AND THEIR HUNTERS. By
I. W. Cormwail. With illustrations by M. M. Howard. pp. 214
(21:5X16 cm.). 29 drawings. London, 1968. Faber and Faber.

Price. 42s. net.

This is a book on prehistory with a difference. There are many
books on prehistoric man, and others on the evolution of the animals
we know today as well as their extinct relatives and ancestors. This
one is about the environment of early man, and his relationship with

REVIEWS 317

the animais of his time. Jt was a changing environment, and adapt-
ability was at a premium for survival. During successive glaciations
the ice at the poles extended, and the temperate zones shrank; while
in the interglacial pericds the ice retreated and the climate became
warm and temperate. Early man competed with the cave lion and
the cave bear for his home, while the forests and plains of the
northern hemisphere supported a rich mammalian fauna. The most
spectacular species in what is now Europe were probably the bison
Bison priscus, the mammoths Mammuthus primigenius and others, the
woolly rhinoceros Tichorhinus antiquitaits and other species of rhino-
ceros. The earliest hominids, the Australopithecines, seem to have
lived on small animals like snakes, lizards, and rodents, which they
could kili with their simple tools. Their defence against ihe large
predators depended on agility and cunning. The earliest cutting tools
are attributed to another hominid, Homo habilis. These made man
a big game hunter, able when in groups to attack even the big carni-
vores. After this, man continued to nerfect his killing and trapping
techniques. He also became a domesticator of some useful species
He probably did not contribute very greatly to the extinction of the
great mammals of his time. He was certainly aware of the necessity
of the survival of the species he most commonly used for food. The
weil known cave paintings of human beings and animals are believed
to be part of magic rites to ensure fertility of both man and animals.
Nevertheless there are instances of wholesale slaughter. The upper
Palaeolithic people of Solutré drove herds of the wild horse Equus
caballus over a steep cliff, as evidenced by the numerous remains at
the foot of the cliff. Similarly, accumuiated remains in Magdalenian
deposits show where man camped at strategic sites along the routes
of migrating reindeer and killed large numbers of them.

However, men were not then numerous enough to seriously
endanger the existence of species. The major factor which led to the
disappearance of many species must have been changes in climate
and biotope. Many species were so well adapted to particular bio-
topes, and so restricted to them, that their presence in a particular
place at a particular time can be used as an indicator of the prevailing
climate. Thus, of three contemporary rhinoceros species, Tichorhinus
antiguitdtis was confined to arctic tundra, DicerOrhinus hemitoechus
to grassland, and D. kirchbergensis to deciduous forest. There are
also mysteries. such as why horses should have become extinct in the
New World, when they migrated successfully to survive the glacial
periods of the Old World. Mcdern man is endangering many animal
species by being so numerous as tc destroy biotopes but, the first
time in the history of the world, he has the knowledge and the

318 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

technology at his command io preserve other species. It remains to
be seen whether he will make use of his unique opportunity.

The illustrations add greatly to the enjoyment of this fascinating
book, and are a tribute not only to Mr. M. M. Howard but alse
to the accurate observation and skill of the primitive artists.

R.R

Miscellaneous Notes |

Ee eiksT POSITIVE RECORD OF PIPISTRELLUS SAVII
(CHIROPTERA: VESPERTILIONIDAB) FROM INDIA

The only records of the Sind Bat, Eptesicus nasutus (Dobson), from
the Indian subregion are from localities in what is now West Pakistan
(Siddiqi 1969:9) and from a specimen identified by Tate (1942 :275)
from ‘Amballa, Siwalik Hiuils’ (Ambala, Punjab, India; 30°19’ N,
76°49’ E.). Jn conjunction with a study of the bats of Afghanistan,
I have re-examined the specimen on which Tate’s record is based,
and find it to be incorrectly identified. Based on comparisons with
specimens available to me in the Field Museum of. Natura! History,
Chicago, IlJ., U.S.A., and with descriptions in the literature, I have
determined that the bat is a Savi’s Pipistrelle, Pipistrellus savii (Bona-
parte). The subspecific category cannot be determined with certainty
but skull profile and measurements (Table) suggest alliance with P. s.
cayucasicus (Satunin). The bat is preserved as skin and skull, number ~
5147, in the collections of the Museum of Comparative Zoology
(MCZ), Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A. It was collected by M. M. Carleton
and was received by the MCZ in January, 1875 (ters comm., oe
Barbara Lawrence, Curator of Mammals, MCZ).
re Two subspecies questionably related to P. savii have been reported
from India by Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951:170), P. (2) s. cadornae
Thomas and P. (?) s. dustenianus Dobson. Hill (1962:133) regards
cadornae as a distinct species, P. cudornae.- The relationship of
dustenianus to P. savii has yet to be satisfactorily determined. Eller-
man & Morrison-Scott (op. cit.) also question the relation of cau-
casicus to P. sayti. My conclusion that caucasicus is properly allied
to typical P. savii is based on the similar morphology of the penis
and baculum. of. the two forms. Thus, P. savii—may--definitely be
recorded from India, and F, nasutus should be removed uum the
faunai list. 4

320 JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)
TABLE

MEASUREMENTS IN MM. OF Pipistrellus savii FROM AMBALA, INDIA
EXTERNAL MEASUREMENTS FROM DRY SKIN

oreatm 22) eS ea ae Seana eae 3677 “Total. length, skull Sy e44% 14:2
2nd-"metacarpale tsk ee eee 33:2 Condylobasal length........ 13°9
3rd: metacarpal. ce... 2-4 te Sea 34°8 . Zyzomatic- swidth ai...) ee. 9°3
3rd digit, ist phalanx ...2t ace sce 12°9 Interorbital constriction...... 3°8
3rd digit 2nd phalanke. er (oe eee 11°2- Breadth of brain case..%%...%. <2 6°8
4th metacarpal... .......... Pe ee 3387. SO-MF t hais Pe eae eee eae 4°5
4th digit, Ist’ phalanke «2 ver wei. Facee L196" WC 2G ee ee ee ee 4°6
Ath digit, 2nd phalanx... 9. ....0.035./,8°2" MMos te a Sy Faag wes is oh 6:0
Sth metacarpal: .Nis saee atom ee ee 3398) -SCAMe oes Sele he ee a ee 5°4
Sth ‘digit “Ist phalanxa.ce eo ae S77 {Mandible *.. teat ae 10°3
Sth. digit.2nd phalank.wea. sees Ree 6°4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank Miss Barbara Lawrence of the Museum of
Comparative Zoology and Dr. Joseph Curtis Moore of the Field
Museum of Natural History for the privilege of examining pertinent
specimens, and for their contributions to this note. Financial support
for these studies was provided by a William H. and Stella M. Rowley
Fellowship and a Karl P. Schmidt Fund grant from the Field Museum
of Naturai History.
DIVISION OF MAMMALS, HANS N. NEUHAUSER'*
Fie_tD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HIsTory,

Cuicaco, ILLinors, U.S.A., ~
April 14, 1970.

REFERENCES

ELLERMAN, J. R. & Morrison-Scorr,
T. C. 8S. (1951) : Checklist of Palaearctic
and Indian Mammals 1758 to 1946.
British Museum, London.

Huu, J. E. (1962): Notes on some
insectivores and bats from Upper Burma.
Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 139: 119-137.

Sippiar, M. S. U. (1969): Fauna of

Pakistan. Agricultural Research Coun-
cil, Government of Pakistan, Karachi.

TATE, G. H. H. (1942): Review of the
Vespertilionine bats, with special atten-
tion to the genera and species of the
Archbold collections. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat.
Hist. 78 : 221-297.

1 Present address:
Georgia, U.S.A,

Department of Zoology, University of Georgia, Athens,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 321

2. A NOTE ON THE YELLOW THROATED MARTEN
MARTES FLAVIGULA (BODDAERT) IN WEST PAKISTAN

Since this animal is partly diurnai in its activities, and like other

members of the ‘Mypstelinidae’, is quite bold and fearless of man,
it would seem a suitable subject for the amateur naturalist to study.
Despite this in §. H. Prater’s BOOK OF INDIAN ANIMALS it is stated
that nothing has been recorded of their breeding habits, and it is
evident that much still needs to be learned about its biology.
_ During the late 1950s and early 1960s this beautiful animal could
often be seen in the more secluded parts of the Murree Hills in
West Pakistan. It is distressing therefore to record that during eight
days spent at Dunga Gali in the Murree Hills in early April 1970
that no trace of the Yellow Throated Marten was observed by the
author even thovgh localities were searched where one could
previously count on seeing them. [In early April human disturbance
is minimal in this area, particularly as the local hill-folk remain in
their winter residences lower down the hillside until there is sufficient
spring growth of vegetation to support their grazing and browsing
livestock. It would appear therefore that in the more accessible
forested areas of the Himalayas ihat the Yellow Throated Marten is
already under pressure from increased human interference and hunting
and that the few observations which the author has been able to
collect about this species may be worth publishing.

Five subspecies were recognized (Ellerman & Morrison-Scott 1951).
Races occurring in Indonesia and Malaya are undoubtedly characterised
by darker and richer coloration of the fur particularly the yellow fur
along the sides of the throat and neck. All the forms occurring in
West Pakistan territory belong to the nominate race. After examin-
ing between seventy and eighty skins in the possession of fur traders,
in Peshawar, Rawalpindi, and Murree, it is only possible to state that
there is considerable colour variation amongst the West Pakistan
specimens. But on average there is rather more cream or silver tipped
guard hairs extending over the shoulders and upper part of the back
as compared with the specimens of Marites f. peninsularis & M. f.
indochinensis which the author has been able to study in the British
Museum collection. It has also been noticed that sub-adult specimens
from West Pakistan have a more uniformly brown ccat over the
shoulders and a less grizzled effect from pale tipped hairs. Generally
the central part of the throat and upper breast is almost pure white
whilst it deepens to rich cream and even bright canary-yellow in
some West Pakistan specimens at the upper edge of the throat.

Besides the above comments it is interesting to note the degree

322°, JOURNAL, BOMBAY: ‘NATURAL’ HIST? SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

to which this member of the genus Martes has modified the- family
characteristics so as to adapt itself to a sylvatic existence. Compared
with the eight marten species occurring throughout the northern hemi-
sphere, M. flavigulu has the longest tail. Obviously an extremely
useful balancing device for tree climbing. Also the limbs are
comparatively long and the fore-legs extremely powerfully developed
compared to other mustelinedae which again is a valuable adaption
for an arborial existence. Though M. flavigula appears relatively
clumsy and slow when it gallops across the ground, the tremendous
muscles in its fore-arms give it astonishing agility in trees. The
author once observed an adult Yellow Throated Marten run. swiftly
down a straight and vertical tree trunk. A feat which is surely. un-
usual considering its size and weight and even rivals the ability of
monkeys in this respect. It is further worth recording that even in
the northern Himalavas of West Pakistan, where snow often persists

until the end of April, and the temperatures are particularly cold at

night, that M. flavigula does not develop a thick under-fur or wool.
This is in sharp contrast to M. foina which is more an inhabitant of
drier barren mountainous areas. The explanation presumably lies in

the ability of M. flavigula to find well protected and snug tree hollows

for sleeping during the winter months. A specimen killed March 30th,
in Dunga Gali; when there was still deep snow there had no under-
fur and surprisingly thin fur on the belly. It is also worth noting
that this specimen which was an adult female and appeared of normal
size, measured twenty-five inches from nose-tip to root of tail and
nineteen inches in tail length. These measurements are slightly above
the maximum given for the species by Prater (op. cit.). Perhaps one
could infer from this that the average size of specimens inhabiting
the north-western part of the Himalayas is considerably above the
measurements given in THE BOOK OF INDIAN ANIMALS. This female
specimen when fresh killed weighed seven-and-a-half pounds. |

Feeding Habits:

These have already been described by earlier writers (Pocock and
Prater op. cit.). M. flavigula.is a bold and fearless hunter, capable
not only of killing domestic chickens, but also newly born deer of the
smaller species as well as wild birds and squirrels. In West Pakistan

Flying Squirrels (Petaurista and Hylopetes spp.) undoubtedly form an .

important part of their diet as they invariably occur in the same
forest areas. However, M. flavigula evidently has-‘a distinctly sweet
tooth, and besides being extremely fond of ripe-fruit and honey, it
also shows an ability to adapt its diet to whatever food is seasonally
abundant. In mid-June in the outer Himalayan range the berries of

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 323

the ill-scented Viburnum, (Viburnum nervyC@sum), are ripe and_ this
bush dominates the forest understory. These dark purplish berries
form the bulk of the diet of the martens at this season. Adult
animals have been observed on several occasions clambering all over
such bushes and pulling the bunches of berries to their mouth with
one paw and feeding thus for prolonged periods. In the Murree Hills
in late July a certain species of cicada emerges from the forest litter
to hatch out into the winged adult. In the process it climbs up any
suitable shrub or tree trunk for the larval skin to dry out and crack
open. A young female Yellow Throated Marten shot at this season
was found to have the stomach full of the partly digested remains of
cicadas. M. flavigula normally finds its food within the forest limits
but at certain seasons it descends to the lower, open cultivated orchards
when these are bearing ripe fruit. In July 1965, a specimen was
killed robbing the ripe laden apricot trees in village Malach at 6000
feet and approximately one-half mile below the timber line. This
happened at night showing that they are not exclusively diurna! in
feeding habits. They have been reported also as stealing apples in
October but such reports have to be treated with caution since Paguma
larvata and Martes foina do occur in the same area, and the local
hill-folk do not always distinguish between these species. In the
forest itself wild hill bees build nests in tree hollows during late June
and July and it is wel! known by the iocal hill people, that M. flavigula
is passionately fond of honey and successfully robs such nests. The
author once observed a marten enter a tree hole which was obviously
occupied by bees, at about five pm. in early July. The hole was
located high up in a Sycamore tree (Acer caesium). Despite watching
for about ten minutes, the marten did not re-emerge though there
was evidence of bees coming and going to the entrance of the hole.
No definite conclusions can be made from such an cbservation but it
seems likely that the marten is not afraid of being stung and that it
was trying to dig out and reach the honey-comb. A story recounted
to the writer by a German engineer is worth recording. This gentleman
was a very keen hunter of both big and small game. One autumn
whilst hunting in the outer ranges of the Murree foot-hills, at about
3000 feet elevation, he shot a Yellow Throated Marten. He put the
animal in his knapsack which was slung on his back. Due to the
anal glands possessed by this species there is always a distinct and
slightly foetid odour emanating froma dead specimen. The ability of
Hymenoptera to find food by scent is well known. The savage plain’s
-bee (Apis dorsata) occurs in that locality, and some of these bees
apparently recognized. the smell of their traditional enemy. At any
tate the gentleman was suddenly and viciously attacked by a swatm

324. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

of bees. He rolled on the ground to escape and ultimately rushed
into a nearby creek and plunged into the water. Apparently he fell
unconscious and later reached home with difficulty (Major Albert M.
Gsells pers. comm.)

Breeding Biology:

The Mustelidae are known in many cases to exhibit delayed
implantation of the ovum (WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES 1969).
In some instances it is difficult to understand the exact value or bio-
logical significance of such a phenomenon. However, for several
species of the genus Maries the period of gestation has been observed

to last from 220-290 days (Walker 1964). With only two exceptions, —

the author has always observed that the Yellow Throated Marten
spends its active hours hunting alone. Pairs do not appear to form
any lasting bond relationship. A young family of three martens was
observed to be attended exclusively by one adult which was presumably
the mother. However, on two occasions one in late July and the
other in early August, two adult martens were observed together. On
August 10th one marten was observed excitedly chasing a second
animal and making quite a loud chattering noise. This was the
occasion already described when one animal was observed swiftly but
sure-footedly running down a completely vertical tree trunk. Both
animals ignored the observer and were not hunting. It would be
reasonable to associate such behaviour with courtship or breeding
activity in view of al! the other observations of single animals. The
female marten killed on March 30th, already referred to earlier, was
found to contain two well developed but completely naked foetuses.
Presumably they would have been born sometime around the middle
of April and the above slender evidence would seem to support the
supposition that M. flavigula mates in late July and early August and
at least in the northwest Himalayas the young are born in April.
Such a long period of gestation also suggests delayed implantation of
the ova.

One year, I was fortunate to discover at Dunga Gali a den and
family of three young martens in early July. At this time they were

well grown, and only slightly smaller than the parent which would

also seem to suggest birth in mid-Apri! at least in this region. Up
to about July 28th, they remained in the vicinity of the den which
was located in a deep fissure in the bowl of a yew tree (Taxus baccata).
This was approximately one furlong from the nearest frequented foot
track and on a very steep forested slope. The three young were
extremely playful and inquisitive and also remarkably vocal. It is im-
possible to transcribe in words the variety of squeaks, grunts and

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 325

chattering noises which these young martens made when they were
playing together. In fact it was their calls which revealed their
presence. The top of a square cut tree stump near the den was a
favourite platform for sun basking and waiting for the mother’s arrival.
Twice the adult parent was observed in mid-July accompanied by
the three young, foraging for insects, birds’ nests etc., in both instances
within about one-and-a-half furlongs of the den. On two occasions
when watching the young the parent appeared but if she (?) had
brought food for them she was too wary to reveal the fact and had
presumably catched her prey before showing herself. The female has
four teats, two of these in the inguinal region. Prater and Walker
refer to litter sizes of up to five young (loc. cit.). But a smaller
number would appear to be more usual for M. flavigula,

Distribution:
Most of the above observations were made in the Murree Hills.
_ The Yellow Throated Marten has also been observed in Swat Kohistan
Where it is not uncommon as Well as Dir and in the southern portion
of Chitral. It is also well known to the local hill people in the lower
part of the Kaghan Valley (District Hazara) and of course the Murree
Hills as already mentioned. All these areas are characterised by
temperate evergreen forest. Though primarily a sylvatic animal and
having its centre of origin presumably in the more tropical forests
of southeast Asia, it is obviously very adaptable and can also survive
in stunted sub-tropical sclerophyllous forest in foothill zones. Thus,
it has been seen not only in regions such as Kahuta and the Lehtrar
Valley north of Rawalpindi but also in the Kalah Cheetah Hills of
Campbellpur District where the dominant species are Olea cuspidata
and Acacia mOdesta which only grow to 10 or 12 feet height. It has
also been recorded in stunted oak forest (Quercus balot), in southern
Chitral. Such ilex oak country represents the extreme west of its
known range and perhaps not un-coincidentally the western limit of
Petaurista albiventer (the Large Red Flying Squirrel).

ROBERTS COTTON ASSOCIATES LTD., T. J. ROBERTS
KHANEWAL,

WEST PAKISTAN,

May 9, 1970

326 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

REFERENCES

ELLERMAN, J. R. & MORRISON-SCOTT, PRATER, S. H. (1965): The Book of
T. C. S. (1951) : Checklist of Palaearctic Indian Animals. Revised Edition 1965.
and Indian Mammals. British Museum. _ Bombay Natural History Society.
London. WALKER, E. P. (1969): The World

Pocock, R. T. (1939): Fauna of of Mammals Vol. II. Johns Hopkins
British India—Mammalia Vol. II. Press, Baltimore.

Taylor & Francis Ltd., London.

3. THE DUGONG, DUGONG DUGON (MULLER) IN
BURMESE WATERS

In 1964 and 1965 two. dugongs were caught in the nets of the
Lampi State Fisheries, Mergui Archipelago. Both were males.

In 1965 and 1966 dugongs were recorded only from Manaung
township, Kyaukpyu district, Arakan division, along the Burma coast.

On 24 August 1965 a male dugong was caught near Akyab in
the Arakan sea. It was brought from Akyab to Rangoon and. arrived
at the Zoological Gardens on 27 August. It. died on 3rd November
1965.

A female captured in the can atelh waters off Cheduba Island, about
three or four miles from the Arakan coast on 26th October 1966, was
brought from Akyab to Rangoon by boat and arrived at the Zoological
Gardens on 2nd November 1966. It died on 25th March i967. A
large male was reported to have been trapped in’a fishing net in the
same area where the female was caught, but had to be released as
it was too strong and would have dragged the fishing net away.
Another male caught by a fisherman of Zayatkon village in Cheduba
township off the sea coast of Cheduba Island in January 1970
arrived at the Zoological Gardens on 15 January 1970. It died on
20 February 1970. A female dugong caught by the same team in
February 197C, arrived at the Zoological Gardens on 13 February 1970.
It was still alive on 26 February 1970, the date on which I recorded —
this note *

Method of Capture:

In Burma dugongs are not caught deliberately for food. They
are usually caught along with fish during beach fishing. Sometimes
when the dugong is observed, fishermen leave the fish to catch the
dugong as it brings in more cash, Occasionally dugongs are caught
on request from the Management Board, Zoological Gardens, Rangoon.

1 Died on 30 Aug. 1970.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 327

-. According to the Director of Fisheries, Burma (U Tint Hlaing)

and Head of the Marine Biology Section, Moulmein College, Moul-

‘mein (U Kyaw Myint) who have tasted the flesh cooked in different
ways, the flesh is said to be tender and of good eating. The fat
smells of cod liver oil, like many of the other marine mammals. The
fat melts at 72°C.

As in the Gulf of Mannar (Prater 1965, BOOK OF INDIAN ANIMALS:
316) the flesh is highly esteemed by the villagers from Arakan coast.
They say the flesh is better than pork.

25, INYA MYAING RoaD, TUN YIN
~RANGOON, —

UNIVERSITY P.O.,

BURMA,

February 26, 1970.

4. STRANDING OF FOUR WHALES ALONG GOA
COAST BETWEEN DECEMBER 1968 AND APRIL, 1970

This paper records the stranding of four specimens of baleen
whales along Goa coast during a period of 16 months. I have not
seen stranded whales along Goa coast between August 1964 to
November 1968 and enquiries made at various fish landing centres
along the coast reveal that there have been very few occasions when
whales have been washed ashore during the last 50 years. The months
when the four specimens of whale were stranded along Goa coast
are listed below:

Distance from
Month Place Panaji and Length

direction
December 1968 Mandrem 20 Km. North 15:00 metres
February — 1969 Baina 12 Km. South 14°85 ,,
January 1970 Canacona 30 Km. South. FS3e85- 50.
April 1970 Candolim 10 Km. North WSe50r Mi

The stranding at Candolim was on first April, 1970, Candolim is
a fishing village about 12 Km. north of Panaji. The specimen was
seen on 32 April 1970, when putrification had already reached an
advanced stage. Since it was not possible to drag the whale to Panaji
it was decided to: bury it at Candolim for extracting its skeleton

for keeping at the National Institute of Oceanography at Panaji... Its

328 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

weight was estimated to be approximately 25 tons. The following
measurements of the specimen were taken:

Total length (tip of lower jaw to tip of flukes) a eo OU in.

Length from base of flipper to tip of lower jaw .. 400 ,,
Length of flipper ei eesacce
Ratio of flipper length to total length pen) Wg |
Total number of ventral grooves e467

The ventral grooves extended far behind the flipper reaching as
far as the anal region.

The exact coloration could not be ascertained because of the de-
composed nature of the specimen. However, on the shoulder region
the skin was dark grey whereas on the ventral side near the flippers
it was white. Flippers were pale black in colour and the frayed baleen

plates were blackish grey and fluke greyish blue in colour. Nasal

opening was triangular.

The stomach was everted indicating that the specimen had vomitted
prior to death. The sex could not be determined. However, the
specimen appeared to be immature.

The ratio of flipper length to the total length of the specimen was
1:9 which identifies it as Bolaenoptera physalus.

All the four specimens are approximately of the same length which
suggests that they belong to the same year class which probably migrate
in the cold season from November to April along the coast,

The author is thankful to Dr. P. V. Dehadroi, Scientist, N.I.O.
Panaji for critically going through the manuscript.

RESEARCH LABORATORY, RAJINDER M. DHAWAN
DIRECTORATE OF FISHERIES,

PANAJI, GOA,

May 1, 1970.

5. RECORD OF THE HIMALAYAN MONAL
LOPHOPHORUS IMPEJANUS (LATHAM) IN BURMA

(With a map)

Three rare pheasants, two cocks and. a hen arrived at the Zoo-
logical Gardens, Rangoon, from Putao on 27 June 1969. They were
identified as the Himalayan Monal Lophophorus impejanus. No
mention of the presence of this monal in Burma, is made in Smythies
BIRDS OF BURMA. I sent photographs to Mr. Philip Wayre, Hon.

re at “

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 329

Director, The Ornamental Pheasant Trust, England, and author of
A GUIDE TO THE PHEASANTS OF THE WORLD and he confirmed the
identification. The three Monals were trapped on Hpungan Pass—-
Latitude 27° 30’, Longitude 96° 48’, 3072 metres (Map). Extracts
from a letter dated 9 February 1970, which I received from Mr. Wayre,
are quoted below.

‘I am quite sure that this constitutes an extension of this bird’s
range, the eastern limit of which was previously believed to be the
‘Mishmi Hills. I have checked all the literature and can find no
reference to its occurrence east of those hills other than in the mountains
of south-western Sikang.

96°| 40’ Te eae | | “97°71 30!
27° | 27°
C

Chulam TAWAI | mae
x Pass a Kumjawng P
3258 ai LaDy

5.
gt Man_Namsai

Nampak ‘gy 1632

aN
Hpungan Pass ,) 3072
in

3043

ie uae
“SANKAUNG\_a\ Manse
1948 LY
‘Kyen alawn ! “403
wis i -~--PTORPUTAO

(FORT HERTZ)

at—~
Man Hoangnam
Lang

~Chaukan Pass x 2433 peor ote
\, ‘a

~

~ vf =
NC ~ +x9878. HPAUNGMA BUM
TAWANG BUM . Dolam P

i ERS cy ay
27500 i

330 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

The disttibution according to Vaurie BIRDS OF THE PALAEARCTIC
FAUNA is Fastern Afghanistan (Nuristan and Safed Koh) and North
West Frontier Province, eastward through the Himalayas to Bhutan
and north-eastern Assam (Mishmi Hills) and neighbouring southern
Tibet to south-western Sikang. [Pome and southern Chamdo to the
valleys of Po Yigrong and Po Tsangpo, to at least the region of
Showa Dzong, or to about 95° 30°E. long.].

25, InyA MYAING ROAD, TUN YIN
UNIVERSITY P.O., . :
RANGOON,

February 20, 1970.

6. INTERESTING EAGLES IN WESTERN INDIA

While scanning through my notes recently I found that I had some-
how failed to report three occurrences of interesting eagles in Kutch.
One of them was Pallas’s Fishing Eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus
(Pallas), seen by me in the cold weather of 1947-48 near Ganga Nal
(a tidal creek 3-4 miles west of Mandvi).

The second and the most interesting discovery was that of the
White-tailed Sea Eagle Haliaeetus albiciila (Linnaeus) in 1949-50 near
Mundra (about 30 miles south of Bhuj). A solitary individual was
sitting on an earthen mound when I saw it while trying to catch up
with and collect a Houbara Bustard Chlamydotis undulata macqueenit
(J. E. Gray) wounded by me. I do not remember whether I bagged
the Houbara, but I now certainly regret my folly in not at once trying
to collect ihe eagle at that time for only a single record of it in India
is apparently made (Ali & Ripley, HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA
ANL: PAKISTAN, Vol. 1, page 286). When I went back to the place
where I had seen this extremely rare sea eagle it had disappeared and
I failed to spot it again.

In December 1966 I saw an Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca Savigny.
This too is a rare visitor in Kutch having been recorded by Sir
Geoffrey Archer, but others, including the Salim Ali’ survey, have
not come across it (Ali, BIRDS OF KUTCH, vide Appendix B—page 172).

1 Reported from Pung Bet, Little Rann and Kaira Dist. in ‘ The Birds of Gujarat’,
JBNHS 52 : 397, by Salim Ali—Eds.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 331

It was sitting right in the middle of the Bhuj-Mandvi_ road,
approximately 8 miles from Bhuj, eating a hare which was left behind
when it flew off as I got very near the bird in my jeep.

Buus, KUTCH, | HIMMATSINHJI .
March 31, 1970. z

7. NOTES ON INDIAN BIRDS—12. EXTENSION OF
THE SOUTHERN LIMITS OF THE EASTERN STOCK
DOVE (COLUMBA EVERSMANNI BONAPARTE)

The Eastern Stock Dove (COlumba eversmanni Bonaparte), a winter
migrant to India, is known to occur as far south as Darbhanga, Bihar,
in the east but on the western side it has not been noted south of
Ambala and Ludhiana in the Punjab.

The Society’s collection includes a @ No. 12903, obtained at
Gwalior, C.J., by C. Marie on 9 March 1903, with the label marked
‘Very large flocks on peepal’.

I also find in my notes on a three-day visit to Bharatpur, Rajasthan,
in October 1951, a reference to some pigeons ‘very like the Blue
Rock (C. livia) but slightly smaller and all with pure white rumps.
In pairs and in parties of 15/20 in open. Once put out of tree’. Upon
my return, I identified them as C. eversmanni but omitted to
record them.

It would appear that this bird is found further south than accepted,
though it is uncertain if this is only occasional or happens every year.
The white rump (really croup or lower back) is very distinctive.

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, HUMAYUN ABDULALI
BOMBAY-3,
April 10, 1970.

- 8. AN ADDITION TO THE LIST OF INDIAN BIRDS—THE
MIGRATORY JUNGLE NIGHTJAR, CAPRIMULGUS
INDICUS JOTAKA TEMM. & SCHL.

- On the night of 28th April 1970, we left Port Blair, Andamans,
by a police launch for Narcondam Island, 160 miles north-east. At
about 5 a.m. the following morning, I came on deck and was surprised
to see a dark dove-sized bird flying low over the water about 30
yards away. The white spots on the wings suggested a nightjar but

332. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

the thought was dismissed as absurd, and desperate attempts were
made to place it among the birds likely to be met far out at sea.
As nothing plausible suggested itself, I obtained the Captain’s approval
and rushed down for my gun. When I returned, the bird had shifted
over to the other side of the boat. As it dropped to my shot it was
evident that it was a nightjar. e

In Bombay we identified the bird as a Jungle Nightjar, Capri-
mulgus indicus, but it differed from hazarae Whistler & Kinnear
(Abbottabad, Hazara, Himalayas) and appeared to be C. i. jotaka
Temm. & Schl. (type locality: Japan). In the absence of material for
comparison, the specimen (c“, wing 214) was sent to the Smithsonian |
Institution at Washington, where Mr. Bond has kindly confirmed
that it is ‘a good example of jotaka’. |

This race is a well known migrant from Japan and China to the
Malay Peninsula and further east, but this is the first record from
the Andamans, in fact the first record from India.

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, HUMAYUN ABDULALI
BoOMRAY-3, .
June 25, 1976.

9. GREYHEADED MYNA, STURNUS MALABARICUS
(GMELIN) IN KUTCH

I saw the Greyheaded Myna for the first time in Kutch on 31st
December, 1969. Four of these birds alighted on the bare twigs of
a small tree in the Vijaya Vilas Plantation (Mandvi) so close to me
that I did not even have to use my field glasses to observe them
during the few moments they stayed there before flying on to a
banyan tree nearby.

There is no specific mention of its distribution or occurrence in
the BIRDS OF SAURASHTRA (R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji), however, I
happened to see a pair of these Mynas: busy carrying nesting materials
into a hole in a casuarina tree at Wankaner in July 1967. One bird
(what appeared to me to be the female of the pair) had, in contrast
to its partner, a rather pale coloured plumage. Except for the head,
neck and the primaries along with tail feathers which were grey, it
was pale grey all over the rest of its body with a diffusion of a
faint ferruginous wash particularly noticeable under the wings, on the |
breast and downwards to the abdomen. This of course is not very |
unusual for abnormally’ coloured individuals are sometimes to be |
seen in this species.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ; 58)

-I may also mention here that I observed a Forest Wagtail Motacilla
indica Gmelin once again in Kutch. It was seen by me at Vijaya
Vilas on 3lst December 1969. My first observation of this wagtail
in this district was at Bhui in 1967 (JBNHS 65 (1):225).

Brus, Kurcu, | HIMMATSINHII
January 19, 1970.

10. NOTES ON THE WGHITE-EYE (ZOSTEROPS PALPEBROSA)
AND WHITEBREASTED KINGFISHER
(HALCYON SMYRNENSIS)

Last December I had an opportunity of exploring the mangrove
flats near Jamnagar along the Gulf of Kutch and found white-eyes
to be very plentiful and confiding. This reminded me of a noté
appearing in Ticehurst’s BIRDS OF SIND [/bis 1923:22-23] of an isolated .
colony in mangroves off Karachi (W. Pakistan). It seems probable
that White-eyes affect mangrove forests all along the west and as
these extend to Karachi the little bird had an uninterrupted range
which later was disturbed by the destruction of mangroves by man.
It may be interesting to compare Karachi specimens with those from
mangrove forests near Bombay on the one hand, and with specimens
from the mangroves of Jamnagar as well as of other parts of coastal
Saurashtra and Gujarat.

_ White-eyes seem to go fairly high in the tina ais I have seen
at over 7,500 ft. a number of White-eyes at Vashishta near Manali,
both in cultivation and in Oak forests. This may well be an altitudinal
record for this little bird. i? Hehe

I have always considered the Whitebreasted Kingtisher as a plains
bird possibly going up some of ihe major valleys to about 3,000’ and it
was therefore a surprise to have one advertising its territory at over
7,500 ft. in Oak and spruce forest just above the terraced cultivation
of Vashishia Village. s

MENact, | LAVKUMAR §. KHACHER
Kutu VALLEY, ae
HIMACHAL PRADESH,

May 11, 1970.

334 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

11. NOTES ON THE INDIAN SAND SKINK OPHIOMORUS
~TRIDACTYLUS (BLYTH) ,

The skink, Ophicm°rus tridactylus inhabits sandy desert regions
of Western Rajasthan, India, where 90 per cent of the rain (100 mm.
to 400 mm.} falls during the monsoon (July to September). May and
June are the hottest months with the mean maximum temperature at
40:5°C. In association with heat waves, 50°C. has also been recorded.
Dust storms are not infrequent. The desert is dominated by sand
dunes, but rocky outcrops occur at Jodhpur, Barmer, and Jaisalmer.
Localities from which Ophiomorus was collected (1964-68) were Ganga-
nagar, Hanumangarh, Raisingnagar, Suratgarh, Sadulpur, Churu,
Jhunjhunu, Pilani, Ratangarh, Sikar, Lunkaransar, Bikaner, Shergarh,
Pachpadra, Balotra, Shiv, Barmer, Gadra Road, Munabau, Sundra,
Kolayat, Bap, Phalodi, Pokran, Mohangarh, Nagaur, Ramgarh, Jai-
salmer, Devikot, Hindumal Kot, Osian and Jodhpur.

The skinks can be coltected abundantly from the month of
February to May after the cold weather and September to November
after the monsoon. The skinks leave zig-zag tracks while moving
under sand. These tracks always conimence from a bush and can be
followed to their apex and if a finger is lightly pressed into the sand.
at this point the presence of the lizard can be felt by its slow move-
ment under the sand. If a sieve is then shoved into the sand the
lizard can be lifted out. This is the best way of collecting this
slippery lizard, if the tail is not to snap. On the sand dunes, the
skinks normally venture out soon after dusk and cease their activity
before dawn. In captivity the skinks were in a state of torpor in
late December and January. In March a few among the captive skinks
moulted, the skin peeling off in flakes. Dead specimens of other
terrestrial lizards are found on the road, crushed by vehicles but
Ophiomorus has not been sighted so far in this condition.

The coloration of the skin is creamy or pale brown on the dorsal
side and the belly is whitish yellow. The dorsal side of the lizard
is studded with distinct Jongitudinal series of pigment spots. In some —
cases, the spots get intermingled, so that only a broad band of faint,
diffused spots, is formed.

The tail length varies individually in relation to the snout vent
length. A few specimens had regenerated tails. }

The maximum snout vent length is 95 mm.; tail 70 mm. The
greatest body diameter at the middle of the body is 25 mm.
MAHARISHI DAYANAND COLLEGE, M. S. RATHOR
SRI GANGANAGAR,

RAJASTHAN,
July 12, 1969.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 335

12. NOTES ON BITES BY THE SAW-SCALED VIPER,
ECHIS CARINATUS IN THE DEOGAD AREA OF
RATNAGIRI DISTRICT, MAHARASHTRA

_ Dr. M. R. Nene, a general practitioner who has a clinic in the
village of Jamsande, a few miles from Deogad town, has treated
over 300 cases of Echis bite since 1955. During the heavy monsoon
that this coastal area receives, the viper Echis carinaius becomes the
most abundant terrestrial snake. Some of the points of interest and
brief case histories noted down during an informal interview on July
24, 1969, are given below.

The village people of Deogad Taluka, seem more inclined to see a
doctor in the event of a snakebite than in other areas of Maharashtra
and India. Except where a medical doctor becomes well-known for
successfully treating snakebites, the people generally cal! upon a local
‘medicine man’ or holy man to try to save the victim. The annual
collection of Echis in this area for Haffkine Institute’s serum production
programme has helped create this awareness. Out of 300 bites there
have been 4 deaths--each time these were cases when the victim
came or was brought 4 to 7 days after the bite, when loss of blood
and associated complications had brought him to the critical point.
Patients usually died of heart failure after continual hemorrhage for
days. Patients that recovered from severe systemic symptoms were
treated for anemia.

The oldest patient was 65 years, youngest 2 years; average 20 to
40 years, more males than females. Most bites occurred from July
to October; September being the month of most bites. Eighty-five
per cent of bites were in daytime; bites used to be higher at night
when the road was a simple dirt road, pointing to the Viper’s habit
of lying in loose sand or dirt. Ninety per cent of bites were on the
feet, ten per cent on hands. Most bites occurred as labourers cut
grass, piled stones and worked on crops: a few bites occurred in
homes. Most patients came within 1-2 hours after the bite; of these,
most had come straight to the doctor without seeking any local cure.
Others came 1-7 days later, usually after trying local remedies, and
occasionally after trying other medical doctors. Ninety per cent of
the patients came with some sort of tourniquet, usually too. tight.
Dr. Nene does not employ or recommend mechanical measures such
as cut/suction to try to withdraw venom from the site of bite.

Early symptoms of Echis carinatus bite include: fang-punctures
leaking blood; localized oedema (80%) 6 to 7 inches up the extremity;
Severe pain (burning at site of bite in all) ascending up to upper
extremity in most; pain in glands in armpit (this may be severe even

x

336 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

' When iocal swelling is very slight or absent). After 1 hour there
may be sharp ‘lightning’ pains up the arm (or leg). Ten to twelve
hours after the bite, bleeding from the gums is a common systemic |
symptom. Later, blood in urine, feces, sputum. In later stages of
Severe erivenomation, anal and vaginal bleeding may occur. In a.
lethal bite, in from 12 hours to one or more weeks, pulse may become
feeble, blood pressure drops to unrecordable and the patient expires.
In two fatal cases convulsions preceded death. - :

Dr. Nene treats every snake bite case as an emergency. When
symptoms of envenomation are manifest in a victim, he makes a slow
intravenous injection of Haffkine Polyvalent Antivenin Serum. He
keeps syringes of cortisone and adrenalin prepared for the possibility
of allergic reaction to the horse serum. Anaphylaxis is a hazard of
intravenous injection of any horse serum without prior testing for
patient sensitivity. Dr. Nene says that five per cent of the patients
showed moderate to severe ailergic reaction, including urticaria, shock
symptoms. He has observed no allergic shock in patients receiving
intramuscular horse serum injections.

Case histories: (a) 20 year old male worker came after 7 days,
hemorrhaging moderately. He had been treated with antivenin (intra-
muscular) one day following the bite and sent home by another doctor.
Efforts of village medicine men at stopping bleeding from various
sites failed. Antivenin was immediately injected intravenously and the
man went into allergic shock. He was treated for shock for 14 hours
and again antivenin was injected. The man recovered in one day.

(b) Male worker came on 4th day after bite, bleeding profusely;
blood in urine, anal bleeding etc. Antivenin, Vitamin K, Calcium
Gluconate were administered. Patient recovered in 16 hours, except
for anemia. :

After treatment with sufficient doses (1 to 3 vials) Taser cuide
pain and bleeding cease rapidly. Swelling remains for 3 to 4 days.
In the 300 cases of Echis bite there were only 3 known cases of
necrosis. These were very slight cases, involving sloughing of tissue
near the fang marks. No other complications (except anemia, some=
times acute) following recovery from bites were noted. No Lee
mortems in fatal cases. ;

Dr. Nene has treated 6 Russell’s Vapeu! bites, 5 proved fatal:
He feels that the time factor is far more critical in this species than
others because of quantity of venom injected and the rapid massive
clotting action of one of the venom constituents, which results in
rapid death by heart failure. He aiso feels that the titer of the
Haffkine Polyvalent Antivenom Serum to this venom may be lower
than desirable, or may be slow in its neutralising effect on Vipera

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES | - 337

russellii venom. Two. cobra bites during the 14 year period were
treated successfully. |

Though we have no additional data, such as how many snake-
bite victims in the area did not come to the doctor, it appears that
Echis carinatus bites are fatal only in cases of exceptional envenomation
and only after a matter of days after the bite (less than 2% of the
300 in tins study). This points to death by complications of, rather
than direct envenomation. |

C/o CHATTOPADHYAYA, ROMULUS WHITAKER
CHATEAU MARINE No. 6,

MARINE DRIVE,

BomMBAY-20,

August 1, 1969.

13. CAPTURE OF A WHALE SHARK RHINEODON TYPUS
SMITH IN RATNAGIRI WATERS

On 11 May 1965, a large shark was landed at Mirkarwada, Katna-
giri. The fish was identified as Rhineodon typus Smith based on its-
characteristic colour pattern and three longitudinal ridges. on either
side of the mid-dorsal region. The tish was caught in 13 fathoms in
nylon gill nets, and was towed ashore.

This is the first record of the species from eanaeit Rechidit
of the capture of the Whale shark Rhineodon typus off the coast of
India has been considered as a matter of interest, as these large fish
occur rather rarely. Prater (1941) reviewed the data of the occurrence
of the species from Indian waters. Since then, there have been a
few additions, Kulkarni (1948) from Bombay, Chacko & Mathew
(1954) from Malabar coast, Kaikini et al. (1959) from Mangalore, and
Gopalan (1962) from Veraval, Gujarat State. Silas & Rajagopalan
(1963) who reported it from Tuticorin have suggested a proforma for
collecting detailed information whenever records of the Whale sharks
are made. Information on the lines suggested by them is given below.
The measurements are in millimetres.

Pict Melee Cin teeretary rye suche tee tials orale shale c's al cs sla itie wefe'a seenewhy LOO
Stamel ancap emetineee gs Wil tacty cine sc 15 4.3) sols wee obo are! oof 4000
1D Saal Lier aked tl eee iA a ae ell Cn a PO ta 1380
Gish OH WOMy rhe roe eA PA Ws, odie elas Sth ble ola: ¥ ache Miane 1000
NNAIGLbllee Ole OUUEy. frye cls coke stare he s,s 04 sia Biciere are coohohoweage s 820
Werticalu here lntiOlr al St AOnSAlesiiys s+» s .%, «0, eye's che eet sgh aus 460
Nettica hele itiolezmd: COTSAN oy sr... oie. ss os ole.e'8 ees ve cop's 230

Length of caudal along upper margin........ bh ang ears ~e- 1480

338 = JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL UIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Shout to ist. dorsal. | Rese as OD, Ph ae 2380
Snout to 2ndudofsale.s. sni% min eee. . ee eee eee 2380
Snout.to pectoral 5; cs Gius Mette reek eet eke Seek eee 1120
Interspace between: Ist & 2nd dorsal... 2.2.5.6. 560
Interspace between 2nd dorsal & caudal................ 460
Length of * pectoral. 2.3 ee Son te eee 920
Lengthvof istdorsals. Rahat 2k ce Re ee 660
Length. of: ;2nd dorsalis, cs he. chee ict wise oh ee 280
“Diameterof orbits... 0). ane eee 40
dnterorbital,~ “distance.<\ caer. oe ee eee eee 900°

The weight was about 900 kg. It was a male. Two sucker fishes
(Remora remOra) were collected from the pectoral fins of the fish. No
external parasitic copepods were observed.

ACKNOWI EDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, Director of Fisheries, for
his encouragement and to Dr. H. G. Kewalramani, Senior Scientific
Officer, for his help in going through the manuscript and making
helpful suggestions.

MARINE BIOLOGICAL RESEARCH ple: M. R. RANADE
STATION, SHAKUNTALA S. SHENOY

RATNAGIRI, FAHIM AHMED
March 6, 1970.

14. FISHING METHODS FOR THE SPINY EEL
MASTOCEMBELUS ARMATUS IN MADHYA PRADESH

The Spiny Eel frequents: very weedy waters and hides among the
weeds or in holes and crevices on the bank during the day. The
latter habit is used in catching the eel. At Bhopal, the method used
is to dig a small outlet at the edge of the water and cover it with stones.
After three to four days a triangular hand net is kept at the mouth ~
of the outlet and the fish frightened into it by stamping on the stones
covering the outlet. Another method is to drop into the water cow
dung-filled gunny bags with a few holes in them. The eel is said to
be attracted into the bag by the dung but is unable to escape owing
to the dorsal spires becoming entangled. Pots with holes are also
left in the water and removed after a few days, trapping the fish
sheltering in them. In north Madhya Pradesh, hollow bamboos with
the internode bored at one end are used in the same manner. The
eel is also caught with hook & line using shrimps, earthworms and
tadpoles as bait.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 339

! wish to thank Dr. R. D. Gaur of M.V.M. College, Bhopal, for his
useful suggestions.

Asst. FISHERY OFFICER, B. M. GUPTA
GANDHI SAGAR DAM,
MANDSAUR, M.P.,

March 9, 1970.

15S. A REVIEW OF THE TAXONOMY OF THE INDIAN
FROG-FISHES (FAMILY BATRACHOIDIDAE)

(With a photograph and a text-figure)

INTRODUCTION

During a general study of marine fish collections in the Zoological
Survey of India, we had the opportunity to study eleven specimens of
Indian Frog-fishes (Family Batrachoididae) collected from the following
localities: Mangalore area (5 specimens); Tellicherry (1); Calicut (1);
_ Bombay (3) and Calcutta (1). In the course of the work it became
apparent that the taxonomy of these forms needed revision.

SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT

Linnaeus (1758) described from East Indian seas, CCttus srunniens
characterized by two dorsal spines in the first dorsal fin. Linnaeus
does not mention the presence of any pore in the axilla of his speci-
men. Bloch and Schneider (1801) included Cottus grunniens L. in the
genus Batrachus. Hamilton (1822) described Batrachoides gangene
from the estuaries of the River Ganges. Valenciennes (in Cuvier &
Valenciennes 1837) described Batrachus dussumieri from the Malabar
coast and B. grunniens from the West coast of India. Giinther (1861)
described Batrachus trispinosus from the seas of Bombay, Singapore
and Penang, basing his account on Valenciennes’ description (op. cit.)
of B. grunniens. Day (1878) recognized two species of the Frog-
fishes from Indian seas, namely, Batrachus grunniens (L.) and B.
gangene (Ham.), the former with a pore in the axilla and the latter
without a pore in the axilla. Menon (1963) synonymised B. gangene
(Ham.) with B. grunniens (L.), and B. trispinosus Giinther with B.
dussumicri Val.; the former without a pore in the axilla and the
latter with a pore in the axilla. However, even though B. grinniens

340 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

(L.) and 'B. gangene (Ham.) may agree in the absence of a pore in
the axilla, yet they differ in the number of dorsal spines—which are
of taxonomic significance—-since the former possesses two dorsal spines
and the latter has three dorsal spines in the first dorsal fin. Thus,
these two species cannot be considered as being synonymous. Menon
(Op. cit.) also synomymized B. dussumieri Val. and B. trispinosus
Ginther on the basis of both species possessing a pore in the axilla.
We have found the following additional reasons for this. ‘The gill-
covers bear four backwardly directed spines, two on the opercle and
two on the sub-opercle (Photo, fig. 1); the last spine is often indistinct
and sometimes only two opercular spines are visible. The sub-
opercular spines are sometimes hidden under thick skin, if the skin
is dissected the two sub-opercular spmes are seen clearly (Text-fig. 1:
a, b, c). It may be noted that Dr. M. Blanc, Museum National
D‘Histoire Naturelle, Paris (pers. comm.), states that the type-specimen
of Batrachus dussumieri Cuv. et Val. (n° A 4748-—— Bombay—
Dussumier) possesses 3 spines on the left gill-covers and four spines
on the right gill-covers. Thus, the gill-cover spines appear to be of
’ little taxonomic significance by themselves.

5 cm.

Fic. 1: H. dussumieri (Val.), 155 mm. total length, ‘collected from the Malabar
coast. i four gill-cover spines are clearly visible after dissection.

Fic. 2: H. gangene (Ham.), Z.S.1., F. 2066, 195 mm. total length, collected by

F. Day on Calcutta,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES | 341

According to Valenciennes (Op. cit.), B. dussumieri possesses ‘villi-
form bands of teeth’ on the palatines. Our specimens, collected from
the type-locality, exhibited the following arrangement of the teeth:
In a specimen of 10C mm. tota! length, two rows of conical teeth are
present in both the jaws, the inner rows being incomplete towards the
distal ends of the jaws; there are three rows of conical teeth at the
symphysis-region in each jaw and an irregular single row of conical
teeth on the vomer and palatines. In a larger specimen measuring
170 mm. total length, two rows of conical teeth are present in the
upper jaw and there is a single row in the lower jaw; there are three
rows at the symphysis-region in each jaw. In the upper jaw, the outer
row of teeth and m the lower jaw, the inner row of teeth, are
irregularly longer, in the symphysis-region. ‘The vomer carries an ir-
regular row of conical teeth and a posterior row of regularly arranged
conical teeth of similar size. The palatines bear a single row of short,
stumpy, caniniform teeth, anteriorly these teeth appear to be grouped
into one set of 2-3 teeth on each palatine. The gap separating the
palatine from the vomerine-teeth, is much reduced in the larger speci-
men relative to the condition seen in the smaller specimen. The
above description indicates that ‘villiform bands of teeth’ on the palatines
do not occur in B. dussumieri Val., and the arrangement agrees in
general with the teeth-pattern seen in B. trispinOsus Giinther (Text-
M&ui2, 22D): 7

We have provisionally assigned the two valid species Batrachus
dussumieri Val. and Batrachus gangene (Ham.) to the genus Halo-
phryne Gill 1863, following the arrangement suggested by De Beaufort
(1962). :
A brief systematic account of the two Indian species, along with
a simple key for their identitication, is given below:

KEY TO THE VALID INDIAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS Halophryne

1.. A pore in the pectoral axilla. Gill-opening much wider than the pectoral
DAS Cree ee cass. so wes oe, Meo ute wae 4 oh Halophryne dussumieri (Val.)
2. No axillary pore. Gill-opening shorter than the pectoral base............
I Oats Na Ser Nah bs: shes MUR RN RR A Ret mT Cae Halophryne gangene (Ham.)

Halophryne dussumieri (Val.)

1837. Batrachus grunniens Valenciennes (in Cuvier et Valenciennes), Hist. Nat. Poiss.
' 12, p. 466 (nec. L.).
1837. Batrachus dussumieri Valenciennes (in Cuvier et Valenciennes), Hist. Nat.
Poiss. 12, p. 477 (Type-locality : Malabar Coast). ;
1861. Batrachus trispinosus Giinther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus, 3, p. 169 (Type-locality :
Seas of Bombay, Penang, and Singapore).

342 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

1878. Batrachus grunniens Day, Fish. India, p. 269, pl. 59, fig. 1 (nec. L.).

1889. Batrachus grunniens Day, Faun. Brit. Ind. Fish. 2, p. 229, fig. 83 (nec. L.).

1955. Batrachus grunniens Munro, The Marine and Freshwater Fishes of Ceylon, p. 285,
pl. 56, fig. 832 (nec. L.). . |

1962. Halophryne trispinosus De Beaufort, The Fishes of the Indo-Australian Archipe-
lago 11, p. 186.

1963. Austrobatrachus dussumieri Menon, LABDEV, J.S.T. 1.

TEXT-Fic.1. Dissected gill-covers showing the opercular and sub-opercular
spines in H. dussumieri (Val.) collected from the Malabar Coast.
(a) A specimen of 98 mm. total length. )
(b) A specimen of 132 mm. total length. Note the reduced sub-opercular spine.
(c) A specimen of 155 mm. in total length.

TEXT-Fic. 2. Teeth arrangement in H. dussumieri (Val.) collected from the
Malabar Coast (Note the difference with growth).
(a) A specimen of 100 mm. total length.
(6) A specimen of 170 mm. total length.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 343

MATERIAL: (5), 145 to 170 mm., total length, Mangalore area, Coll. K. V. Rama
Rao and K.V. Surya Rao, 22.12.1964 ; (1), 170 mm., total length, Tellicherry,
Coll. K. V. Rama Rao and K. V. Surya Rao, 30.12.1964 ; (1), 100 mm., total
length, Vellayial, Calicut, Coll. K. V. Rama Rao and K. V. Surya Rao, 7.1.1965 ;
(3), Z.S.I., F. 1805-1807, 45°0 to 125 mm., total length, Bombay, Coll. F. Day.

Distribution: Persian Gulf, coasts of India, Ceylon, Malay Penin-
sula; inhabits seas and estuaries.

Remarks: McCulloch (1929) and Herre (1953) considered Batra-
chus dussumieri Cuvier et Valenciennes to be identical with Cory-
zichthys di€mensis (Lesueur); but this is untenable since the former
has a pore in the axilla, which the latter lacks.

Halophryne gangene (Ham.)

1786. Cottus grunniens Bloch, Ausland. Fische 2, p. 157, Taf. 179 (nec. L.).

1801. Cottus grunniens Bloch and Schneider, Syst. Ichth., p. 43, (nec. L.).

1822. Batrachoides gangene Hamilton, Fishes of the Ganges, p. 34, 365, pl. 14, fig. 8
(Type-locality : Salt estuaries of River Ganges).

1861. Batrachus grunniens Gunther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus. 3, p. 168 (nec. L.).

1878. Batrachus gangene Day, Fish. India, p. 270, pl. 60, fig. 1.

1889. Batrachus gangene Day, Faun. Brit. Ind. Fish. 2, p. 229.

1962. Halophryne gangene De Beaufort, Fishes of the Indo-Australian Archipelago
11, p. 188.

1963. Batrichthys grunniens Menon, LABDEV, J.S.T. 1.
MATERIAL: (1), Z.S.I., F. 2066, 195 mm., total length, Calcutta, Coll. F. Day.

Distribution: Madagascar, Muscat, Persian Gulf, coasts of India,
Siam, Indo-China, Straits of Malacca, Penang, Philippines; inhabits
seas and estuaries.

Remurks: TDay’s (1878, pl. 69, fig. 1) illustration, which is labelled
as Batrachus grunniens, is actually that of Halophryne eangene;
further, the shape of the head of the specimen is not properly shown,

hence a photograph of his original specimen has been taken by us
(Photo, fig. 2).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to the Director, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta,
for facilities. Our indebtedness to Dr. A. G. K. Menon, Superinten-
ding Zoologist, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, is gratefully
acknowledged for making available the specimens of Frog-fishes
deposited in the National Zoological collections. Our thanks are also
due to Dr. M. Blanc of the Museum National D’Histoire Naturelle,

344. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Paris, for kindly making available data on the type-specimen of
Batrachus dussumieri Cuvier et Valenciennes.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,
8, LINDSAY STREET,
CALCUTTA-16,

24 October, 1968.

A. K. NAGABHUSHANAM
K. V. RAMA RAO

REFERENCES

BLocH, M. E. & SCHNEIDER, J. G.
(1801): Systema ichthyologiae, Berlin,

(1878): Fishes of India.
Wm. Dawson & Sons, Lond., pp. 269-270.

———— (1889) : The Fauna of British
India, including Ceylon and Burma
Fishes. London 2 : 228-230.

De BEAUFORT, L. F. (1962): The
Fishes of the Indo-Australian Archipel-
ago. Leiden 11 : 185-190.

GILL, T. (1863) : Descriptive enumera-
tion of acollection of fishes from the
western coast of Central America. Proc.
Acad. Nat. Soc., Philadelphia, p. 170.

GUNTHER, A. (1861): Catalogue of
the Actinopterygian fishes in the collec-
tions of the British Museum. Cat. Fish.
Brit. Mus. 3 : 166-177.

HAMILTON, F. B. (1822): An account
of the fishes found in the River Ganges
and its branches. Edinburgh, pp. 34,
35 and 365, pl. 14, fig. 8.

HerRRE, A. W. (1953): Checklist of
Philippine fishes. Research Report 20,
Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Dept. of
Interior. p. 820.

LINNAEUS, C. (1758):

Naturae Ed. 10, p. 264.

McCuL.ocu, A. R. (1929) : A Check-
list of the fishes recorded from Australia.
Mem. Austr. Mus. 5 : 359.

Systema

MENon, A. G. K. (1963): Taxonomy .

of the Indian Frog-fishes (Fam. Batra-
choididae). LABDEV, J.S.T., Kanpur, 1.

VALENCIENNES, A., (in Cuvier et Valen-
ciennes) 1837. Hist. Nat. Poiss. 12:
466-474.

16. AN ASSESSMENT OF DAMAGE AND LOSS BY
LINSEED CATERPILLAR LAPHYGMA
EXIGUA HB.

Laphygma exigua Hb. (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera) is a destructive
polyphagous pest in Jndia causing serious damage to linseed, peas,
lentil, lucerne etc. every year. However, no quantitative work has been
done on the extent of loss caused by the pest to these crops. A

study was, therefore, undertaken at Jabalpur to assess the extent of ©

loss by the pest to linseed during 1967-68 when the crop was infested
by this pest alone.

The experiment was done on 64 pairs of plants in 8 rows, each
In each pair there was one treated and one

row having 16 plants.
untreated plant. Row to row and plant to plant distances were |
metre and 0-5 metre respectively. Sowing was done in the last week
of December, 1967, and the pest infestation started in the last week
of January 1968. The infestation developed fast and reached its
maximum in the 2nd and 3rd weeks of February when there were

about 18 to 27 larvae per plant (untreated), usually found feeding |

gregariously in the webbed apical portions of plants. The larvae fed
on the leaves, apical growing poinis and flower buds and thus checked
the height and capsule formation in plants. Spraying schedule on

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 345

treated series of plants consisted of 4 sprayings with a mixture of
0:02% endrin-+-0-03% dimethoate (Rogor) emulsions, applied at
weekly intervals starting from the Ist week of February. Spraying
was done with a baby sprayer on plants in alternate rows. The other
rows were left untreated. Drift of spray was prevented by using tin
sheets in between rows. When the plants attained maturity and
stopped vegetative growth the height of the individual plants was
recorded. During harvesting, each individual pliant was kept in
separate bag with a label of its plant number. The number and weight
of capsules of each plant were recorded. The data were subjected
to statistical analysis and are given in the Table.

TABLE
hygma INFESTATION ON THE HEIGHT AND YIELD OF LINSEED PLANTS

EFFECT OF Lap

Total height Total no. of Total weight

Specifications of plants capsules of capsules
(in cm.) (in gm.)
In 64 treated plants ter 3641 - 5247 404°12
In 64 untreated plants... 3057 2800 224°28
- Difference as 584 2447 179°84
Calculated ‘ t’ value sas S252? 8:09* 10°09*

*Highly significant at 1% level

The above data show that the pest Laphygma exigua reduced the
plant height and yield significantly. The percentage reduction due to
the pest in plant height and in the number and weight of capsules
was 16:0, 46°6 and 44:3%, respectively.

DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY, R. R. RAWAT
J. N. KRISHI VISHWA VIDYALAYA, R. R. DESHPANDE

JABALPUR-4 (M.P.),
July 6, 1968.

17. A NEW RECORD OF BRACHYDEUTERA LONGIPES
HENDEL (DIPTERA: EPHYDRIDAE) FROM WEST BENGAL

Wirth (1964)! recorded the occurrence of the species Brachydeutera
longipes Hendel from Chabau, Assam, Coimbatore and Nedugadu, S.
India, and from Delhi. The species has not been reported elsewhere

1 WirtH, W. W. (1964): <A revision of the shore flies of the genus Brachydeutera
Loew (Diptera : Ephydridae). Ann. ent. Soc. Am. 57 (1) : 3-12, 20 figs.

14

346 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

in India. During examination of a collection of shore flies, I came
across a few examples of this species from W. Bengal.
MATERIAL EXAMINED: 1 ex., Calcutta, coll. A.P. Kapur, 14.3.50. 10 exs.,
Chinsura, W. Bengal, coll. M. Ghosh & K. D. Chatterjee, 11.6.65.
Remarks: Frons, scutum and scutellum rust red, base of scutellum
and facial keel brownish instead of dull-green as noticed by Wirth.
Three lateroclinate fronto-orbitals, the anterior one very weak.
Distribution: India to the Philippines, Taiwan, and Japan.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Dr. A. P. Kapur, Director, Zoological Survey of India,
and Dr. A. N. T. Joseph, Officer-in-Crarge of Diptera section, Zoo-
logical Survey of India, for permission to examine the material.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, K. RAMACHANDRA RAO
CALcuTTA-12,
May 24, 1968.

18. FIRST RECORD OF COENOMYIA LATREILLE
(DIPTERA: COENOMYIIDAE) FROM INDIA

Coenomyia Latreille, a Holarctic genus, is represented by three
species in the world, namely, Coenomyia ferruginea (Scopoli), Coeno-
myia comans Enderlein and Coenomyia bituberculata Enderlein.

During a recent faunistic survey of Kameng Frontier and Subansiri
Frontier Divisions, NEFA (April-May, 1966), I collected 7 examples
of Coenomyia ferruginea. The genus Coenomyia is recorded here from
India for the first time. |

MATERIAL EXAMINED: 3 33, 3 292, Tawang (3200m.), Kameng Frontier Division,

NEFA, 27.IV.1966. 1 3 from the same locality on 28.4.1966.

Remarks: of Dark, thorax with white hairs. Abdomen with
black and white hairs; second tergum with grey quadrate spots bearing
short white hairs; third with blackish brown hind margin, with or

without median and !fatera! markings of the same colour; third, fourth |

and fifth with the same colour pattern, but the blackish brown markings
more distinct and covering larger area; venter dark brown to orange.
Q Frons with hairs. Abdominal segments posteriorly orange, other-
wise Orange masked with fuscous. | ;
Besides exhibiting strong sexual dimorphism, the specimens. of
Coenomyia ferruginea showed the following individual variations :

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 347

Male specimen (Z.S.I. Registration No. 4220/H6). Compound
eyes not contiguous but separated by less than the breadth of median
ocellus. Female specinien (Z.S.I. Registration No. 4222/H6). Frons
bulges out, interfrontalia separated from parafrontalia by two distinct
grooves; wing with posterior cross-vein incomplete.

Distribution: Holarctic Region.

_ The boundaries of Palearctic and Oriental regions are not sharply
defined and as is well-known there is an intermingling of fauna from
both the regions over the Himalayas. The present record of Coenomyia
ferruginea, a Holarctic species, in Kameng Frontier Division of NEFA,
is yet another example of this.

ACKNGWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Dr. A. P. Kapur, Director, Zcological Survey of
India, Calcutta, for permission to study the material and to Sri K. S.
Pradhan, Superintending Zoologist, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta,
for encouragement. |

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, A. N. T. JOSEPH
CALCUTTA-12,
May ie 1969.

i9. THE TIME CF EMERGENCE AND THE PERIODICITY
OF OCCURRENCE OF THE TIGER BEETLE, CICINDELA
CANCELLATA DE]. (ORDER: COLEOPTERA—
FAMILY: CiCINDELIDAE)

Cicindela cancellata Dej. is a fairly common tiger beetle, occurring
almost all over India. In Kerala State, it is quite common, particularly
in coastal regions and is generally found in sandy areas. It escapes
general attention because of its protective coloration which blends very
well with the background, on account of a colour pattern involving’
sandy-cream and black on the elytra. These beetles and their larvae
are active predators and have been observed in the field to feed mostly
on small ants and sometimes on other small insects such as small
nymphs of grasshoppers and leafheppers.

The authors have been studying the bionomics of these beetles in
the field and in the laboratory for about three years. Observations
in the Malabar Christian College Compound, Calicut, have shown

348 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

that these tiger beetles are not found at all, from November to March.
During the remaining period of the year they are found all over the
place and several generations are passed through, and towards the
close of this period, around the end of October, the individuals in
the pupal stage enter into a stage of dormancy and remain so for
about four months. Every year, the first emergence of the adult tiger
beetles takes place soon after the first or second shower around March
or April. The first emergence in the field was observed in the third
week of March in 1966. in the first week of April in 1967 and in the
second week of March in 1968. But in all these cases, it was observed
that the emergence took place soon after the first rains.

The population of the tiger beetles then gradually increases and
reaches the peak during the months of July, August and September.
Then their numbers steadily decline and eventually reach zero level

around November or December. During the period November to

March, the population levels of the prey insect species may therefore
show a rise in the absence of active predation by these voracious tiger
beetles and their larvae, unless this component of environmental
resistance is imposed on them by some other predaceous species.

Grateful acknowledgement is made of a grant from the University
Grants Commission to one of the authors (A.B.S.) for the study of
tiger beetles.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, : A. B. SOANS
MALABAR CHRISTIAN COLLEGE, J. S. SOANS
CALiIcuT-1, KERALA,

April 29, 1968.

20. SWARMING OF BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS

Swarms of butterflies and moths were attracted to the trees of ©

Caesalpinia coriaria Willd. in flower, during September-October, 1969,

in and around Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu. The most unusual feature

about this phenomenon was, that the insects went straight to the flowers
of C. cOriaria even when these trees were surrounded by other flowering
plants like Lantana, Zinnia, Chrysanthemum, Bougainvillea, Petunia,
Peltophorum, Marg0osa etc. A few butterflies were flying about
Lantana, Zinnia and Chrysanthemum, but thousands were seen
resting, feeding or flying about the C. coriaria trees. The following
species of butterflies and moths resting on the trees were collected
and identified:

as

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 348

NYMPHALIDAE

_ Precis hierta (Fabricius).

2. P. lemonias (Linnaeus).

A ose WA Fs

19.

ay.

21.

22.

. P. almana (Linnaeus).

DANAIDAE

. Euploea core (Cramer).

. Danais chrysippus (Linnaeus).
. D. melanippus (Cramer).

. D. limniace Cramer.

PAPILIONIDAE

. Tros hector (Linnaeus).

. T. aristolochiae (Fabricius).

. Papilio polytes Linnaeus.

. P. demeleus Linnaeus.

. Graphium agamemnon (Linnaeus).

PIERIDAE

. Colotis eucharis (Fabricius).

. Anaphaeis aurota (Fabricius).

. CatOpsila pyranthe (Linnaeus).
. C. pomona (Fabricius).

. Eurema hecabe (Linnaeus).

. Hebomoia glauctppe (Linnacus).

SPHINGIDAE
Macroglossa vialis Bull. (M. affictitia Bull.).
Cephonodes sp. —

PYRALIDAE

Hymenia recurvalis C.
Psarah bipunctalis F.

Apart from the Lepidopteran insects, a few wasps were also noticed
on the trees, but no honey bees. No caterpillars of these insects

350 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

were found in the surrounding areas. It is possible that the insects
are attracted by the sweet strong fragrance of the flowers of C. cOriaria
to feed on the honey produced by them.

Wynter-Blyth (1957) in his book BUTTERFLIES OF THE INDIAN
REGION (p. 42) has reported that butterflies are attracted to the trees
of Buddleia in the Himalayas and Poinsettia and Moringa at lower
elevations. The present report is probably such a phenomenon.

COIMBATORE, M. MOHANASUNDARAM
January 20, 1970. C. V. SIVAKUMAR

21. OBSERVATIONS ON THE MATING BEHAVIOUR IN
TRE ANT MONOMORIUM GRACILLIMUM SMITH
(HYMENOPTERA: FORMICIDAE)

- MonOmorium eracillimum. Smith is a small dark brownish-red ant,
about 2 mm. in length and is a very common household pest, nesting
in the ground or floor and in the crevices of walls. On June 16,
1968, at about 5 p.m. when the weather was cloudy and slightly
rainy, the authors found large numbers of workers and alate males
and females of MOnomorium gracillimum just outside the opening
of the nest in the ground floor of the Malabar Christian College
building. Evidently, the colony was- going through the process of
swarming. Some workers and winged reproductives were collected
in a tube and were transferred into an artificial nest in the laboratory,
for observation. The ants were fed with honey and dead housefiies.
The next morning, the winged males and females were observed mating.
Within the artificial nest, the alate forms showed no tendency to
fly. The mating behaviour under conditions of captivity which could |
easily be observed eee the transparent top-cover of the nest, is
as follows:

An alate male (4 mm.) is much smaller than an alate female
(75 mm.). The alate male approaches the female from behind and
strokes the tip of its gaster with its antennae and front pair of legs.
The female starts walking about and is closely followed by the male
in tandem fashion. The male then grasps and holds firmly the
posterior half of the gaster of the female. with its three pairs of
legs. The thoracic part of the male now comes to lie on the dorsal
side of the gaster of the female. The gaster of the male is then
bent downwards almost at right angles, at the pedicel, to the longi-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 351

tudinal axis of its body and the edeagus is in turn directed at
right angles to’ the position of the gaster, almost horizontally and
inserted into the vagina of the female. During copulation, the
anterior half of the gaster of the female is stroked by the antennae
of the male. Other alate males also try to climb over the
copulating male to have access to the female but they slip and drop
down. The female mostly keeps walking about slowly, carrying the
copulating male on the dorsal side of its gaster. The male and the
female separate after about fifteen minutes.

DPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, A. B. SOANS
MALABAR CHRISTIAN COLLEGE, J. S. SOANS
CaLicuT-1,

June 21, 1968.

22. VARIOUS ASSOCIATES OF SESSILE BARNACLES
IN BOMBAY WATERS

INTRODUCTION

Numerous instances of associations ranging from simple com-
mensalism to total parasitism and symbiosis are to be abundantly found
in literature.. Majority of these associations occur in the crowded littoral
and sublittora! zones as there is’ often competition for space. Cirri-
pedes, being a major sedentary component of the biota and occupying
a great deal of area, contribute towards such relationships to a great
extent. These relationships, it is reported. range from sea-weeds to
whales, numbering about 2000 species of living organisms. In_ this
account an attempt has been made to compile the list of organisms that
were found associated with the balanomorphs found around Bombay.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Collections of sessile barnacles were made at random and brought
to the laboratory. The associates from the shells were removed
carefully, narcotised, if necessary, so as to obtain them in fully
extended state and then preserved, 1O4

352. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)
OBSERVATIONS

Organisms ranging from algae to mollusca found associated with
barnacles are described below.

The algal associates included Ulva lactuca Linn., EnterOmorpha
sp., Laurentia sp., Polysiphonia forrulacea, Suhr, Gelidium hetero-
platos and the calcareous form Cheilosporum spectabilis. All the
algae were associated with Balanus tintinnabulum.

Fairly good number of sponges were found covering the shells of
Balanus amaryllis at Chowpatty. This association was not observed
at any other locality. Further classification of these sponge specimens
is yet to be completed. Among the coelenterates associated with
barnacles were Sertuiaria sp., Cribrinopsis sp. and Diadumene schil-
leriana (Stoliczka). Forms of Sertularia sp. were found as dense
colonies anchored on B. fintinnabulum shelis. The lattter two, the
ActinOzoans, were associated with B. amaryllis shells. The forms of
CribrinOpsis sp. were characterised by light pink column covered with
weakly developed red verrucae on its distal one-third region. These
forms were of quite common occurrence. The occurrence of Diadu-
mene along with barnacles has been previously recorded by Annandale
(1907) and Bhatt (1°59).

The errantian polychaetes included Nereis talehsapensis (Fauvel).
These worms were small, thin and tapered posteriorly and showed
certain differences in the teeth compared to Fauvel’s description
(Fauvel 1932). In addition, forms of Perinereis nigro-punctata Horst
were also cbserved and some had the characteristic colour pattern on
the dorsal surface of anterior segments. These polychaetes were
associated with B. tintinnabulum and B. amaryllis.

The sedeniary pclychaetes consisted of Polydora coeca Oersted
and DasychOne serratibranchis Grube. The former were found in
great number at Chowpatty forming a distinct zone below that of
B. amphitrite. Sometimes a few segments of their bodies, especially
the anterior, were found among the clusters of barnacle shells. It is
reported that this form bores into coral rocks and shells. Sinular
activity by them as regards barnacle shells may occur. ‘The latter
form viz. D. serratibranchis were found occasionally, attached to B..
amaryllis shells collected at Cuffe Parade and Chowpatty.

The crustacean associates included isopods. amphipods and cirripedes.
Of the isopods, two species occurred Sphaeroma walkeri Stebbing and —
S. annandeli Stebbing. Both were abundant among the shells of B.
amphitrite. The boring nature of S. annandeli has been earlier proved
by Erlanson (1936) and Pillai (1955). The mandibles of these forms
have a cutting edge, formed of two, well-separated and powerful teeth. |

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 353

Between their cutting edge and the strong molar is a series of small
spines. As regards §. walkeri its boring nature is doubtful and con-
tradictory opinions have been expressed by various workers. Ganapati
& Nagabhtshnam (1955), Srinivasan (1955) and Palekar (1957)
have regarded it as a wood or rock borer. However, Calman (1919),
Baker (1928), Pillai (1955) and Bhatt (1959) do not consider it a
borer. Amphipods beionging to suborder Gammaridea were abundantly
associated with all the species of balanomorphs. Among the cirri-
pedes, [bla cumingi was found attached to B. tintinnabulum at Bandra.
Darwin (1854) arid Hiro (1937) had similarly found these forms
attached to Pollicipes mitella and Mitella mitella respectively. In
India, however, they have been recorded so far as attached to rocks
only (Patil 1951; Daniel 1956; Bhatt 1959).

The molluscan associates included the shells of Acanthochitona
mahcensis Winckworth; Littorina intermedia Phil., Drupa konkanensis
Melvill, Thais sp. (probably rudolphi), Arca bistrigata Dunker, Modiolus
striatulus Linn., Brachyodontes karachiensis Melvill and Ostrea
cuculata. In addition, the egg cases of some molluscs were also
found attached to barnacle shells.

CONCLUSION

The exact relationship of these organisms is not known and hence
they have been grouped under the broad heading of associates. Most.
of the relationships might have originated fortutiously. However,
more complex relationships are possible.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful tc Dr. N. K. Panikkar. Director, Indian Programme
of the International Indian Ocean Expedition, (at present the Director,
National Institute of Oceanography, Panajt-Goa), for his keen interest
and constant encouragement in the investigations and its further
pursuance. One of us (ABW) gratefully acknowledges the award of
fellowship by the Indian Nationai Committee on Oceanic Research,
CSIR, New Delhi. ,

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF OCEANOGRAPHY, A. B. WAGH
PANAJI,
GOA, Do ¥. BAL

K#RTLt COLLEGE,

‘BOMBAY-28,

February 14, 1970,
144

354.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

REFERENCES

ANNANDALE, N. (1907): The fauna of
brackish ponds at Port Canning, Lower
Bengal. Part IlI. Rec. Indian Mus. 1:
46-74.

BAKER, W. H. (1928): Australian
species of the Isopod family Sphaeromi-
dae (contd.) Trans roy. Soc. S. Aust.
3: 49-61.

Buatr, Y. M. (1959): A study of
intertidal organisms. Ph. D. _ thesis,
University of Bombay (Unpublished).

CALMAN, W. T. (1919): Marine
Boring Animals. British Museum (Nat.
Hist.) Economic Series No. 10.

DANIEL, A. (1956): The cirripedia of
the Madras coast. Bull. Madras Goyt.
Mus. New Ser Nat. Hist. VY (2) : 1-42.

Darwin, Ch. (1854): A monograph
on the sub-class cirripedia, Balanidae,
Verrucidae, etc. Roy. Soc. London.

ERLANSON, E. W. (1936): A preli-
minary survey of marine boring organisms
in Cochin harbour. Curr. Sci. 4:
726-732.

FAuveEL, P. (1932): Annelida Poly-
chaeta of the Indian Museum, Calcutta.

Mem. Indian Mus. 12 : 1-262.

GANAPATI, P. N. & NAGABHUSHNAM,
R. (1955): Crustacean wood borers of
Visakhapatnam harbour. Curr. Sci.
24 : 200.

Hiro, F. (1937): ‘Studies ‘on ‘cirri-
pedian fauna of Japan II. Mem. Coll.
Sci. Kyoto, XII (B) : 385-478,

Pityal, N. K. (1955): Wood boring
Crustacea of Travancore. I. Sphaero-
midae. Bull. Res. Inst. Univ. Travancore,
ser. € 4: 127-139,

PALEKER. 'V. °C... €1957) > Marine
Organisms injurious to submerged
timber Inst. Sci. Mag. Bombay 25
(1956) : 41 : 46,

——~— & BAL, D.V. (1957): Stray occur-
rence of Crustacean Wood borers in

Bombay Waters. J. Timber Dryers’
Preservers’ Ass. 332-3.
PatiL, A. M, (1951) Fauna of

Karwar—Part I.
Soc. 50: 128-139.

SRINIVASAN, T. K. (1955) Crustaceans in
relation to underwater timber structures.
Curr. Sere24 :342.

J. Bombay nat. Hist.

23. ON A NEWLY RECORDED HOST SPECIES OF

DENDROPHTHOE FALCATA (L.F.) ETTINGSH

During a random survey of phanerogamic parasites in the Indian
Botanic Garden, Calcutta, [ noted an infestation by the very common
flowering parasite, Dendrophithde falcata (L.f.) Ettingsh. on RoOpalo-
carpus lucidus Boj. This host species appears to be a new record
and may be added to the hosts of the parasite, which now number 331.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, R. B. GHOSH
INDIAN BOTANIC GARDEN,

SIBPORE,

HOWRAH,

July 4, 1969.

— ee se

[See note No. 29 which concerns the same species but under a synonym—
EDs. |

24. OCCURRENCE OF CERATOPTERIS THALICTROIDES
(LINN.) BRONGN. IN RAJASTHAN |

During the course of a botanical exploration of south-eastern part
of Rajasthan, the author made extensive collections of ferns and fern
allies. The fern Ceratopteris thaliciroides (Linn.) Brongn., has not
been reported earlier from any locality in Rajasthan, and its

| MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 353

occurrence at Kelwarah (Kotah District) is a new locality record for
the species.

The plant is quite common along the margins of Kelwarah’ tank
and in rice fields. The tank is jarge, and is situated on the south-
western side of Baran-Shahabad road near Kelwarah village. The
plant community of the tank includes Ceratopteris thalictroides (Linn.)
Brongn., Nymphoides cristatum (Roxb.) O. Kuntze, Nymphaea stellata
Willd., Hyegrorvza aristata Nees, Ottelia alismoides Pers. and Utricularia
stéllaris Linn.

Ceratopteris thalictroides (Linn.) Brongn. is an annual, aquatic or
marshland, light green fern: young plants rooted in mud; Fronds di-
morphic. Hindi--Pani Ka Kardla, V. Singh 74430.

The specimens have been deposited in the Herbarium of the
National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow.

NATIONAL BOTANIC GARDENS, VIJENDRA SINGH
LUCKNOW, ! : Junior Research Fellow
June 30, 1969.

25. THE IDENTITY OF PIMPINELLA LATERIFLORA DALZ.

Dalzell (1861) described Pimpinella lateriflora based on specimens
collected from ravines in the Deccan, but unfortunately he left no her-
barium specimen of his new species.

Clarke (1879) maintained Pimpineila lateriflora Dalz. as a distinct
species, but indicated that he had not seen the type and his description
was after Dalzell and Gibson. At the same time he also described
a new species, Carum Stictocarpum, together with a variety, hebecarpa.
based on other specimens collected from Concan by Stocks and Law.

Now, if the description given by Dalzell for P. lateriflora and
that of Clarke for Carum stictOcarpum are compared they are seen
to be identical except for the fruits which vary from granular to
hispidulous hairy and the leaves from bipinnate to ternate. The
relevant characters as given by the authors are presented below:

Carum stictocarpum — Pimpinella lateriflora
1. Plants glabrous or minutely hairy. Plants puberulous.
oe Stem 1-3 ft., erect. Stem 1-14 ft. high ; erect.

3. Leaves 2—pinnate, ultimate seg- Leaves ternate, leaflets twice ternately
ments of the lower cauline leaves divided, lobes of the lower leaves
narrowly linear-lanceolate, upper lanceolate, of the upper linear, all
often with linear segments. acute and mucronate, ’

356 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

4. Bracts 3-6, nearly linear ; bracteoles Involucre (bracts) of 3-7 subulate leaflets ;
4-8, linear-lanceolate (4’’). involucel leaves (bracteoles) similar,
about 7, as long as pedicels. _

5. Pedicels 8-20 in number (4-3’’). Umbels (pedicels) 3-10 in number.

6. Fruits minutely pubero-punctate, Fruits densely covered with small gra-
ultimately shining, yellow, the nular tubercles.
dots microscopical (or hispidulous
sometimes densely so and fuscus
in the var. hebecarpa).

Cooke (1903), however, records both Pimpinella lateriflora and Carum
stictocarpum for peninsular India. But in a note under the former
species, which has been included on the authority of Dalzell and
Gibson, he states that he has neither seen a specimen nor has the
species been found by any other collectors, though it is supposed to
be common in ravines in the Deccan. _

Meanwhile, Wolff (1927) separated Clarke’s species from the genus
Carum Linn. and placed it under the genus Trachispermum Linn.,
now spelt Trachyspermum (nom. cOns.). He also retained Pimpinella
lateriflora in spite of his statement that he has not seen the original
or any other well-authenticated specimen of the same.

Santapau (1953) is the first worker to point out that his specimens
listed under Trachyspermum — stictocarpum, may. also belong to
Pimpinella lateriflora except for a few minor characters. He also
writes that ‘In Sedgwick’s copy of Cooke’s Flora (now available in
BLAI{—Bombay) there is a marginal note against Pimpinella lateri-
flora: Hallberg says there is no such plant. This is Carum stictocarpum.’

With this background and with the extensive studies and collections
made by us along the ravines and the ranges of the Sahyadris and
adjoining hills, it is evident, as stated by Dalzell, that this is the only.
species under the genus which is common in Deccan ravines with pink
flowers and. fruits with granular tubercles but, however, with a few
more variations. The size of the plant varies from a few centimetres
to one metre and the colour of the flowers from white to pink or
tinged with lilac and the fruits are granular otherwise glabrous and
shining or sparsely to densely hispidulous hairy. The latter character,
namely the hispidulous condition of fruits which is now found to be
quite unstable, might have induced Clarke to describe even a variety
hebecarpa. With such understanding of the taxon both on the basis
of field studies and also herbarium material, it may safely be concluded
that Trachyspermum stictocarpum together with its variety hebecarpa
is conspecific with Pimpinella_ laterifiora.

Under the normal procedure, the narne Carum stictocarpum would
have become superfluous, had not the specific epithet Jateriflora of

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 357

Dalzell been preoccupied by an European species, Pimpinella lateriflora
Link (En. Hort. Berol. 1:285, 1821 descr.). Hence the next available
epithet, stictocarpum of Clarke is accepted for this taxon and the fuil
svnonymy is as follows:

Trachyspermum stictocarpum (C.B.Cl.) Wolff in Pfreich. 43:89,
1927, (Trachispermum); Santapau in Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind. 16 (1): 125,
1953. Carum stictocarpum C.B.Cl. in Fl. Brit. Ind. 2:681, 1879;
Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bomb. 1:564, 1903. C. stictocarpum var. hebecarpa
C.B.Cl. Lc. 682; Cooke lc. Pimpinella lateriflora Dalz. in Dalz. &
Gibs. Bomb. FI. 106, 1861, non Link (1821); C B Clarke I.c. 689;
Couke I.c. 567. Trachyspermum stictOcarpum var, hebecarpa (C.B.C1.)
Wolff, /.c., Santapau Lc."

As no specimen of Dalzell is available and no type of whatever
kind is located at Kew or in any other herbaria as far as we are aware it
may be appropriate as per rules to select a neOtype for Pimpinella
lateriflora Dalz. As such, the following specimen collected from the
type locality region in general, is designated as Neotype and deposited
in CAL. The duplicates of the same are being distributed to various
World herbaria.

Neotype: Shivneri fort, Junnar in Poona district (Maharashtra
State), Hemadri 104346 on 1-11-64.

The authors wish to express their thanks to Dr. Bakhuizen van den
Brink, Rijksherbarium, Leiden, and to the Director, Royal Botanic
Gardens, Kew, for their useful comments and suggestions on this subject.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, R. S. RAO
WESTERN CIRCLE, K. HEMADRI
POONA,

April 19, 1969.

1° Pimpinella dalzellii P. K. Mukh. nom. nov. in Ind. For. 95 (8) : 567, 1969 is a
superfluous name for Trachyspermum stictocarpum.’

26. NOMENCLATURAL NOTES ON INDIAN PLANTS

The following new combinations are proposed for two taxa:

(1) Centaurium centaurioides (Roxb.) Rolla Rao et Hemadri comb.
noy. ChirOnia centaurioides Roxb. (Hort. Beng. 16, 1814, nom. nud.,
‘centauroides’ Fl. Ind. 1:584, 1832 (‘centaureoides’). C. brachiata Willd.
ex Criseb. Gen. et Sp. Gentian, 145, 1839. Erythraea roxbureghii D.
Don in Lond. & Edinb. Phil. Mag. & Journ. Sci. 8:77, 1836: G. Don,
pyst. 42200; .105/- Wt; Ic t, 1325, 1848;_C. B. ‘Clarke in, Fl, Brit.

358 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Ind. 4: 102, 1883; Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bomb. 2:190, 1904; Gamble, FI.
Madras. Pres. 876, 1923. Centaurium roxburghii (D. Don) Druce in
Rep. Bot. Exch, Club. Brit. Isl. 4:614, 1916 (1917); Santapau in Rec.
Bot. Surv. Ind. 16(1):181, 1953. Erythraea roxburghii var. saxatilis
C. B. Clarke I.c. 104.

(2) Salacia salacioides (Roxb.) Rolla Rao et Hemadri comb. noy.
Johnia salacioides Roxb. (Hort. Beng. 5, 1814, nom. nud.) Fl. Ind.
1:.172, 1820 & 1:168, 1832; DC.. Prodr...1:571,.1824.. Salacia rox-
burghii Wail. [Cat. no, 4217, 1831, nom. nud.] ex Wt. & Arn. Prodr.
105, 1834; Lawson in Fl. Brit. Ind. 1:627, 1875. _ :

Critical study of the Wallichian sheets and other materiai cited as
synonyms under this species by Lawson and Wight & Arnott has
clarified the following points:

(a) Only Wallich’s Cat. nos. 4217 & 4217c and Roxburgh’s Ic. no.
1520, belong to the present species. (b) ? Indeterminata Wall. Cat.
no. 4291 belongs to Cassine glauca (Rottb.) O. Ktze. and not the present
taxon as doubted by Lawson (I.c.). (c) The taxon in question is mostly
confined to Assam forests, extending up to lower Fagu in Bhutan
(A. H. Haines 1048 on 1-2-1905,0p). (d} Salacia roxburghii of Dalz.
et Gibs. (Bomb. FI. 33, 1861) from Ramghat of Western Ghats is
definitely a misidentification and possibly represents Saiacia beddomei
Gamble (Kew Bull. 1916:133, 1916). (e) Salacia cochinchinensis
Lour. and S. chinensis Linn. indicated by Lawson (l.c.) as doubtful
synonyms do not belong to this taxon but are distinct species by
themselves.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, R. S. RAO
WESTERN CIRCLE, K. HEMADRI
Poona-l,

May 27, 1969.

27. NOMENCLATURE OF TWO INDIAN PLANTS

1. Justicia santapaui Bennet nom. nov.

J. montana (Nees) T. Anderson in J. Linn. Soc. 10:509, 1867;
Clarke in Hooker’s Fl. Brit. Ind. 4:525. 1885; Santapau in Univ.
Bomb. Bot. Mem. 2:85, 1951, non Roxb. (1805). |

Hemichoriste moniana Nees in Wall. Pl. As. Rar. 3:102, 1832 &
in DC. Prodr. 11:367, 1847.

The epithet montana cannot be used for this plant under Justicia
as used by T. Anderson and followed by others, because of the earlier

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 359

name Justicia montana Roxb. (Pl. Corom. 2:t 176, 1805) for an
entirely different plant. As there is no other validly published name
for this species, it is here named after Dr. H. Santapau, whose con-
tributions to Indian botany are valuable.

2" Darzell: “Gn Hooker's’ - J, “Bot. 3: 282; 1851): described > an
Orchidaceous species Micropera viridiflora from Western India. In
1859 Lindley (J. Proc. Linn. Soc. Bot. 3:36) transferred Dalzell’s
species to Saccolabium under the name SaccOlabium viridiflorum and
in 1891 O. Kuntze (Rev. Gen. Pl. 2:661) made a combination Gastro-
chilus viridifiorus based on SdaccOlabium viridiflorum Lindley. Cooke
in 1907 (Fl. Pres. Bomb. 2:697) transferred Dalzeil’s species to Sarco-
chilus, but the name is a latter homonym of Sarcochilus viridiflorus
(Thw.) Hooker f. (FI.. Brit. Ind. 6:385, 1890), which was based on a
different type, 4érides viridiflorum Thwaites (Enum. 4305 1864) which
occurs in Ceylon. So, for Dalzell’s plant under Sarcochilus, Santapau
(Kew Bull. 498, 1948) gave the new name Sarcochilus dalzellianus.
Then in 1962 Santapau & Kapadia (J. ‘Bomb. nat. Hist. Soc. 59:842)
made the combination Gastrochilus dalzeilianus, based on Sarcochilus
dalzellianus Sant., because they thought the name Gastrochilus viridi-
florus (Lindl.) O. Ktze. is applicable to .another plant and not for
Dalzell’s plant. The correct name and citation for Dalzell’s plant
under Bogieunie should be

Gastrochilus viridiflorus (Dalz.) O. K ze: Rev; Gen! Pl 2: 661, 1898.

Micropera viridiflora Dalz. in Hooker’s J. Bot. 3: 282, 1851.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, S. S. R. BENNETT
CaLCuUTTA-14,
May 21, 1969.

28. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF BUDDLEJA DAVIDII
FRANCH. (LOGANIACEAE) IN INDIA

Buddleja davidii Franch, a native of China, perhaps introduced long
aco for cultivation in gardens as an ornamental plant, is now
naturalized in Simla and other Himalayan hill-stations. This is the

first report of its occurrence in wild state from India. A concise
description is given.

Buddieja davidii Franch. in Nouv. “Arch. Mus. Paris Ser 2 ( to): 65%
1887-88; Marquand in Kew Bull. 196, 1930; Backer & Bakh. f. in
Fl. Java 2:212, 1965. 8B. variabilis Hemsl. in Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot.
26:120; 1389,

360 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

Erect shrubs, 1 m. to 3 m. tall. Stem slender, .subterete or
obtuse-angular, often narrowly margined, glabrous except for the densely
pubescent or tomentose young tops. Leaves opposite, usually with a
pair of inter-petiolar, ovate-suborbicular, entire to dentate, 0-3-0-8 cm.
long auricles, sub-sessile or on short petioles formed by narrowing leaf
base, oOvate-lanceolate or elliptic-lanceolate-oblong, with a narrowed
acute or rounded base, narrowed upwards into an acute apex,
entire-serrate, glabrous above on maturity, white tomentose beneath,
5-21 X 1-5-6 cm. long. Bracts linear-subulate, 0-3-0-5 cm. long, usually
hairv. Pedicels 0-1-0-15 cm. long, pubescent. Calyx 0:25-0-3 cm. long,
divided jess than halfway down. glabrate or hairy, lobes ovate-lanceolate,
acute. Corolla 0-8-1 cm. lorig, tube erect, glabrous without, patent-
hairy within, lobes 4, obovate-rounded, crenate-dentate. Anthers
sessile, inserted at the middle of corolla-tube, linear, 0-8-1 mm. long.
Ovary glabrous. Style clavate. Capsule linear-narrowly oblong, acute,
glabrous, 0-6-1 cm. long. Seeds 0-5-0-8 mm. long.

A common shrub of cold weather and usually found along the
hill tracks.

Flowers and fruits: July-November. :

Specimen examined: HIMACHAL PRADESH, Simla, Jakku hills, Kanai
Lal Mali 38 (CAL).

This taxon is closely allied to Buddleja delavayi Gang.—also a native
of China, but this is easily recognizable by the longer and narrower
leaves. longer inflorescence and bigger fruits.

CENTRAL NATIONAL HERBARIUM, S. N. BISWAS
BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, R. PRASAD
HowrRAH-3,

August 6, 1969.

29. FURTHER STUDIFS ON THE HOST RANGE IN
LORANTHUS LONGIFLORUS DESV.

It is of particular interest to note that all the species of host plants,
hithertofore recorded for L. longiflorus, belong to the families of dicoty-
ledons. Monocots in general do not seem to be susceptible to loran-
thaceous parasites.

In the present investigation, ten more new species of host plants
have been recorded by way of experimenta! observations. Six of these

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES | 361

species belong to five families already reported, while the remaining
constitute four more new plant families. Thus there are now totally
on record 68 species of host plants, coming under 32 dicot families. |
Experiments conducted by allowing the seeds of the parasite to
germinate on branches of different new host-species indicate clearly
that at least some of them are not susceptible to the parasite. While
some monocots have also been tried, nene of the seeds grew to attain
maturity. Although invariably all the seeds germinate within a fort-
night to produce small green leaves and a massive haustorium, the
fate of the parasite is decided only when the haustorium penetrates
the host tissue. One of the most important factors determining the
further growth of the parasite is the osmotic pressure-relationship
between the host and the parasite. The study of the osmotic
concentration of the host and the parasite is well under way, and this
would throw much light on the host-parasite relationship.
The following are the new experimental host species for L. longiflorus:
Tamarix gallica L. (Tamaricaceae), Cassia glauca Lamk. (Caesal-
pinaceae), Terminalia catappa L. (Combretaceae), /x0ra parviflora
Vahl (Rubiaceae), Mussaenda frondosa 1... (Rubiaceae), Vernonia
elegens Gardn. (Compositae), Tabebuia pentaphylla Hemsl. (Bignoni-
aceae), Tectona grandis L. (Verbenaceae), BOugainvillaea spectabilis
Willd. (Nyctaginaceae), and Grevillea robusta A. Cunn. (Proteaceas).
It may be concluded from the foregoing observations that nowhere
in the study of angiospermic parasites has there been such a wide
range of host plants affected by a single parasitic species and that
there is a possibility of this parasite attacking many more species oi
host plants.

BOTANY DEPARTMENT, R. SAMPATHKUMAR
ANNAMALAL UNIVERSITY,

AANNAMALAINAGAR,

May 31, 1969.

[See Note No. 23 which gives the total number of hosts known so far for this
species—EDs. ]

30; ON THE PRODUCTION GF ADVENTITIOUS ROOTS
FROM THE EXCISED PETIOLES OF SOME ANGIOSPERMS

(With a photograph)

Previous observations indicate that the production of foliar roots
is common in Acanthaceae and Labiatae. The present investigation
includes 33 new species of plants, belonging to 13 angiospermic families,
as listed below :-—

Portulaca grandiflora Lindl. (Fig. 1), Cissus quadrangularis Linn.

362 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (2)

(Fig. 2), Cayratia moljlissima Gagnep. (Fig. 3), Eclipta alba Hassk..

(Fig. 4), Chrysanthemum indicum Linn. (Fig. 5), Notonia grandiflora
DC., Ageratum ccnyzoides Linn. (Fig. 6), Elephantopus scaber Linn.
(Fig. 7), Jasminum sambac Ait. (Fig. 8), J. flexile Vahl (Fig. 9), Per-

gularia minor Andr. (Fig. 10), Ipomoea cairica (Linn.) Sweet, Ipomoea
batatas Poir. (Fig. 11 & 11A), J. Sepiaria Koen., I. reptans Poir. (Fig. 12

& {2A), 7. Obscura Ker-Gawl., I. pes-tigridis Linn. (Fig 13), I. pes-
caprae Sweet., Evolvulus nummalarius Linn. Moniera cunetfolia Michx.,
Adhatcda vasica Nees. (Fig. 14), Barleria prionitis Linn. (Fig. 15), B.
capraé Sweet., Evolyulus nummularius Linn. Moniera cuneifolia Michx.,
Ecbolium linneanum Kurz (Fig. 18), Asteracantha longifolia (L.) Nees
(Fig. 19)., Lantana aculeata Linn. (Fig. 20), Leucas aspera Spr. (Fig.
21), Mirabilis ialapa Linn. (Fig. 22), Alternanthera sessilis (L.) DC.
(Fig. 23), Telanthera ficoidea Mog. (Fig. 24), Gomphrena globosa Linn.
(Fig. 25), and Sansviera roxburghiana Schuit. f.

_

a

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 363

While in majority of cases, the cut ends of the petioles were planted
in moist soil, a few leaves were also left in glass containers with tap
water. Prior to the production of adventitious roots, a massive callus
(Fig. 11A) at the cut-ends of the petioles is formed in many cases,
while in others no such tissue appears. In a few cases, aerial shoots
(Fig. 12A, 16, & 17A) also appear from the callus so differentiated,
and these shoots may be successfully grown into mature individuals.
In the case of Cavratia mollissima Gagnep. (Fig. 3), root tubers are
also produced.

BOTANY DEPARTMENT, R. SAMPATHKUMAR
ANNAMALAI UNIVERSITY,

ANNAMALAINAGAR,
July 11, 1968.

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CONTENTS}

A NEW RACE OF THE BLACKCRESTED BAZA, Aviceda leuphotes (DUMONT), FROM
‘THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS. By Humayun Abdulali and Robert B. Grubh.. 137

ORCHIDS OF NEPAL—3. By M. L. Banerji and B. B. Thapa ye .. 139
AMPHIPODA FROM THE East Coast of INpDia—2. By T. E. Sivaprakasam .. 153
SEX RATIO IN SOME INDIAN Bats. By A. Gopalakrishna and A. Madhavan... 171!

FLORA OF MOTHRONWALA SwAmP Forest (District : DeHRA Dun, U.P., INDIA).

By K. M. M. Dakshini_.... ba ie ae 16
NOTES ON SOME BUTTERFLIES IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL

History Socirty. By N. T. Nadkerny ae a Od
STUDIES ON THE BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FIsHES. By V. S. Bhatt .. 194

SPIDER FAUNA OF INDIA : CATALOGUE AND BIBLIOGRAPHY. By B. K. Tikader.. 212

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON ‘DISTRIBUTION OF Scoparia dulcis LINN. IN INDIA. By J.

D. Shah Ne 43 oe ns 5 a ey
THE TIGER IN INDIA: AN ENQUIRY—1968-69. By J. C. Daniel .. er 94 |
THE THALASSINOIDEA (CRUSTACEA, ANOMURA) OF MAHARASHTRA. By K. N.

Sankolli a as as a a wie a0
PRE-FOLIATION IN Scindapsus officinalis ScHotT. By T. A. Davis. . 1250
FORAMINIFERA OF THE GULF OF CAMBAY. By K. Kameswara Rao.. 239
ECO-TOXICOLOGY AND CONTROL OF INDIAN DESERT GERBIL, Meriones hurrianae

(JERDON). By Ishwar Prakash and A. P. Jain... he .. 274
A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HIs-

TORY SOcIETY—7. By Humayun Abdulali ie oh PTL.
SruptEs IN INDIAN EUPHORBIACEAE—IV. By N. P. Balakrishnan.. .. 299 :
REVIEWS .. es si A Cy ha vag On ;

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES te bys oH Bs =<. .319

Sourtial: of the

Bombay Natural | History Society

lo, 54
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Vol. 67, No. 3
Editors

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J. C. DANIEL & P. V. BOLE

DECEMBER 1970

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VOLUME 67, NO. 3—DECEMBER 1970

Date of Publication : 25-3-1971

CONTENTS

OBSERVATIONS ON THE NiLGIRi TAHR (Hemitragus hylocrius Ogilby, 1838). By
George B. Schaller. (With two plates and four text-figures) d

GENETIC-EVOLUTIONARY STUDIES ON CULTIVATED CANNAS. By Iva Mukherjee
and T. N. Khoshoo. (With eleven figures)

ANALOGOUS BIOCLIMATES AND INTRODUCTION OF EcoNomic Exotics. By V. M.
Meher-Homji. (With nine text-figures)

ARTHROPOD FAUNA OF THE NESTS OF SOME COMMON BIRDS IN POONA, INDIA, WITH
SPECIAL REFERENCE TO BLOOD SUCKING FORMS. By T. Ramachandra Rao and
P. K. Rajagopalan

PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS ON THE NATURAL RESISTANCE OF SIXTY-NINE SPECIES
OF INDIAN TIMBER TO MARINE BORER ATTACK AT BomMBAY. By L. N. Santha-
kumaran. (With a text-figure)

STUDIES ON BOTTOM-LIVING DIATOMS OF A FRESHWATER FISH POND. By C.S. Singh.
(With three plates)

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BREEDING OF STORKS IN INDIA AND CEYLON. By M. Philip
Kahl. (With five plates) i a

CYCLONIC DAMAGE TO PLANT TissuEs. By B. G. L. Swamy and K. V. Krishna-
murthy. (With two plates containing eight text-figures)

AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH—-PROGRESS, PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS. By M. S.
Swaminathan. (With four text-figures)

_ TRENDS IN INTRASPECIFIC SEX-LIMITED VARIATIONS IN SOME MYCOPHAGOUS TUBULI-
FERA (THYSANOPTERA). By T. N. Ananthakrishnan. (With six text-figures
and three graphs)

THE FLOWERING OF THE STROBILANTH (ACANTHACEAE). By K.M. Matthew, s.J.

APLANOSPORE FORMATION OR OUTCOME OF PARASITIC ATTACK? By Ella A.
Gonzalves and G. R. Sonnad. (With a plate)

SPAWNING HABITS, EGGS AND EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF DECCAN MAHSEER, Tor
khudree (SYKES). By C. V. Kulkarni. (With five text-figures)

ASPECTS OF THE FLORA, AND ECOLOGY OF SAVANNAS OF THE SOUTH INDIAN HILLS.
By F. Blasco

THe Nitciri TAHR, Hemitragus hylocrius OGILBY, IN THE HIGH RANGE,
KERALA AND THE SOUTHERN HILLS OF THE WESTERN GHATS. By J. C. Daniel

REVIEWS :
1. Enjoying Ornithology. (S.A.)
2. The lives of Wasps and Bees. (D.E.R.)

3. Supplement to the glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants. (S.R.
AMLADI)

4. The wild mammals of Malaya and offshore islands including
Singapore (H.A.) Ys : ;

5. Warne’s Natural History Atlas of Great Britain. (S.F.)
Indian fossi! Pteridophytes. (P.V.B.)
A dictionary of botany. (P.V.B.)

390

398

414

430

443

453

462

466

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :

Mammals: 1. Abnormality in the breeding behaviour of the Indian Fruit Bat,
Pteropus giganteus giganteus (Brunnich). By J. D. Sahasrabudhe (p. 550):
2. The White Tiger. By J. H. Desai (p. 551); 3. The breeding of the Indian
Giant Squirrel (Ratufa indica) in captivity. By V. G.Surve (p. 551) ; 4. Breeding
behaviour and development of Rattus rattus wroughtoni Hinton, 1919 (Rodentia :
Muridae) in the laboratory. (With a text-figure). By P. K. Rajagopalan
(p. 552): 5. An attempt to determine the food habits of the Indian Rhinoceros.
By R. L. Brahmachary, (Miss) B. Mallik and B. Rakshit (p. 558) ; 6. Reproduc-
tive behaviour of Browantlered Deer. By K. S. Sankhala and J. H Desai
(p. 561) ; 7. ‘ White Bison’ of Manjampatti. By E. R. C. Davidar (p. 565).
Birds: 8. Occurrence of least frigate bird (Fregata ariel iredalei Mathews) in
Bombay. By Rauf Ali (p. 569); 9. The occurrence of the Sanderling (Calidris
albus) in Kerala. By K. K. Neelakantan (p. 570) ; 10. Occurrence of the Indian
Skimmer or Scissorbill (Rynchops albicollis Swainson) in Salsette Island. By
D. A. Stairmand (p. 571); 11. The Blackbird Turdus merula maximus in
Nepal. By Michel Desfayes (p. 571) ; 12. Birds and Mammals eating the fruits
of yellow oleander (Thevetia peruviana). By Simon G. Rajasingh and Irene
V. Rajasingh (p. 572).

Reptiles: 13. The estuarine crocodile, Crocodilus porosus Schneider off the
Orissa Coast. (With a plate). By M. Krishnan (p. 573); 14. The occurrence
of the Dog-Faced water-snake, Cerberus rhynchops (Schneider) (Serpentes :
Colubridae) around Madras. By T. S. N. Murthy (p. 574).

Fishes: 15. The occurrence of Pennahia macrocephalus (Tang) (Pisces:
Sciaenidae) in Indian Seas. By Asha Joglekar and P. K. Talwar (p. 575):
16. Observations on the breeding ground and development of the Chilka Mullet
Liza macrolepis (Smith). By A. V. Natarajan and S. Patnaik (p. 577) ; 17. Ob-
servations on the food of young Hilsa ilisha (Ham.) of the Hooghly estuarine
system. (With a text-figure). By D.D. Halder (p. 578) ; 18. The fecundity of
A fossilis (Bloch). (With three text-figures). By R. M.S. Bhargava
(p. 583).

Mollusca: 19. Occurrence of the snail Lymnaea (Galba) truncatula (Miller)
(Mollusca : Pulmonata) at Malad, Bombay City—A new record for Peninsular
India. By A. S. Rajagopal (p. 588).

Arachnida: 20. The spider Lycosa carmichaeli Graveley as a predator of smal!
frogs. By R. K. Bhatnagar (p. 589).

Crustacea: 21. Diametrically opposite result of human activity on Barnacle

populations. (With a text-figure). By Arun B. Wagh and D. V. Bal (p. 589) ;
22. Studies on the larvae of Decapoda Brachyura 1. Xenophthalmus garthii
Sankarankutty. (With two text-figures). By C. Sankarankutty (p. 592).

Insecta: 23. Sterility and abnormal copulation behaviour in Agrotis infusa
(Boisd) (Agrotidae : Lepidoptera) in relation to high temperature. By R. R.
Rawat (p. 596) ; 24. Studies on the biology of Phytomyza atricornis Meigen (Agro-
myzidae: Diptera). By A.S. Kaurava, S. C. Odak and S. V. Dhamdhere

(p. 597) ; 25. A new host of the brinjal shoot and fruit borer Leucinodes orbonalis —

_Guen, and its biology. By M. S. Das and B. H. Patnaik (p. 601); 26. Chafer
beetle, Adoretus sp. (Coleoptera : Scarabaeidae) a new pest on guava in India. By
J.P. Singh and Rajendra Gupta (p. 603).

Botany : 27. Plietesial species of Strobilanthinae (Acanthaceae) in the Western
Ghats (India). By M. C. Suryanarayana (p. 604) ; 28. A note on the toad rush,
Juncus bufonius L.from India. (With a plate). By C.K. Shah (p. 608) ; 29. The
identity of Solanum khasianum Cl. var. chatterjeeanum Sen Gupta (Solanaceae).
By C.R. Babu (p. 609) ; 30. Lindernia angustifolia (Benth.) Wettst. (Scrophularia-
ceae)—A new record for south India. (With a plate). By N. Ravi (p. 611):
31. A note on Chrysanthemum leucanthemum Linn. (Asteraceae). (With a
plate). By (Miss) Debika Das and Bhabesh Pramanik (p. 613) ; 32. Newdistri-
butional records for coastal plants from Andhra Pradesh. By T. Ananda Rao
and A. R. K. Sastry (p. 614) ; 33. Family Commelinaceae in Kolhapur and its
environs. By A. R. Kulkarni and P. V. Mudgal (p. 616) ; 34. Some interesting
plants from Lucknow and its neighbourhood. By S. Ibrahim Husain and
S. L. Kapoor (p. 618) ; 35. A rich, but little known collection of Indian Plants
in U.S.S.R. By S. K. Jain (p. 620).

AN APPEAL 2

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Tein NER AT HISTORY Seem FOR THE YEAR
1969-70 a

STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS OF THE Bote, Noe EioEy SocmIny

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING

623

625
631
643

Editorial

This issue of the Journal is a Father Santapau Commemorative
number. Soon after his death in January. 1970, it was decided that
a Special Issue be published in his memory, and an attempt made to
make it one of high quality.

We are grateful to the many contributors who responded to our
appeal and who have written for this special number. An obituary of
Fr. Santapau appeared in the April 1970 issue of the Journal, but we
cannot help referring again to the great loss the Society and natural
History in general have suffered because of his early death. His en-
thusiasm was infectious, and one of the projects which was discussed
at almost the last Executive Committee meeting which he attended
was the preparation of a book on Indian Wild Flowers. There is
.great need for such a book to stimulate interest in our country-side,
and nothing suitable is available. Would some of our readers, who are
in a position to contribute towards such a project, please write in?

At the Tenth General Assembly of the International Union for
Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources which was held in
November, 1969, in New Delhi, Fr. Santapau spoke strongly for the
preservation of our flora, and referred among other areas to the Gir
Sanctuary where pressures of domestic cattle and human encroachment
were destroying the unique habitat. Fr. Santapau was the Principal
Scientist of the ecological studies in the Gir which are now under way.
He spoke of an earlier incident where the Maldharis of the Gir had
stated that “It the Minister of Forests of Gujarat did not give them
sufficient concessions in the Sanctuary they would change the Minister.”
Politics reigns supreme in our country (as it does in others) but recently
there has been considerable re-thinking in India and elsewhere on the
need for the validation of development projects on an ecological basis.
The environment continues to be under great pressure from every
side, and it is only by the vigilance and understanding of the citizens
that our natural resources can be maintained in the way they should
be, and exploited only on a sustained yield basis.

As a Special Memorial to Fr. Santapau it has been decided to re-
commend to the Government of Maharashtra that an area of evergreen
forest in Khandala be renamed after him. The Government of
Maharashtra have shown an interest in this proposal, and it is hoped
that a floral sanctuary will come into being soon.

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JOURNAL
OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL
HISTORY SOCIETY

a a

1970 DECEMBER Vol. 67 No. 3

Observations on the Nilgiri Tahr
(Hemitragus hylocrius Ogilby, 1838)

BY

GEORGE B. SCHALLER
New York Zoological Society

(With two plates and four text-figures)

The Hemitragus wild goats differ in appearance from those belonging
to the genus Capra in that males have no beard and the short horns of
males and females differ only slightly in size (Lydekker 1898). Three
species of tahr are generally recognized. The Arabian tahr (1. jayakari)
occurs in the mountains of Omanin Arabia and its habits remain unknown
(Fitter 1968). The Himalayan tahr (H. jemlahicus) ranges along the
southern slopes of the Himalayas from Kashmir to Bhutan (Burrard
1925), and the Nilgiri tahr (H. hylocrius) is confined to the hills of south
India. Various aspects of the biology of the Himalayan tahr have been
studied in New Zealand where the species has been introduced (Anderson
& Henderson 1961 ; Caughley 1965, 1966), but information on the Nilgiri
tahr, or ‘ ibex’ as it is known locally, consists chiefly of hunting accounts
(Shakespear 1862 ; An Old Shikarri 1880; Hawkeye 1881 ; Hamilton
1892 ; Pollock 1894; Russell 1900; Fletcher 1911; Stockley 1928)
or of brief descriptions of encounters with the animal (Hornaday 1885 ;
Brown 1960 ; Bassett 1964 ; Willet 1968). The limited knowledge about
the Nilgiri tahr has been summarized by Blandford (1888-91) and Prater
(1965). Information about it is needed because its limited distribution
~ and low numbers have qualified it for inclusion into THE RED BOOK of the
world’s threatened species (Fisher et al. 1969). To gather data on the
Status, distribution, and biology of the Nilgiri tahr, I spent September 26
to November 14, 1969, in south India. |

366 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

The Nilgiri tahr is a stocky goat in which both sexes have a short,
coarse pelage and a bristly mane a few centimetres long, incontrast to the
male Himalayan tahr which has a long, shaggy mane on the shoulders,
throat and chest. The pelage of subadults, females, and young males is
dusky brown to grey-brown in colour except for a whitish abdomen
and a dark brown band that runs down the length of the back. There is
also a conspicuous dark spot just above the carpal joint or knee. The
horns curve sharply backwards and are about 30 cm. long in females
(Plate 2). The front of the horn of the Nilgiri tahr is almost flat with
the keel confined to the inner edge, whereas the horn of the Himalayan
tahr has a prominent keel in front (Fig. 1).

Front
Outside Inside
A B
O 2 4
a he 9k BY
cm
Fig. 1. Cross-sections of tahr horns, taken near the base, showing characteristic

shape ee (A) the Nilgiri tahr and (B) the Himalayan tahr.

Adult males are handsome creatures, weighing an estimated 80-100 kg.
and standing about 100 cm. tall at the shoulders, considerably larger than
the females. Their pelage is dark brown, almost black, except for their
grizzled white lower back, sides, and sometimes also the rump, a feature
responsible for their being called ‘saddlebacks’ by sportsmen. The
sides of the neck, too, are often grey. The abdomen and throat are white,
and a pale streak runs from each ear down the side of the muzzle and a
light-coloured ring surrounds each eye. The spot above the carpal joint
is white, rather than black as in the other animals. Their horns are up
to about 40 cm. long and some 22 cm. in circumference at the base, both
longer and more massive than those of females (Plate 2).

OBSERVATIONS ON THE NILGIRI TAHR 367
DISTRIBUTION AND NUMBERS

The Nilgiri tahr is known only from the hills of southern India,
ranging ‘from the Nilgiris to the Anaimalais and thence southwards
along the Western Ghats...’ (Prater 1965). Unlike the Himalayan
tahr which lives for at least part of the year among brushy ravines and
on forested slopes (Garhwali 1911), the Nilgiri tahr prefers open terrain,
cliffs and grass-covered hills, a highly discontinuous habitat largely con-
fined to altitudes of from 1200 to 2600 m. Tahr probably occupied all
suitable areas in the past, but hunting and habitat destruction have deci-
mated them to such an extent that they now exist only in a few isolated
sites. I was not able to check all possible tahr localities in the short time
available to me, and, instead, devoted most effort to censusing the animals
in the two main areas where they occur, devoting 15 field days to the Nilgiri
Hills of Tamil Nadu (Madras), and 19 days to the High Range of Kerala.
Two days were also spent in the Anamalai Hills in Tamil Nadu, but for
information on other areas I depended on correspondence with local
sportsmen and tea planters.

Nilgiri Hills. The Nilgiris rise abruptly from the plains to a lofty
tableland some 1800 sq. km. in size. The lower slopes are densely
covered with forest, particularly with wet evergreen forest on the Western
side, surmounted often by sheer granite cliffs towering to the plateau above
(Plate 1). The uplands consist of a large expanse of steeply rolling hills
at an altitude of about 2000 m. Grass covered most of the hills in recent
times, except for patches of stunted evergreen forest, the ‘sholas’,
confined to ravines and sheltered slopes. But in the past few years most
of the area has either been cultivated or converted into wattle and
Eucalyptus plantations. It is probable that forests covered much of the
plateau in the past, with grasslands only in boggy hollows and on steep
slopes. Annual fires during the dry seasons in January and February
and grazing by domestic buffalo belonging to the original inhabitants, the
Todas, pushed back the forests slowly (Jeyadev n.d.) until only patches of
it remained when the first Europeans penetrated the areas between 1812
and 1819 (Fletcher 1911).

‘In former times, that is about fifty years ago, the Ibex appears to
have roamed at will in vast herds over all the grassy uplands of the higher
plateau of the Nilgiris...’ (An Old Shikarri 1880). By 1879, however,
hunting had reduced the tahr to such an extent that their number
* probably did not exceed a dozen head all told’ according to Phythian-
Adams (1939). This estimate may be too low for Russell (1900) found
herds readily in 1886 and 1888. By the end of the century the tahr sur-
vived largely along the western edge of the plateau, an area remote from
human habitation where the huge cliffs and inclement weather (up to

368 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

750 cm. of rain a year) protected them from the casual hunter. In
addition, the Nilgiri Wild Life Association, formed in 1877, interested
itself in the species and afforded it protection. By 1927, about 400 tahr
were thought to exist in the western Nilgiris (Phythian-Adams 1927),
and by the late 1930’s ‘not less than 500’ (Phythian-Adams 1939),
The Nilgiri Wild Life Association conducted the first census of the tahr in
1963. The area in which they occur was divided into 4 sections and 4
teams of 2 men each counted the tahr over a period of 4 days (Davidar
1963a). ‘ The tahr actually seen and counted amounted to 292... So
it can be safely estimated that there are about 400 tahr in the Nilgiris ...’
(Davidar 1963b). The various figures suggest that the size of the tahr
population had remained relatively stable or declined only slightly in the
past 40 years, although a few small herds, such as one near Glen Morgan
(Davidar 1963b), had disappeared. Davidar, however, wrote to me in
March, 1970: ‘I have been chasing them .. . for the last 16 years and I
can assert with certainty that they have increased during this period.’

Most tahr in the Nilgiris inhabit the western escarpment from Nilgiri
Peak south to the Bangitappal and Sispara Pass area, a continuous stretch
of terrain about 37 km. long (Fig. 2). I spent a week searching for tahr in
the northern third of this range, between Nilgiri Peak and Pichal Bettu,
and found a total of 63 different animals. The tahr confined their
activity to the cliff faces and grasslands immediately adjoining them, a
strip 1 km. or less in width, as indicated by repeated sighting of animals
or their sign such as droppings and resting places. It is thus unlikely
that any large herds were overlooked. In the census conducted by
Davidar (1963a) a total of 79 tahr were recorded in the same area. I did
not visit the central third of the tahr’s range, but Davidar (1963a) found
66 animals there.

The hills along the southern third of the escarpment are rockier and
more rugged than those farther north with the result that an area of about
50 sq. km. has remained free of forest plantations. A week of searching
along all bluffs and major ridges revealed a total of 113 tahr, as compared
to 112 reported by Davidar (1963a) from the same area. Most animals
were along the escarpment where they were easy to spot, but a few smal]
herds were inland as well. Considering the excellent visibility and the
fact that in all cases except one a herd was located after finding fresh sign,
it seems likely that the count was fairly complete. A small population of
about 35 animals existed near the Chembar River slightly to the east of
the Sispara area in 1963 according to Davidar (1963a). I did not visit
the site.

The similarity in the1963 and 1969 counts in 2 areas indicates that the
tahr population has remained stable during the past 6 years and numbers’
about 300 animals in the Nilgiris as a whole.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE NILGIRI TAHR 369

76° Ue

-- = —

NILGIRI
HILLS

11°

KERALA

loz

PERIYAR

9°

; Oo
CEYLON TRIVANDRUM

Fig. 2. The hill ranges of south India, drawn along the 1000 m. contour line
showing the precise locations at which tahr were seen in 1969 or known to have occurred
in 1967 and later. Other small populations existed in the Anamalai and Palni hills

and possibly elsewhere but it was not possible to obtain detailed information on these
in the time available for the survey.

370 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

High Range. A gap of about 100 km. separates the tahr in the Nilgiris
from those in the High Range and Anamalai Hills to the south. The
High Range with its deeply dissected valleys, massive peaks, and towering
crags is ‘surpassingly grand, and incomparably beautiful ’, in the words
of Hamilton (1892), one of the first visitors to the area in 1854: Tea.
plantations now cover the valleys, leaving indigenous forests only on the
steep slopes, but the cliffs and grassy plateaus above an altitude of 2000 m.
still provide suitable tahr habitat. The Eravikulam area, also known as
Hamilton’s Plateau, a private shooting reserve owned by the Kanan
Devan Hills Produce Company, contains the largest tahr population in
the High Range (Plate 1). Protected from poachers, pastoralists, and
agriculturalists since 1895 by the High Range Game Preservation Asso-
ciation, as well as by the cliffs that border the 80 sq. km. plateau on 3
sides, the tahr there have remained relatively undisturbed inrecent years.
Fire and slash-and-burn cultivation by the Muduvars, who occupied the
area sometime after the 14th century (Thurston 1909) are probably
responsible for the little forest that is left on the plateau.

The Eravikulam area, including Rajamallay and Anamudi Peak, was
divided into 7 blocks for census purposes. Each day I searched for
tahr along all cliffs and ridges in one block. Visibility in the open, un-
dulating hills was so good that animals were sometimes seen with
binoculars or spotting scope from 1 to 2 km. away. Only the clouds
which usually settled against the cliffs by noon hampered the census work.
Undisturbed herds moved little from day to day, making it unlikely that
animals were counted twice by shifting from one block to another. How-
ever, disturbed herds may flee as far as 3 km. without stopping, and care
must be taken not to duplicate such animals inacount. A total of 439
tahr were seen. In addition, fresh sign indicated the presence of another
herd but I was unable to find it in the clouds that engulfed the hills at
the time. The total number of tahr in the reserve was thus about 500.

Mr. Gouldsbury told me that small herds of a dozen or so each occur
on Tertian’s Plateau, Karinkulam, and Periavurrai. All 3 localities are
small plateaus separated only by a valley from each other or from the
Eravikulam Reserve.

Anamalai Hills. The Anamalai Hills border the High Range to the
north without an intervening physical barrier. Hawkeye (1881) saw
tahr in these rugged, grass-covered hills in herds of hundreds and Hornaday
(1885), too, found them ‘ quite abundant’. In 2 days of searching for
tahr within an area of some 40 sq. km. bordering the Eravikulam Reserve,
only one herd numbering about 25 animals was seen. Human distur- .
bance in that area is great and includes a road, tree plantations, and,
according to my guide, much poaching. K. Mathew, Divisional Forest
Officer, told me that a number of tahr occurred in the Parambikulam

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 67 (3) PLATE |
Schaller : Nilgiri Tahr

Above: Typical tahr habitat in the north-western part of the Nilgiri Hills. Below: The Eravik alam
Reserve in the High Range as viewed from Anamudi Peak. The distant ridge lies in the
Anamalai Hills. Tahr remained mainly along the cliffs such as those in the foreground.

(Photos : Author)

J. BomBay NaT. Hist. Soc. 67 (3) Piate Ii
Schaller: Nilgiri Tahr

«ove : Nilgiri tahr watching the observer alertly. In the centre is an adult female; the animals
on the right and left are yearlings almost 2 years old. Below : A saddleback male grazes on @
steep slope. His grey saddle, the greyish neck, and spot above the knee are clearly visible.

(Photos : Author)

OBSERVATIONS ON THE NILGIRI TAHR 371

Sanctuary in the western part of the Anamalais in 1967. R. Steele, a
tea planter, wrote to me that tahr could still be seen in several areas in
the hills.

Palni Hills. H.H. the Raja of Pudukkotai noted that ‘there are still
a few Nilgiri Tahr left in the Palni Hills, may be there are about a 100 to
150 on the whole roaming about the cliffs ’ (letter, 1970). I was unable
to obtain more information through correspondence and my time was too
limited for a visit to the area.

Other areas. Tahr probably occurred as far south as the Ashambu
Hills in the past’. A few animals possibly survive in the Periyar Sanctuary
and surrounding areas. K. Mathew told me that tahr were wiped out
in the sanctuary, but M. C. Jackson, a tea planter at Vandiperiyar, wrote
that a friend of his encountered 2 tahr there in 1967.

Summary. A total of 640 tahr was seen during the visit to south
India and other information raised the known number of animals to at
least 1000 of which 300 were in the Nilgiris, 530 or so in the High Range,
and most of the remainder in the Anamalai and possibly the Palni Hills.
However, a precise estimate of the total number of Nilgiri tahr surviving
in the wild cannot be made until the status of the species has been deter-
mined in the Anamalai and Palni Hills as well as in the region lying to
the south of the High Range. |

POPULATION DYNAMICS

While censusing, each herd was counted and when possible classified
into adults (2 years old and older), yearlings (1 to 2 years) and young
(0 to 1 year). Adult males were divided into 3 age classes according to
size and pelage colour : saddlebacks, dark brown males lacking a saddle,
and light brown males of the same size and colour as females. Himalayan
tahr can be accurately aged by the conspicuous growth rings on the horns
which are laid down each winter other than the first (Caughley 1965).
Rings were not readily discernible on free-living Nilgiritahr, but 6 mounted
heads, which judging by horn size belonged to dark brown males or
saddlebacks, all had 5 to 7 faint growth rings. There is, of course, no
evidence that the Nilgiri tahr grows one ring a year like its Himalayan
relative, but I would assume that such males are at least 5 years old.
Yearlings, which at the time of the study were almost 2 years old, were
about 1/4 to 1/3 smaller in size than an adult female and their horns were

1Jn April, 1970, J. C. Daniel of the Bombay Natural History Society visited the
hills south of the High Range and was told by various informants of 14 localities
where tahr are still said to occur, i

372 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

more slender than those of adults. Most young, nearly one year old,
had straight or slightly curved horns some 7 to 12 cm. long.

POPULATION COMPOSITION. Of 176 tahr seen in the Nilgiris, 164 were
classified. One herd of 7 disappeared in fog before I could find out
the age and sex of the animals, and 6 others separated from a large
herd during acount. I was unable to classify all animals in the High
Range, except the dark brown males and saddlebacks. The figures for
light brown males, females and subadults are, therefore, based on a
sample of herds totalling 260 tahr.

In the Nilgiris, 21° of the population consisted of adult males of
which 9% were saddlebacks (Table 1). Adult females comprised 34%

TABLE 1

COMPOSITION OF THE TAHR POPULATION IN THE NILGIRIS AND HIGH RANGE

Sex and Age Class

Nilgiris High Range

7% 7%
Saddleback oal 11:0
Dark brown male 5433 4:2
Light brown male V2 4°2
Adult female 34:2 33°6
Yearling 18°9 17°3
Young 25°6 29°6

and subadults (yearling and young) 45%, indicating a vigorous popu-
lation with good reproduction. The figures for the High Range were
similar to those of the Nilgiris with adult males at 19%, of which 11%
were saddlebacks, adult females at 34%, and subadults at 47% (Table 1).

If it is assumed that dark brown males and saddlebacks are over 5 years _

old and that there are at least as many adult females of similar age in
the population, then 25-30% of all animals were 5 years old and older and -
25-30% were 2 through 4 years old. Female Himalayan tahr in New
Zealand may reach an age of 17 years though only 3% exceed 12 years
(Caughley 1966). The ratio of 2 males to 3 females indicates either an
unequal sex ratio at birth or a higher death rate among males than females
at some time during the life cycle. I was unable to sex most young with
precision, but a count of 31 yearlings in the Nilgiris, for example,showed |
that 11 were males and 20 were females. Although these figures do
not differ statistically in a significant manner froma 1: 1 ratio, they do
suggest that more females than males may already be present among

OBSERVATIONS ON THE NILGIRI TAHR 373

subadults. Phythian-Adams (1927) found that ‘ the does outnumber the
bucks by some 20 to 1 ’, but he does not give the basis for his statement.

REPRODUCTION. Published information onthe reproductive biology of
the tahr is confusing. Stockley (1928) noted that ‘ kids may be dropped at
any time ofthe year ’, and An Old Shikarri (1880), Willet (1968) and others
made similar statements. On the other hand, Kinloch (1926) and Prater
(1965) wrote that most young are bornat the beginning of the hot weather,
presumably in March, and Lydekker (1898) stated that parturition is in
June and July. If births occur throughout the year, then young of all
sizes would be expected in the population. Of 133 young classified (and
many other seen) all but three were of approximately the same size, indi-
cating a sharp birth peak. The young were large, with conspicuous
horns up to 12 cm. long, and many adult females were heavily pregnant
in November. From this evidence, I would judge that most young are
born during the cool season between December and February. One
young in the Nilgiris was less than a month old in October and another
was perhaps 2 months old, indicating that occasional births occur in
other months as well. With a birth peak from December to February
and a gestation period of 6 months (Fisher ez al. 1969), the main rut
would be in June, July, and August, mostly during the south-west
monsoon, rather than in December and January as stated by Stockley
(1928).

The Nilgiri tahr has 2 teats (unlike the Himalayan tahr which has 4,
two of them rudimentary). Stockley (1928), Kinloch (1926), Prater
(1965) and others noted that one young is the rule, and this was my im-
pressiontoo. Sterndale (1884), on the other hand, stated that tahr usually
have twins. Yearling females were not visibly pregnant at the age of
nearly 2 years, suggesting that most tahr had their first young at the age
of 3 years.

MormTALity. Generally the per cent of yearlings entering the adult class
of a stable population roughly equals the per cent of adults disappearing
through death or emigration. About 18% of the tahr comprised year-
lings (see Table 1). The Nilgiri population was thought to have remained
stable in the past years, and the High Range one showed no striking
fluctuations during the 1960’s although Gouldsbury (pers. comm.) felt
that it was increasing slowly. Thus, in the Nilgiris at least, annual adult
mortality might be as high as 18%. Mortality of young was low.
Assuming that each adult had one young early in 1969, then 76% of the
females in the Nilgiris and 88% in the High Range raised one offspring
almost to the age of one year. If production and survival of young was
as high in 1968 as in 1969, then the difference between the percent of
yearlings and young gives an indication of mortality between the two age

374 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

classes. The Nilgiris showed a 44% drop in number, the High Range
27%. Although these figures are based on several] assumptions, they do
suggest that many yearlings and perhaps as many as 1/6 of the
adults die each year, there being no evidence of large-scale emigration.
Possible causes of death include disease and predation.

Disease. No sick tahr were seen. Rinderpest is said to have deci-
mated the High Range population long ago (Gouldsbury, pers. comm.),
and lame animals are sometimes encountered in April, a time of year
when foot-and-mouth disease is prevalent in local cattle, according to my
guide, a tribal Muduvar. The remains of only one tahr, an adult female,
were found in many miles of hiking. However, sick animals probably
retreat to the cliffs and fall into the dense brush below when they die.

Predation. Tahr share their habitat with several potential predators.
Jackal (Canis aureus) possibly kill newboin young on occasion. To
obtain some idea of jackal food habits, 119 sets of droppings from the
High Range were examined and the results in Table 2 show that small

TABLE 2

FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE OF FOOD ITEMS IN 119 JACKAL DROPPINGS,
HIGH RANGE

Food items Frequency of
occurrence (%)

Small rodent 94°4
Lizard and snake 29°4
Crab 10°0
Insect 6°7
Seed 5°8
Sambar 2:5
Hare 0°1
Snail 0:1

Fay ras)

SE CC

rodents provided most food during October and November. The sambar
hair in the droppings undoubtedly represented carrion. Thyagarajan (1958)
once observed wild dogs (Cuon alpinus) hunt tahr and on this
basis assumed that predation is ‘the most important factor operating
against their survival’. Wild dogs are rare, however, and packs visit an
area only at long intervals. Observers both in the Nilgiris and High Range
told me that sambar (Cervus unicolor), not tahr, are the main prey of
wild dogs in the hills. Davidar (pers. comm.) once watched a leopard
(Panthera pardus) stalk tahr unsuccessfully. I saw only one set of tracks
of this uncommon cat. One tiger (Panthera tigris) frequented the
Bangitappal area of the Nilgiris and two the Eravikulam Reserve during

OBSERVATIONS ON THE NILGIRI TAHR 375

my visit. All 10 tiger droppings which I found contained sambar re-
mains and one also crab shells. In sum, all these predators are now rare
to uncommon, and there is no evidence that they have any controlling |
influence on the tahr populations.

Saddlebacks may be legally hunted but only a few are shot each year.
The average annual kill in the Nilgiris between 1912 and 1938 was 4°6
(Phythian-Adams 1939) and between 1940 and 1966 it was 2°3 (Davidar
1968). An average of only 1°9 animals per year were shot in the High
Range between 1958 and 1969. Hamilton (1892), who in 1854 was the
first European to hike through the Eravikulam area, found that tahr
‘were extremely wild, which was accounted for from their having been
lately harassed by hill men, the Moodowas, who had constructed across
one of their runs, a barrier of stout bushes, forming a strong hedge, with
weak places ten or twelve feet apart ; across which a strong running noose
was firmly secured. The ibex were then driven up to these barriers and
were ruthlessly snared and shot.’ Hawkeye (1881) and Thyagarajan
(1958) describe similar methods of killing in the Anamalai Hills. Ilegal
hunting has undoubtedly been responsible for the extirpation or drastic
reduction of tahr in most of their former habitats, and the remaining
populations are still subjected to a certain amount of it. Recently, for
example, a High Range police official shot 2 tahr that had come near a
road, and Davidar told me that several poachers were encountered in the
Bangitappal area shortly after my visit there.

This discussion about possible causes of mortality provides little
precise information about the factors which actually influenced the tahr
populations, and it is obviously important to monitor the animals
throughout the year to find out if disease, for instance, affects them at
certain times.

HERD STRUCTURE

Tahr are social animals which usually associate in groups of two or
more individuals. One adult female was seen alone as were 3 different
dark brown males and 5 saddlebacks, but such animals were uncommon.
_ Groups can be divided into mixed herds, consisting of females and sub- |

adults, and, on occasion, also of males, and into male herds composed
solely of males. :

Herd size. My observations, as well as those in the literature, indicate
that tahr seldom occur in mixed herds exceeding 50 individuals. Sterndale
(1884) mentioned herds with 60, 65, and 120 animals, Kinloch (1926)
with 60 and 90, and Fischer (1915) one with at least 86. Twenty-three
_ mixed herds counted during the census work varied in size from 6 to 104 -

376 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

animals with an average of 23 (Fig. 3). A total of 9 different male herds
were tallied, and these varied from 2 to 12 animals each with an average
Ods5:

lO
Mean
25
8
5 6
w
<
re)
z 4
2
O O Oo O O Oo
— %) Ww - (op) —
| i l i ‘ \
N — -- — = ©
N + wo © @)

No. animals in herd
Fig. 3. The size of 23 mixed tahr herds.

Herd composition. Mixed herds characteristically contain light brown
males, females, and subadults, but dark brown males and saddlebacks
are only sporadic members (Table 3). At the time of my study, some
large young and yearlings tended to form their own group, remaining —
either at the periphery of a mixed herd or becoming widely separated
from it. For example, one herd consisting of a yearling female and 5
young was at least 3 km. from the nearest adults. Young also left their
mothers and attached themselves to other animals when herds split with
the result that some contained 2 to 3 times as many young as adult
females whereas others had few or no young.

Tahr herds may change in composition from day to day as they split
and. join without obvious pattern. For instance, one herd of 34 was
joined by 2 dark brown males and 3 females in the course of a day. A
herd of 43 split into herds of 16 and 27. When encountered again the
following day 38 animals were together. Of these a saddleback left

OBSERVATIONS ON THE NILGIRI TAHR 377

alone, 29 crossed a deep valley, and 7 females and a light brown male
moved in the opposite direction.

TABLE 3

COMPOSITION OF SOME TAHR HERDS IN THE NILGIRIS AND HIGH RANGE

Female

Male

Saddleback Dark Light Yearling | Adult Yearling Young Total

brown brown ae ee ee
2 1 1 2, 6
1 5 6
2 6 8
2 3 3 8
1 2, 1 6 4 14
1 4 10 15
2D 3 12 7 10 34
1 1 2 2 17 3 8 34
1 1 6 1 16 4 9 38
1 D. 3 5 12 a 9 39

Dark brown males and saddlebacks enter and leave mixed herds
intermittently on their own volition. When not in a mixed herd such
males are alone or in male herds (Table 4). In the Eravikulam area the

TABLE 4

COMPOSITION OF SOME MALE HERDS IN THE
NILGIRIS AND HIGH RANGE

Saddleback Dark brown Total

——— eee

2 Z
3 3

Dis 2
3 8) 6
u {|
4 5 9

i a ee

378 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

~males tended to congregate. Whereas mixed herds were scattered along
the cliffs, 30 of the 69 dark brown males and saddlebacks in the reserve
were in the western corner. The fact that males leave mixed herds has
been noted frequently (Hamilton 1892 ; Willet 1968), but opinions differ
as to the season when they do so. Stockley (1928) felt that the separation
occurs in the cold season and Kinloch (1926) that it happens in the hot
season. Each dark brown male and saddleback seen in the Niigiris and
High Range was classified according to whether he was alone, in a male
herd or in a mixed herd. Table 5 shows that during the first half of

TABLE 5

PER CENT OF MALES SEEN ALONE, IN MALE HERDS, AND IN MIXED
HERDS DURING OCTOBER

No. males ~ % Males alone % Males in % males in
Date in sample male herds mixed herds
Sept. 30-Oct.16 .. 31 19 29 sy

October, when I worked in the Nilgiris, about half of the males associated
with mixed herds, and that during the second half, when I was in the
High Range, over 3/4 of the males were alone or in male herds. My
sample for November is too small to include in Table 5, but only one of 9
mixed herds contained a dark brown male or saddleback. The largest
males in an ungulate population usually do most of the mating (see Geist
1966 ; Schaller 1967), and the highest per cent of dark brown males
and saddlebacks would, therefore, be expected around mixed herds during
the rut from June to August. Afterwards, when few females come into
cestrus, the males associate only casually with them. Mixed herds which
one day included a saddleback frequently lacked one the next day, con- —
firming the transitional nature of the contacts. Anderson & Henderson
(1961) found that ‘apart from the rutting season, which extends from
late April to early July, the sexes range separately ’ in the Himalayan
tahr of New Zealand. Transitional contacts between mixed herds and
males are also found in many other species of hoofed animals such as the
gaur (Bos gaurus) and axis deer (Axis axis) in India (Schaller 1967), the
ibex (Capra ibex) in Switzerland (Nievergelt 1967), the wild goat (Capra
hircus) in Pakistan (Roberts 1967) and the bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis)
in Canada (Geist 1968).

Light brown males, estimated to be 2 to 4 years old, did not become
solitary or join male herds, in contrast to young Capra ibex males which
may join male herds at the age of 2 and:3 years (Nievergelt 1967).

OBSERVATIONS ON THE NILGIRI TAHR 379
BEHAVIOUR

The behaviour of undisturbed tahr was observed for 53 hours, often
from | km. or more away to reduce the chances of being detected by the
animals. However, the erratic winds frequently carried my scent to
them, and this, together with clouds that often obscured the cliffs, made
prolonged observations difficult. Nor were October and November
the most auspicious times for recording behaviour. The bonds bet-
ween females and their young were essentially broken, and the rut was
finished. For example, my observations on sexual behaviour were
limited to males twice sniffing the vulva of urinating females and curling
their lip up afterwards. :

General behaviour. Fletcher (1911) and other observers stated that
tahr are active mainly in the early morning and late afternoon, but
Kinloch (1926) also found them feeding at midday. An Old Shikarri
(1880) noted that they are active at all hours, an observation which
agrees with what I saw. Herds gave the impression of being restless as
feeding and rest periods of varying lengths followed each other. Fre-
quently one animal in a herd began to graze and all others joined within
10 minutes. They remained active for perhaps 30 to 45 minutes and
then lay down again one at a time. To find out if tahr follow some
general daily pattern of activity, I recorded the number of animals graz-
ing and not grazing every 5 minutes in each undisturbed herd. The 6
points in each 1/2 hour period were lumped and expressed as per cent
of animals feeding in Fig. 4 which is based on 10,968 activity obser-
vations. Most tahr fed until about 08.00 hours. There was a sharp
drop in activity between 08.00 and 08.30 hours and then about 2/3 of
the animals rested at any one time until 10.30 hours. After that and
until 14.30 hours at least half the tahr fed, followed by a slight drop in
activity between 14.30 and 15.30 hours. A second feeding peak occurred
after 16.00 hours. Phythian-Adams (1950) stated that tahr remain on
the cliffs at night.

In October and November, when green forage was plentiful through-
out their habitat, the tahr fed mostly on or near cliffs. Grazing herds
moved either as a fairly compact unit or loosely scattered over the slope.
Occasionally they travelled to another site in single file with an adult
female in the lead and saddlebacks usually in the rear. The animals
were silent except on one occasion when I heard several bleats. Green
grass was the tahr’s principal food during the period of study. In addi-
tion the leaves of a shrub (Strobilanthes kunthianus), of an Umbelliferae
(Heracleum sp.) and a wattle (Acacia sp.) were also eaten. Between
January and March, after the dry grasses have been burned and before
the first April showers produce a growth of new grass, tahr are said to

380 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

browse along the edge of the thickets and the bases of the cliffs. Some
patches of soil on steep slopes had been extensively pawed by tahr and
these possibly represented saltlicks.

100

80
= 60
wo
oO
@
gq, 40
20

oO ro) oO oO row >)
mM mm nN nm
© © ro} “I + wo
0 i i ti n is
uy “>
2 8 ras ro) vo) °
2 © S) ov < ©
ro) = =
Time of day

Fig. 4. Per cent of tahr grazing at various times of day, 06.00 to 17.00 hours.

Herds usually rested along the rim of the escarpment or on the cliff
ledges. They reclined either with legs tucked under the body or more
often with one or both forelegs stretched out in front of them and some-
times with the hindlegs extended to one side as well. Many chewed
cud, at the rate of about 3 chews per 2 seconds. Occasionally one rose

and scratched its head or neck with a hindfoot or its upper back witha

tip of the horn.

Undisturbed herds remained in the same area for long periods. A
herd encountered on a cliff one day could usually be found in the general
locality or even in the same spot on subsequent days. One population
of about 135 tahr, divided into 3 or more herds, was always found along
the same 5 km. stretch of cliffs between October 22 and November 12, |
Female Himalayan tahr have distinct home ranges (Caughley 1966).
Gouldsbury told me that tahr wander away from the precipices in search — )
of food during the dry season and that they tend to take shelter from the
high winds and lashing rain on the eastern side of the plateau during
the south-west monsoon. The casual joining and parting of animals

OBSERVATIONS ON THE NILGIRI TAHR 381

and the readiness with which herds flee long distances into terrain
occupied by others indicates that tahr have no territory in the sense of
an area exclusively used by a group or individual, at least during October
and November.

Agonistic behaviour. Aggressive contacts between animals were
uncommon. Sometimes one hooked another lightly with a horn when
the herd was bunched up after a disturbance. On 6 occasions a tahr
walked to a reclining one, jabbed it with a horntip in the flank, and,
after it moved, appropriated the resting site. Five of these instances
involved a female replacing a young and one a light brown male replac-
ing a yearling male. On 2 occasions, when a yearling male jabbed a
yearling male and a light brown male, respectively, the recipient did not
relinquish its resting place.

Fights between two tahr were observed 53 times. Eighteen (33 %)
of these involved the side butt. The animals stood parallel and facing
the same direction and in unison jerked their head sideways rapidly
once or twice thereby clashing their horn against one of the opponent’s.

They were never seen to push with shoulder and hips in such situations
as feral goats do (Geist, pers. comm.). The head-on butt was used in

22 (42%) of the interactions observed. Two tahr faced each other, a
metre or less apart, lowered their heads abruptly and one or both lunged
so that the horns met with a crash. Usually one of the combatants ~
struck predominantly with one horn while the other caught the blow
between his horns, a method of striking also used by American moun-
tain sheep (Geist 1966). Most contacts were brief, one or two clashes,
and were seldom preceded or followed by other interactions. On one
occasion a light brown male mounted a saddleback before they fought,
in contrast to bighorn sheep where the dominant characteristically
mounts a subordinate one (Geist 1968).

The shoulder push was used in 13 (25%) of the fights observed, and
the actions were more prolonged than the other types of combat. Two
animals characteristically stood parallel and facing in opposite direc-
tion, then pushed each other, shoulder to shoulder, often circling rapidly
as they didso. Once two males kneeled and circled in a fighting pattern
reminiscent of that used by zebra (Equus burchelli) as described by
Klingel (1967). As the animals turned, they jabbed each other gently
or vigorously in the side, flank or occasionally the abdomen with the
tip of one horn. Sometimes they stopped, faced each other and butted
head-on before circling again. Twice one animal hooked the other
into the lower part of the neck during a pushing interval. Occasionally
a tahr pawed the ground with a foreleg before or after the fight or assumed
the hunch posture (see below). This method of fighting is similar to
otle described by Geist (1964) in the American mountain goat (Oreaim-

2

382. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

nos americanus): ‘ They fight keeping side by side while moving about
one another. Goats, strike up and sideways with their head, driving
the horns into the opponent’s body region.’

The fourth type of combat, rearing up, was not observed in its full
form during the study, possibly because it is used primarily by males
during the rut. Hutton (1947) saw one fight on August 3: A young
male stamped his forefeet when approached by a saddleback. They
looked at each other from a distance of about 10 m. and both stamped
their forefeet and nodded their heads. Then ‘the two animals almost
simultaneously reared up on their hindlegs and seemed to “‘ dance ”’ in
front of each other, while keeping their distance and circling. Suddenly
they would close in and bring their heads together with a resounding
crack’. After half an hour of combat the saddleback rammed the other
male in the shoulder thus ending the fight. He then approached a
female and mated with her. On one occasion, a light brown male
kneeled on his forelegs and rubbed his horns in the grass with lateral
motions. Suddenly he reared up on his hindlegs with his chin tucked
in and turned slightly to one side and the forelegs drawn close to the
body. Facing him was another light brown male with his head averted.
On another occasion, a female snorted and lunged at another female
with both forelegs off the ground in a manner similar to that used by
fighting mountain goats (Geist 1965).

The type of fighting, as well as the frequency with which each type
was used, varied with the age and sex of the tahr (Table 6). Males,
females and subadults all butted from the side or head-on, both with
animals of their own age and sex and with others. The shoulder push

TABLE 6

NUMBER OF ANIMALS IN EACH SEX AND AGE CLASS INVOLVED IN VARIOUS
TYPES OF FIGHTING, BASED ON 106 COMBATANTS

Approx. Side butt Head-on Shoulder
Sex and Age Class composition Vy butt % Push %
of mixed
herds in %

Saddleback andd.b.male .. > 8°3 0 3°8
Light brown male a 6 5°6 29°5 ea
Female TS. re 38 41°7 13°6 0
Yearling i 20 ib 36°1 43:2 61°5

Young fe 8) 8°3 —# 1356 0

OBSERVATIONS ON THE NILGIRI TAHR 383

was not observed among females and young, and of 16 sexed yearlings
involved in that type of combat all were males. Either the larger or
the smaller of two participating males initiated the shoulder push.
Once, for instance, a yearling jabbed a light brown male repeatedly
in the side, abdomen and flanks before the latter responded, and
they then circled shoulder to shoulder. On another occasion, a light
brown male initiated the fight with a yearling male. Dark brown
males and saddlebacks fought seldom, but light brown males were
involved in head-on butts and shoulder pushes (but not side butts) much
more frequently than would be expected from their number in the
population. Females side-butted as often as expected but used the
head-on butt little and shoulder push not at all. Yearlings fought
often by all three methods and young seldom. A ranking of the classes
based on the relative frequency of fighting would place light brown
males at the top, followed in decreasing order by yearlings, females,
dark brown males and saddlebacks, and young.

Two additional kinds of behaviour were associated with aggression.
On 8 occasions an animal was seen to rub its horns and face either up
or down on a sapling or laterally on the ground, sometimes for as long
as one minute. Two animals kneeled on their frontlegs while doing so.
The behaviour occurred in 2 females, 3 yearling males, a dark brown
male, and 2 light brown males, and only in the last was it seemingly
directed at a particular individual. In one of these instances, the male
rubbed his head on the ground in front of a reclining saddleback. He
then jabbed the saddleback in a hindleg, wedged a hoof between the
horns and pulled. The saddleback ignored the gesture. Rubbing in
tahr appeared to be analogous to similar behaviour among deer, such as
the wapiti, Cervus canadensis, (Struhsaker 1967) and antelope, such as
the grant’s gazelle, Gazella granti, (Walther 1965). The actions un-
doubtedly leave both visual and olfactory signals of the animal’s presence
in the environment.

A conspicuous posture termed the ‘hunch’ was observed 16 times,
twice in females, the others in yearling and adult males. The animal
hunched its back and arched its neck down, sometimes with the nose
merely pointing forward but often with it perpendicular and almost
touching the ground or pointing back between the legs. The ears were
laid back, and the animal walked or trotted with a stiff gait, the legs
bunched beneath the body. This display is strikingly similar to one
_ described by Geist (1965) in the mountain goat : ‘ The male erects itself
by stretching front and hind legs until they are straight and stiltlike.
The back is arched upwards ; the belly is drawn in ; the neck is arched
down...’ Occasionally a tahr displayed in no particular circumstance
or it briefly combined the behaviour with other patterns. One dark
brown male, for example, separated by 60 m. from the herd, hunched

384. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

his back, then rubbed his horns in a shrub. The hunch is also seen
during interactions between males. Once two light brown males met
on a narrow ledge. Each arched its back before pushing gently with
the shoulders. On other occasions a light brown male approached a
yearling male in a hunch before they butted head-on, and two yearling
males walked parallel and 5 m. apart in a hunch after fighting. One
dark brown male approached a reclining saddleback with his back
arched. The saddleback rose and walked broadside slowly past the
other male in a hunch, displaying his striking profile. The hunch makes
the animal conspicuous, and it may be hypothesized that it serves to
intimidate an opponent, that it is a substitute for fighting, similar to the
displays described in numerous other hoofed animals (Walther 1960/61 ;
Geist 1966 ; Schaller 1967). |

Paleontologists suggest that the caprids evolved from rupicaprids
of which the American mountain goat and serow (Capricornis suma-
traensis) are living examples. The tahr appear to be a link in many
physical characters between the two groups, as Geist (in press) has
pointed out, and various aspects of their agonistic behaviour are thus of
interest when compared with Capra on the one hand and with the rupi-
caprids on the other. ‘ Mountain goats do not fight head to head...’
(Geist 1964), but tahr and Capra ibex (Nievergelt 1967) do so. On the
other hand, the distinctive shoulder push of the tahr has not been des-
cribed for Capra, although feral goats push with shoulders and hips
when standing parallel (Geist, pers. comm.), but mountain goats possess
an analogous pattern in which they circle and jab the opponent around
the ventral region. Tahr also rear up on their hindlegs, a typical method
of fighting in such goats as Capra ibex (Walther 1960/6la) and Capra
falconeri (Roberts 1969). This behaviour does not occur in the moun-
tain goat (Geist 1964). Lateral displays of one form or another are
found in antelopes, deer, gaur, and other hoofed animals on such diverse
groups that the pattern is undoubtedly an old one in the evolution of
aggression (Geist 1966). Capra ibex and Capra falconeri, too, show a
lateral display (Walther 1960/1961b), although it is not well-developed, |
possibly because the large horns of these species have assumed the dis-
play function. The hunch of the tahr is so similar to the lateral display
of the mountain goat that it suggests a rupicaprid origin. The Nilgiri
tahr thus retain-a number of distinct aggressive patterns which reflect
their ancestry. Their method of butting is characteristic of sheep and
goats in general, their pushing and hooking into the posterior part of
the opponent as well as their lateral display point to a rupicaprid relation-
ship, and their distinct way of rearing up is a typical caprid trait.

Anti-predator behaviour. Although I did not see tahr respond to
predators, some of their reactions to my presence were probably typical

OBSERVATIONS ON THE NILGIRI TAHR 385

of their anti-predator behaviour in general. The preferred habitat of
the tahr, the cliffs broken by grassy ledges, affords the animals protec-
tion from predators and it was probably for this reason that they were
usually found near precipices and that their behaviour was oriented to-
ward them. Mixed herds were encountered 44 times and 36 of these
were on or within 0°5 km. of the cliffs bordering the Nilgiri and Hamilton’s
plateaus. Of the remaining 8 herds, 5 were on inland cliffs and only 3
were more than 0°5 km. from a precipice. Solitary males and male
herds, too, frequented the vicinity of cliffs although they ventured inland
more readily than did mixed herds. During one census, 14 out of 29
males seen singly and in groups that day were over 0°5 km. from a cliff,
and on another day a herd of 12 rested on a gentle slope some 1°5 km.
from the escarpment. Animals disturbed by man characteristically
bunched up and ran to the nearest cliff. On three occasions, however,
tahr left the protection of a cliff and fled across rolling terrain for two or
more kilometres. While tahr on a cliff quickly detected the approach of
a person below them, they were less alert to potential danger from above
and it was often possible to creep close to them in that fashion.

‘A sentinel is invariably posted to watch over the slumber of the
herd...” (Fletcher 1911), and Kinloch (1926) and others made similar
statements. The ‘sentinel’ is usually said to be a female. In 7 out of
24 resting mixed herds observed, one animal (5 females, 2 saddlebacks)
stood or reclined conspicuously above the others and would have fitted
the popular definition of sentinel. However, such animals achieved their
isolated position usually by accident rather than choice. On two occa-
sions a female reclined while the herd continued to graze. The other
animals passed and finally rested on the slope below leaving a ‘ sentinel ’.
Of course, an animal in a prominent position is more likely to spot a
potential source of danger before the others and it thus functions as a
sentinel without the need to imply that the behaviour is purposeful.
The general restlessness of herds also helped them to detect danger.
With one or another animal almost constantly shifting position or grazing,
it would have been difficult for a predator to approach undetected.
Although tahr seemed to have good eyesight they used their acute sense
of smell rather than vision to detect danger in most instances, and even
if the source was clearly visible they sometimes verified it by scent before
responding with flight. The animals often smelled me downwind at
distances of from 200 to 300 m. On the other hand, I crept upwind on
several occasions to within 10 m. of them while they were out of sight
below the rim of a precipice, and once I walked slowly in full view to
within 20 m. of aresting saddleback before the wind shifted and he scen-
ted me. On another occasion, 15 tahr came to within 20 m. of me as I
reclined on an open slope. At first they whistled and stamped their

386 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

feet, but after several minutes some lay down and chewed cud seemingly
oblivious to me. After 30 minutes the wind shifted and they bolted.

Tahr communicated the presence of danger to others by sound and
by several gestures. If danger was imminent or obvious, tahr merely
fled, an action which elicited similar behaviour in the rest of the herd.
The alert posture with body held rigid as the animal stared with raised
neck in a certain direction drew the attention of the others and they too
then looked there. In addition two auditory signals enhanced the alert
posture. One was foot-stamping. The tahr stamped a forefoot on
the ground with a thump one or more times. Once a female leaped into
the air several times in succession on the same spot and brought both
forefeet down in unison after she detected me 50m.away. A conspicuous
signal was the whistle, described by Hamilton (1892) and others, a pier-
cing sound made by expelling the air forcefully through the nostrils.
Whistling was prevalent when tahr detected danger but seemed uncer-
tain about its nature or location. Tahr seldom whistled after seeing or
smelling me clearly, but they occasionally did so after a glimpse of me,
particularly if I was upwind. Usually one or two members of a herd
whistled in a particular situation. One saddleback, after detecting my
presence 30 m. away in fog, gave 4 whistling snorts, sounds which seemed
intermediate between the aggressive snort and the whistle. If one animal
whistled, the others jerked to attention. For example, 33 tahr fled
30 m., looked around, then resumed grazing after one animal whistled
once. On another occasion, 104 tahr rested on a slope. When one
whistled, two-thirds of the animals leaped up. Members of one herd
briefly looked around when hearing the alarm bark of a sambar nearby,
but they did not respond to the 4 deer that walked through the herd,
passing within 2 m. of some tahr, a few minutes later.

CONSERVATION

With possibly fewer than 1500 tahr in existence, 800 of them in two
restricted localities, the species is in obvious danger of extinction. What
can be done to insure its survival in the wild? Sometime in the future
it would be desirable to stock tahr in the ranges once occupied by them,
for, considering the slow and erratic rate of natural dispersal among
wild goats under ideal conditions, it seems unlikely that tahr will re-
colonize their former habitats much today. But for the present, the
most urgent task is the preservation of existing herds. The tahr in the
Nilgiris, confined to a narrow strip of land along the western escarpment,
have lost most of their habitat to forest plantations. Only the hills
south of Bangitappal remain relatively undisturbed, and it would be
commendable if the Tamil Nadu Forest Department reserved this road-

OBSERVATIONS ON THE NILGIRI TAHR 387

less area not only for the animals but also for visitors to enjoy. Roads
have been or are being built into most parts of the tahr’s range making
access easy. Constant vigilance must be maintained to prevent poach-
ing both by labourers in the plantations and hunters from the towns.

The Eravikulam Reserve in the High Range is a magnificent piece of
hill country, an area which in some future year would make an excellent
national park for those who like to hike, fish, and observe wildlife. The
tahr there have for many years been managed well by the High Range
Game Preservation Association, and it would obviously benefit the
species to have this organization continue with its jurisdiction over the
area.

The tahr is still shot on licence as a game animal in the Nilgiris and
on special permission from the owners in the High Range. It might be
argued that such a rare animal should be fully protected. However,
as Davidar (1963b, 1968) has pointed out, the number of animals shot
is negligible and to eliminate such hunting would actually be detrimen-
tal to the tahr. The animals survive in the Nilgiris and High Range
only because the local wildlife associations have protected them for
years for sporting purposes. In areas where tahr have not had the
benefit of such private initiative, where they have had to rely solely on
the protection afforded by the state government, they have either been
wiped out or reduced to a few scattered herds. The revoking of shoot-
ing rights would eliminate whatever interest the wildlife associations
have in the animal and the resulting increase in poaching and habitat
destruction might well tip the balance of the species from tenuous security
to extinction.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My visit to south India was sponsored by the New York Zoological
Society. The Bombay Natural History Society, particularly Mr. J. C.
Daniel, helped me in various ways. In south India I was particularly
grateful to Mr. E. R. C. Davidar and Mr. J. C. Gouldsbury both of
whom shared their extensive knowledge of tahr with me, received me
most hospitably, and in general helped to make my visit rewarding and
enjoyable. The Kanan Devan Hills Produce Company and the High
Range Game Preservation Association generously permitted me to stay
in their bungalow in the Eravikulam Reserve, and the Tamil Nadu
Forest Department and Nilgiri Wildlife Association allowed me to visit
the tahr in the Nilgiris. Dr. V. Geist kindly read the manuscript
critically,

388 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

REFERENCES

ANDERSON, J. & HENDERSON, J. (1961) :
Himalayan tahr in New Zealand. New
Zealand Deerstalkers’ Ass. Special Publ.
No. 2.

‘AN OLD SHIKARRI,’ (1880): Nilgiri
sporting reminiscences. Higginbotham
and Co., Madras.

BASSETT, T. (1964) : A visit to the High

Range, Kerala. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 61(2) : 431-432.
BLANFORD, W. (1888-91): The fauna

of British India.
London.

Brown, L. (1960): Wild life in some
areas of South India. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 57(2) : 403-408.

BURRARD, G. (1925): Big game hunt-
ing in the Himalayas and Tibet. H.
Jenkins, London.

CAUGHLEY, G. (1965): Horn rings
and tooth eruption as criteria of age in
the Himalayan tahr, HMemitragus jem-
lahicus. New Zealand J. Science 8(3):

333-351.
(1966): Mortality patterns
in mammals. Ecology. 47(6): 906-918.

DavipaRr, E. R. C. (1963a) : Honorary
superintendent’s report (Nilgiri Wild Life
Association). 2 pp. mimeo.

— (1963b): Census of the
Nilgiritahr Hemitragus hylocrius (Ogilby)
in the Nilgiris. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 60(1) : 251-252.

— (1968): The Nilgiri Wild
Life Association and status of wild life
in the Nilgiris. ibid. 65(2) : 431-443.

Fiscuer, C. (1915): The Nilgiri wild
goat (Hemitragus hylocrius Jerdon).
ibid. 24(1) : 189.

FISHER, J., SIMON, N. & VINCENT, J.
(1969) : The Red Book. Collins, London.

FITTER, R. (1968): Vanishing wild
animals of the world. Franklin Watts.
New York.

FLETCHER, F. (1911): Sport on the
Nilgiris and in Wynaad. Macmillan,
London.

*‘ GARHWALI’ (1911) : Seventeen years’
shikar in the Himalayas. The Asian.
Sept. 28, Dec. 16.

Geist, V. (1964): On the rutting
behaviour of the mountain goat. J.

Taylor & Francis,

Mammal. 45(4): 551-568.

(1966): The evolution of
horn-like organs. Behaviour. 27(3-4):
175-214.

(1968): On the interrela-

tion of external appearance, social be-
haviour and social structure of mountain
sheep. Z.f. Tierpsych. 25 : 199-215.

(in press) : Mountain sheep :
a study in behaviour and of evolution.
University of Chicago Press, Chicago,

S

Records of
R. H. Porter,

HAMILTON, D. (1892):
sport in Southern India.
London. ;

* HAWKEYE.’ (1881): Game. Higgin-
botham and Co., Madras.

HORNADAY, W. (1885): Two years
in the jungle. Kegan Paul, Trench and
Co., London.

Hutton, A. (1947): The Nilgiri tahr
(Hemitragus hylocrius). J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 47(2) : 374-376.

JEYADEV, T. (no d.): Working plan
for the Nilgiris Forest Division for the
period Ist April 1954 to 31st March
1964. Forest Department, Madras.

KINLocH, A. (1926): The Nilgiri tahr
(Hemitragus hylocrius). J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 31(2) : 520-521.

KLINGEL, H. (1967): Soziale Organi-
sation und Verhalten freilebender Step-
penzebras. Z. f. Tierpsych. 24 : 580-624.

LYDEKKER, R. (1898): Wild oxen,

sheep, and goats of all lands. Rowland
Ward, London. -
NIEVERGELT, B. (1967): Die Zusam-

mensetzung der Gruppen beim Alpens-

teinbock. Z. f. Saugetierkunde. 32(3):
129-144.

PHYTHIAN-ADAMS, E. (1927): Game
preservation in the Nilgiris. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 32(2): 339-343.

——— (1939): The Nilgiris Game
Association—1879-1939. ibid. 41(2):
384-396. 3

—— (1950): Jungie memories,
Part VII. ibid. 49(3) : 418-426.

PoLLock, A. (1894): Sporting days in
Southern India. Horace Cox, London.

PRATER, S. (1965): The book of
Indian animals. Bombay Natural History
Society, Bombay.

RosertTs, T. J. (1967) : A note on Capra
hircus blythi Hume, 1875. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 64(2) : 358-365.

—— (1969): A note on Capra
falconeri (Wagner, 1839). Z. f. Sduge-
tierkunde. 34(4): 238-249.

RUSSELL, C. (1900): Bullet and shot
in Indian forest, plain and hill. W.
Thacker and Co., London.

SCHALLER, G. (1967): The deer and
the tiger. University of Chicago Press,
Chicago.

SHAKESPEAR, H. (1862): The wild
sports of India. Smith, Elder and Co.,
London.

STERNDALE, R. (1884): Natural his-
tory of the mammalia of India and
Ceylon. Thacker, Spink and _ Co.,
Calcutta.

STOCKLEY, C. (1928) : Big game shoot-
ing in the Indian Empire. Constable
and Co., London,

OBSERVATIONS ON

STRUHSAKER, T. (1967) : Behaviour of
elk (Cervus canadensis) during the rut.
Z. f. Tierpsych. 24 : 80-114.

THURSTON, E. (1909) : Castes and tribes
of Southern India. Government Press,

Madras.

THYAGARAJAN, M. (1958) : The vanish-
ing ibex. Indian Forester. 84(3):
188-191.

WALTHER, F. (1960/6la): Entwick-
lungszige in Kampf—und Paarungs-
verhalten der Horntiere. Jahrbuch G.

THE NILGIRI TAHR 389
v. Opel-Freigehege. 3: 90-115.
WALTHER, F. (1960/61b): Einige

Verhaltensbeobachtungen am_ Bergwild
des Georg von Opel-Freigeheges. ibid.

3: 53-88.

(1965): Verhaltensstudien
an der Grantgazelle (Gazella_ granti
Brooke, 1872) im Ngorongoro-Krater.
Z. f. Tierpsych. 22(2) : 167-208.

WILLET, J. (1968): The Nilgiri tahr,
Hemitragus hylocrius Ogilby. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 65(3) : 769-771.

Genetic-evolutionary studies on
cultivated Cannas

VII: Taxonomic treatment and horticultural
classification

BY

IvA MUKHERJEE AND T. N. KHOSHOO
National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow, India

(With eleven figures)

In order to evaluate the garden cannas taxonomically, their characters
were Charted against those of the elemental species. It became clear that
the cultivars neither resolve round a pattern of their own nor around any of
the elemental species. As expected they show an intricate mixture of charac-
ters of different elemental species, and together constitute a ‘syngameon’.
Accordingly, more for an utilitarian and routine horticultural purpose all
the garden cultivars need to be included in two synthetic hybrid species,
C. X generalis Bailey and C. X orchiodes Bailey. Such a treatment is not
only sound taxo-genetically, but also avoids inordinately long names that
the two synthetic species are expected to get under international rules of
nomenclature for cultivated plants. Indian cultivars of canna have been
classified horticulturally more to fulfil a purpose in the garden than to stress
discrete botanical differences of qualitative character which are in fact want-
ing in the cultivars.

INTRODUCTION

From an analysis of phenotypic variation, breeding, pollination and
meiotic systems and parallelism between natural and induced mutations
(Mukherjee & Khoshoo 1970 a-d; Khoshoo & Mukherjee 1970a), a
reasonably well integrated and coherent picture of the origin and evolu-
tion of the ornamental cannas has emerged (Khoshoo & Mukherjee
1970b). The variation pattern thus unravelled needs to be expressed
in the traditional taxonomic units so as to express genetic relationships
as accurately as possible. Furthermore, the cultivars of ornamental
cannas grown in Indian gardens need to be horticulturally classified to
fulfil a purpose in the garden rather than stress discrete botanical
differences, "

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 67 (3)

Mukherjee & Khoshoo: Cultivated Cannas

Elemental species of ornamental Cannas.

mig. 1. C. glauca Linn. ; Fig. 2. C. indica Linn. ; Fig. 3. C. iridiflora Ruiz & Pav. ;
Fig. 4. C. warscewiczii A. Dietr. ; Fig. 5. C. flaccida Salisb.

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 67 (3)
Mukherjee & Khoshoo : Cultivated Cannas

Horticultural classification of canna cultivars.

Fig. 7. Self coloured, Pink Satin; Fig. 8. Bicoloured, Prince of Wales; Fig. 9.
Spotted, Queen Elizabeth; Fig. 10. Blotched, Rajaji; Fig. 11. Margined, Star of
India.

GENETIC-EVOLUTIONARY STUDIES ON CANNAS 391

TAXONOMIC TREATMENT

It is adequately clear that ornamental cannas have arisen from the
five different elemental species, namely C. glauca Linn. (Fig. 1), C. indica
Linn. (Fig. 2), C. iridiflora Ruiz & Pav. (Fig. 3), C. warscwiczii A. Dietr.
(Fig. 4) and C. flaccida Salisb. (Fig. 5), ail belonging to the Subgenus
Canna, Sect. Trialatae and Subsect. Glaucae, Coccineae (or Indicae),
Elatae and Achirida (Kranzlin 1912). The variation pattern of these
botanical species was charted using such characters of rhizome, leaf,
inflorescence and flower upon which their taxonomic delimitation is
based. Against this background characters of 45 well recognised cul-
tivars of ornamental cannas were also charted (Fig. 6).

As is evident from the scatter diagram, no discrete groups of culti-
vars bound by some common qualitative character combinations are
recognizable. In other words, the cultivars neither resolve round a
pattern of their own, nor around any of the basal species, but most of
them have height less than 150 cm., length/breadth ratio of leaf ranging
from 1°5 to 3 and have an intricate mixture of characters of different
elemental species which is the result of extensive hybridization associated
with their origin (Khoshoo & Mukherjee 1970b). Most of the cultivars
represent, what may be called, ‘macro-recombinants’. The entire
collection, except those cultivars in which C. flaccida is involved, consti-
tutes more or less a homogamic and clonal hybrid complex (sensu Grant
1953) in which different components are predominantly diploid, meioti-
cally normal and often retaining sexual mode of reproduction but always
vegetatively reproduced. The entire complex is a ‘ phylogenetic reti-
culum’ or a ‘syngameon ’ (sensu Grant 1957).

A full-fledged species more often has an ecological, morphological,
chromosomal and genetical distinctness and such a concept cannot be
applied to synthetic taxa like the ornamental cannas. In comparison to
the elemental species, the garden cannas have been much transformed
and have developed large flowers with many fancy colours at the expense
of reduction in vigour. This has happened to many cultivated plants
including ornamentals like hyacinth (Darlington, Hair & Hurcombe
1951) and pansy (Mukherjee & Khoshoo 1969). Furthermore, not much
intersterility has developed between them and their elemental species,
It is, therefore, apparent that for reasons more than one, the usual con-
cept of species cannot be applied to ornamental cannas although they
are distinguishable from the elemental species, on account of their height,
leaf length/breadth and flower size and colour.

Bailey (1947) has classified garden cannas in two species which though
apparently distinguishable (Table 1) are not always so in practice, because
of some intergrading types. Our investigations (Khoshoo & Mukherjee
1970a) have shown that C. X generalis Bailey includes Crozy cannas

392. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

which are diploid, interchange heterozygotes and autotriploids, while
C. X orchiodes Bailey includes Italian cannas derived from the crosses

320

300

C.glauca

C. indica
C.iridiflora
C.warsewiczii
C.flaccida
DIPLOIDS

ASYNAPTIC DIFLOIDS
AUTOTRIPLOIDS

260

Pee = Sa we ale

240

SEG-ALLOTRIPLOIDS
220

on Mt ie kOkOROMOROMG)

RANGE

200

160 -¢- 3
140 $-

RHI ZOME TUBEROUS
RHIZOME STOLONIFEROUS

HEIGHT (cms.)

LEAF GREEN
LEAF BRIGHT-GREEN

LEAF PURPLE

ao:
(20 $6 e J
ol | BEY.

LEAF OBLONG

LEAF BROAD-OBLONG

mn
Cd
ye
ond

LEAF ELLIPTIC

INFLORESCENCE LAX
INFLORESCENCE DENSE
INFLORESCENCE PENDULOUS
FLOWER YELLOW

FLOWER SULPHUR YELLOW
FLOWER RED

FLOWER ROSE

FLOWER SCARLET

00000666 AVVO9 G9 OO

2 3 4 )
L
LEAF RATIO Ys

Fig. 6. Scatter diagram depicting the morphological diversity in 45 garden
cultivars using important characters distinguishing the elemental species.

between C. X generalis and C. flaccida. These are asynaptic non-seeded
diploids and allo- or segmental allotriploids. All these are totally sterile
because C. flaccida appears to be at a cenospecific level with the other

GENETIC-EVOLUTIONARY STUDIES ON CANNAS 393

four species and also with Crozy cannas. The ideal situation perhaps
was to classify the cultivars around the variation pattern of the elemental

TABLE |

COMPARISON OF THE CHARACTERS OF C. X generalis AND C. X orchiodes.

Character C. X generalis Bailey C. X orchiodes Bailey
Flower
Diameter Medium to large, less than Very large, 12°5 to 21 cm.
12:5) cm:
Colour Many Bright yellow to deep red.

Striped or splashed. Not pink
or clear white.

Petals Narrow, erect or ascending Reflexed after about the first
day.

Tube About 1:25 cm. long, not About 2°5 cm. or more,
longer than sepals much longer than sepals.

Staminodia Narrow to. broad, mostly Broad and soft with flowing
erect or strongly upright, well outline, lip funnel-form at the
separated in outline base.

Cultivars Crozy, Gladiolus or French Italian, Iris, Orchid or Giant
Dwarf cannas flowered cannas.

species, but, as indicated above (see Fig. 6), this cannot be done pre-
cisely. In spite of some intergrading types, the classification of orna-
mental cannas into two synthetic ‘ horticultural ’ species as proposed by
Bailey (1947) appears to be essentially sound because it is genetically
correct, utilitarian and takes care of the mode of ancestry and the mor-
phological transformation that has taken place in the cultivars over. the
years. Since both the species are of hybrid origin, the rules of the Inter-
national Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (1961) demand
that they be designated by their parents. Following this, C. X generalis
Bailey is actually C. glauca Linn. X C. indica Linn. X C. iridiflora Ruiz
& Pav. X C. warscwiczii A. Dietr., while C. X orchiodes Bailey is (C.
glauca Linn. X C. indica Linn. X C. iridiflora Ruiz & Pav. X C. warsc-
wiczii A.Dietr.) X C. flaccida Salisb. In view of such long and cumber-
some names it may be useful to designate the two synthetic species simply
as C. X generalis Bailey and C. X orchiodes Bailey. Of course, such a
treatment is good more for the routine horticultural, than for taxo-
genetic purposes.

This procedure has also been followed in the case of several orna-
mentals like Verbena X hybrida Voss. (V. chamaedryfolia X V. phlogi-
flora X V. incisa X V. teucrioides ; Bailey 1909), Viola X wittrokiana
Gams (V. tricolor X V. lutea; Mukherjee & Khoshoo 1970), Petunia X
hybrida Hort. (P. axillaris X P. violacea ; Bailey 1947), etc. all of which
are of hybrid origin having been developed by man for purposes of
ornamental novelty.

394. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

HORTICULTURAL CLASSIFICATION

The flowers of most of the botanical species of Canna are too small
to make an effective floral display. The notable exception is the night
flowering C. flaccida. However, garden cannas flower almost throughout
the year and have a good deal of variability that has emerged from the
extensive interbreeding with the result they can no longer be classified
by the characters distinguishing the five elemental species involved in
their origin. Furthermore, a horticultural classification is not intended
to stress botanical differences but to resolve cultivars into convenient
groups to fulfil a purpose in the garden.

Depending upon the origin of garden cannas, horticulturists recog-
nize two groups : Crozy, Gladiolus or French Dwarf cannas and Giant,
Orchid, Iris or Italian cannas. The former have a relatively dwarf
habit, dense inflorescences and a wide range of colour in flowers in com- |
parison to the latter which are bigger in size with larger flowers in fewer
colours. Percy Lancaster (1957) increased the number of such groups
to six, namely Normal, Dreadnought, Pygmy, Bouquet, Miniature or
Hyacinth flowered and Candelabra. However, his classification does
not take care of all the heterogeneity that exists in cannas which, because
of the considerable variability in size and colour, suits almost all tastes
and situations. Since flowers are not sufficiently durable, garden cannas
are not good as cut flowers. However, they are very useful in different
formal and informal schemes ranging from an ideal bedding plant for
landscaping public parks for bold mass effect, to planting them singly
or in very small clumps in a hardy border or amongst shrubbery (Bailey
1909 ; Buckley 1968). Therefore, height is one of the important con-
siderations, as taller varieties (80-150 cm.) are selected for back rows
or as centre pieces in circular beds and dwarf varieties (50-80 cm.) for
the front rows of a border ora bed. Next to height, the colour of foliage,
whether green or purple, is also effective. Finally, the colour and size
of flowers is very important and offers considerable range. Five cate-
gories are recognizable. These are : Selfs which have the same colour
in all petaloid staminodia (Fig. 7), Bicoloured with a different colour
in the lip or inner staminodium (Fig. 8), Spotted (Fig. 9), Blotched
(Fig. 10) and Margined where margins of staminodia are of a different
colour (Fig. 11). Based on the width of staminodia, cultivars can be
classified into two groups: Broad (5 to 7 cm.) and Narrow (3 to 5cm.)

A classification taking care of most of these characters was first sug-
gested in Gardener’s Chronicle (Anonymous 1893), later adopted by Bailey
(1909) and is still by far the best. Using this, important canna cultivars
grown in India have been classified here for the first time. As is the case
in most other ornamentals, in garden cannas also there exist too many
horticultural names. The obvious reason is that from time to time

GENETIC-EVOLUTIONARY STUDIES ON CANNAS 395

horticulturists have given new fancy names to the original varieties
perhaps to boost their sales.

With the help of Mr. S. Percy Lancaster, a veteran horticulturist of
India, attempts were made to check the names, as far as possible. Most
of the cultivars with unfamiliar names are generally the hybrids raised
by his father Mr. Percy Joseph Lancaster between 1889 and 1904 and by
him at the (Royal) Agri-Horticultural Society, Alipore, Calcutta (Khoshoo
1966).

A. C. X GENERALIS Bailey (cRozy, GLADIOLUS or FRENCH DWARF CANNAS)

I. Tall varieties (80-160 cm).
1. FOLIAGE GREEN
(i) Narrow Staminodia (3 to 5 cm.)
(a) Self coloured :
‘Aida’, ‘Electra’, ‘Sir John Anderson’, ‘ Ariel’, ‘ The Queen’,
‘ Nerissa ’, ‘ City of Portland ’, ‘ Oriole’, ‘ Mamie ’, ‘ Excelsior’.
(6) Bicoloured :
Primary hybrid II, * Doris’, ‘ King Alfred ’, ‘ Sangri La ’, ‘ Eureka ’,
‘Charmion ’, ‘ Prince Philip ’, ‘ Sirius’, ‘ Dainty Maid ’, ‘ Lorelei 2
‘ Anarkali’.
(c) Spotted :
Primary hybrid IV, ‘ Goldilocks’, ‘Arjun’, ‘Queen Elizabeth’,
‘Fair Maid’, ‘ Colette’, ‘ Edith ’, ‘ Claire’.
(d) Blotched :
‘Dragon’s Tongue’, ‘ Matchless’.
(e) Margined :
Primary hybrid I, ‘ Aristrocrat’, ‘Orange King’, ‘Queen Mab’.
(ii) Broad staminodia (5 to 7 cm.)
(a) Self coloured :
‘Plume’, ‘ Pink Satin ’, ‘ Alison’, cv. 204, ‘ Lord Reading ’, ‘ Gloria ’,
‘Diana’, ‘ Afler Glow ’, ‘ Florence’.
(b) Bicoloured :
‘President’, ‘Cherub’, ‘ Olive’, ‘Dream’, ‘ Isobel’.
(c) Spotted :
‘Percy Lancaster’, ‘ Goliath’, ‘ Jehangir’.
(d) Blotched :
‘Daphne’.
(e) Margined :

cv. 153, ‘ Rosamund Coles’, ‘ Louis Cayeux ’, ‘ Yellow Gal’, ‘ Car-
mine King’.

396 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

2. FOLIAGE PURPLE
(i) Narrow staminodia (3 to 5 cm.)
(a) Self coloured :
Primary hybrid III, ‘ Bridal Veil’, ‘Ai Petzi’, ‘Brocade’, ‘ Lord
Buddha’.

(b) Bicoloured :
‘Barbara’; * Julia 2:

(c) Blotched :
‘ Rajaji’, ‘Bo Peep’.

(ii) Broad staminodia (5 to 7 cm.)
Self coloured :
‘Sun Set’, ‘ Stromboli’, ‘ Atom bomb’, ‘ Raj Mahal’.

Il. Dwarf varieties (50 to 80 cm.)
1. FOLIAGE GREEN
(i) Narrow Staminodia (3 to 5 cm.)
(a) Self coloured :
‘ Janet’, ‘ Professor Thacker’, ‘ Soldier Boy ’, cv. 3, ‘ Perfection’,
‘Golden Standard’.

(b) Bicoloured :
‘Imperator’, ‘ Sweet Heart’, ‘ Morning Glow ’.
(c) Spotted :
‘Gladiator’, ‘ Louise’, ‘ Ethel’, ‘ Heart’s Desire’, ‘ Aileen ’.
(d) Blotched :
‘Striped Queen’.
(e) Margined :
cy. 196, ‘ Star of India’, ‘ Masterpiece’.
(ii) Broad Staminodia (5 to 7 cm.)
(a) Self coloured :
‘Sans Souci’.

(b) Bicoloured :
‘Enchantress’, ‘ Angel’s Robe’.
2. FOLIAGE PURPLE
(i) Broad Staminodia.
Self coloured :
‘Black Knight’, ‘ Aga Khan’, ‘ Rose Queen’.

B. C. X ORCHIODES Bailey (ITALIAN, IRIS, ORCHID Of GIANT FLOWERED CANNAS)

I. Tall varieties (80-160 cm.)
1. FOLIAGE GREEN
(ii) Broad Staminodia
(a) Self coloured :
‘Bharat ’, ‘ Wintzer’s Colossal’, *‘ Indiana’.

GENETIC-EVOLUTIONARY STUDIES ON CANNAS 397

(b) Bicoloured :

‘New Red’, ‘ Flaccida-type’.

(c) ‘Spotted :
‘Queen of Italy’.

ll. Dwarf varieties (50-80 cm.)
1. FOLIAGE GREEN

(i) Narrow Staminodia (3 to 5 cm.)

(a) Self coloured :
‘Trinacria Variegata’.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Our thanks are due to Mr. S. Percy Lancaster, ex-Senior Technical
Assistant for help with the names of the cultivars, to Director, Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kew, for lending authentic herbarium material of the
five elemental species and to Mr. A. K. Sen Gupta and Mr. 'S. S. Rana

for preparing the illustrations.

REFERENCES

ANONYMOUS (1893) : The florists’ can-
nas. Gdnr’s. Chron. Oct., 7 : 432.

Bamey, L. H. (1909): Cyclopedia of
American Horticulture. Macmillan
Company, New York.

——— (1947): Manual of culti-
vated Plants. Macmillan Company, New
York. Son

BuckLey, A. R. (1968): Majestic
Cannas. Gdnr’s. Chron. March, 15 : 163.

DARLINGTON, C. D., Harr, J. B. &
Hurcomse, R. (1951): The History of
the Garden Hyacinths. Heredity 5:
233-252. ms

GRANT, V. (1953) : The role of hybridi-

zation in the evolution of the leafy
stemmed gilias. Evolution7 : 51-64.
— (1957): The plant species in
theory and practice. The species prob-
lem, E. Mayr. Ed. Amer. Assoc. Adv.
Publ. 50 : 39-79.

KuosHoo, T. N. (1966): Percy Lan-
casters—Doyens in Indian Horticulture.
Indian Hort. 10: 13-14.

KuosHoo, T. N. & MUKHERJEE, I.
(1970a) : Genetic-evolutionary studies on
cultivated Cannas. III: Variation in
Meiotic system. La Cellule. (In Press).

KuHosHoo, T. N. & MUKHERJEE, I
(1970b) : Genetic-evolutionary studies on
cultivated Cannas, VI: Origin and evo-
lution. Theoret. Appl. Genet. 40:
204-217.

MUKHERJEE, I. & KHoSHOO, T. N.
(1969): The origin and evolution of
gardenpansy. The Nucleus. 12 : 178-186.

———— (1970a): Genetic-evolu-
tionary studies on cultivated Cannas.
I: Variation in phenotype. Proc. nat.
Inst. Sci. 36B. (In Press).

(1970b): Genetic-evolu-
tionary studies on cultivated Cannas.
II: Pollination mechanism and_ breed-
ing system. ibid. (In Press).

(1970c): Genetic-evolu-

tionary studies on cultivated Cannas.
IV: Parallelism between natural and
induced somatic mutations. Rad. Bot.
10 : 351-364.
— (1970d): Genetic-evolu-
tionary studies on cultivated Cannas.
V. Intraspecific polyploidy in starch
yielding Canna edulis. Genet. Iber. (In
Press).

Percy LANCASTER, S. (1957): Canna.
Bull. nat. Bot. Gdns. Lucknow. No. 3.

Analogous Bioclimates and
introduction of Economic Exotics

BY

V. M. MEHER-HOoMII
Institut Francais, Pondicherry

(With nine text-figures)

The methods generally used to derive the climatic analogies are reviewed
and the results obtained by Thornthwaite’s system by previous workers are
critically analysed. The bioclimatic methods of Gaussen are developed to
establish the homoclimatic counterparts of the stations of the dry tracts of
the Indian sub-continent.

INTRODUCTION

Bioclimate may be defined as the climate in relation to life. One of
the aims of applied bioclimatology is to establish the analogous climates
of the world for the exchange of economic plants. The need for the
introduction of more food-, fruit-crops and those providing raw materials
for industries is at the moment more pressing than ever.

Although India is rich in timber species, introduction of some woods
of special quality is desirable. For instance, the wood of Ocotea
rodiaei Mex. is very uSeful in sub-marine construction as it resists the
attack of the marine worm Teredo. Ochroma lagopus Swartz. has a
very light wood used in the construction of aeroplanes. Both these
species are natives of tropical America and they may be successfully
tried in suitable parts of peninsular India. This part of the sub-con-
tinent suffers from the scarcity of conifers too ; trials of pines of S.E.
Asia and Central America (Pinus merkusii Jung., P. insularis Endle.,
P. tropicalis More., P. occidentalis Swartz., P. montezumae Lamb. etc.)
may yield encouraging results.

It is on record that an economic species has become better established
in the country of its introduction than in its indigenous area. Zanzibar
is the principal producer of the clove (followed by Penang, Madagascar
and Indonesia) though the original home of the clove tree [Eugenia
caryophyllus (Spreng.) Bullock and Harrison] is the Moluccas. The
rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis Muell) transported from S. America to
Malaysia, helped towards the unemployment problem. The local labour
being insufficient, it brought about migrations from India and China.

ANALOGOUS BIOCLIMATES 399

One can go on multiplying examples of such economic plants which may
be profitably introduced in the Indian sub-continent with its wide range
of climates (see Meher-Homji 1963).

Attempts made to derive the homoclimates may be grouped into
three categories :

(1) Physical and meteorological methods using climatic formulae,
indices and coefficients.

(2) Diagrammatic representations, examples : hydrothermic figure
(Raunkiaer 1908), clima-diagram (Chaptal 1933), agro-climate diagram
(Azzi 1954), hythergraph (Taylor 1920a, b), ombrothermic diagram
(Bagnouls & Gaussen 1953) and the modified version of the latter * klima-
diagramme ’ (Walter 1955a, b).

(3) Biological criteria to reflect the climatic analogies : (a) floris-
tic (systematic, floral elements) ; (5) ecological (hydrophyte, xerophyte
in relation to water ; megatherms, microtherms for temperature ; helio-
phyte, sciaphyte for light) ; (c) vegetational [growth-forms of Humboldt
(1805) and Grisebach (1884) ; life-forms of Raunkiaer (1908), physiog-
nomy and structure]. Of all these biological criteria, only the vegetation
types based on the characteristics of physiognomy and structure are
shown to reflect the climatic similitudes (Meher-Homji 1963).

In the first category may be cited the formulae of Transeau (1905),
Penck (1910), Koppen (1900, 1918), Lang (1920), de Martonne (1926)
and Thornthwaite (1933, 1948) among others. Only the later work
of Thornthwaite has been frequently used to derive the climatic homo-
logies; Nuttonson (1947a, b, c, 1951) has used it to seek climatic ana-
logies between parts of Asia, Europe and North America; Melwyn
Howe (1960), Kaushik et al. (1969) and Subrahmanyam & Sastry
(1969) have applied the method to establish the homoclimatic counter-
parts of certain stations of India.

COMMENTS ON RESULTS OBTAINED BY THORNTHWAITE’S METHOD

None of the above formulae have given absolutely satisfactory results
to explain the vegetation types of India (Bharucha & Shanbhag 1957;
Meher-Homji 1963, 1967).

Some analogies are Adee ble in the works of the followers of
Thornthwaite’s system.
(1) Melwyn Howe (1960) on the homoclimes within the British
Commonwealth.
~ (a) In the prehumid climate with little or no water deficiency
(Ar), certain tropical stations of India and Ceylon, Ootacamund and
Rangalla for example, are shown to have the same formula (B’, a) as
Buxton (England) and Clayoquot (British Columbia), stations having
a temperate climate.

400 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

In the opinion of this author, the altitude of Ootacamund may com-
pensate the latitude factor for the temperature, at least partly, but not
for the photoperiod.

(b) In the humid climate (Bir) with little or no water deficiency,
it is surprising to see a dry station like Karachi placed together with
Gauhati (India), Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia) and Belize (Honduras).

(c) In the arid climate (£), Jodhpur having summer rains and
Peshawar having an irregular regime of rains are classified together
(A’ a’).

(2) Kaushik et al. (1969) on the homoclimates of the arid and semi-
arid zones of India.

(a) Sri Ganganagar is equated to Dera Ismail Khan, Khushab and
Lyallpur (arid Ed, second megathermal climate A’ 2’).

However, the last two stations have 10 months dry and 257 to 266
biologically dry days. Sri Ganganagar has 11 months dry with 280
dry days and Dera Ismail Khan 12 months dry with 300 biologically
dry days, according to the classification of Bagnouls & Gaussen (1957).

Further, the ratio of the cold season (Nov. to March) precipitation
to that of the hot season (May-Sept.) is 1 : 3-4 for Sri Ganganagar and
Khushab, whereas 1:5 for Lyallpur and 1:2 for Dera Ismail Khan ;
this low ratio suggests an irregular regime for Dera Ismail Khan (62 mm.
of winter and spring rains ; 137 mm. of summer rains). For the remain-
ing stations, the ratios indicate a tropical tendency.

(b) In the third megathermal (A’ 3) type, Sirsa and Hissar (a2’)
are compared to Sibi, Multan, Montgomery, Jacobabad, Sukkur of
West Pakistan and Insalah of Algeria.

The contrasting points are:

—Hissar has an annual average rainfall of 425 mm. but Tacobabadl
Sukkur and Insalah receive less than 100 mm. and Sibi 117 mm.

—Hissar has 9 months dry with 237 biologically dry days ; except-
ing Montgomery (11 months dry), the remaining stations experience a
dryness of 12 months (with over 290 days biologically dry). Insalah
may not receive any rain certain years and is classified as true desertic
by Emberger, Gaussen et al. (1962-63) with over 355 dry days. Hissar —
on the other hand is shown as subdesertic with tropical régime.

Tropical tendency is also observed for Multan, Montgomery, Jacob-
abad and Sukkur but not for Sibi having 64 mm. of summer precipi-
tation against 59 mm. of winter and spring (irregular régime).

SE

1 Thermic amplitude i.e. the difference between the mean temperature of the hot
test and the coldest months is very low (about 4°C) for the altitudinal stations of
south India ; it is about 15°C for the stations of temperate latitude. On the other
hand, the diurnal range of temperature is very important for the tropical montane
stations.

ANALOGOUS BIOCLIMATES 401
(c) In the Ed, A’ 3, a3’ type of climate, Jodhpur, Khanpur, Las

Bela, Ormara, Hyderabad (W. Pakistan), Wadi Halfa and Bilma are
placed together.

OMBROTHERMIC DIAGRAMS

Fig.l- JOOHPUR - India, 224m,

t

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26°18 N ..7T3°OIE
ciiad ae

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ANALOGOUS BIOCLIMATES 403

As a matter of fact, Wadi Halfa (Sudan) and Bilma (W. Africa)
have a true desertic climate with 360 biologically dry days like Insalah
(Emberger, Gaussen etal. 1962-63). Ormara shows mediterranean tendency
with 117 mm. (i.e. 76% of total rainfall) in winter and spring, and just
20 mm. (13%) in summer. Jodhpur comes near Hissar—subdesertic
with tropical tendency (9 months dry, 262 dry days).

Were it not for the régime, the olive tree (Olea europaea L.) of the sub-
desertic parts of North Africa (with mediterranean climate) would thrive
in the dry parts of Rajasthan.

(d) In the fifth megathermal class (A’ 5), the analogy pointed out
between Bellary and Aden is too far fetched. Bellary has an annual
average rainfall of 509 mm. whereas Aden receives only 44 mm.

(3) Subrahmanyam & Sastry’s (1969) climatic analogues for the dry

zone of India.
(a) Nagpur is classified in the category of dry sub-humid climate

(C,) having no adequacy of moisture at any time of the year (C, d) but
Seoni situated in the vicinity of Nagpur is placed in the category of
large summer water surpluses (C,; W.). However, the total of the ave-
rage April-October rainfall is hardly about 100 mm. more for Seoni
(1278 mm., as against 1180 mm. of Nagpur).

The differences in the temperature of these months are also not marked.
At Seoni the mean monthly temperature varies from 24°C (October)
to 32°C (May) and at Nagpur from 26°5°C (Oct.) to 35°3°C (May).
Besides the vegetation in the Nagpur-Seoni tract is of the same type,—a
dry deciduous teak forest.

(b) Visakhapatnam and Coimbatore are both classified together
in the semi-arid climate (Dd, A’ 4, a’ 9), though the former has 962 mm.
of annual rainfall and 6 months dry and the latter only 590 mm. and
as many as 9 months dry.

(c) Finally, the non-recognition of distinct régimes for Trincomalee,
Jaffna of Ceylon (tropical dissymetric), Halfeka, Cyprus (Mediter-
ranean) and Cambridge, England (temperate-atlantic) in the class C, S,
(large winter water surplus) is unfortunate.

BIOCLIMATIC METHODS

One of the simplest methods to bring out analogous climates would
be to compare the curves of mean monthly precipitation and tempera-
ture of various stations on a graph. The greater the resemblance in
the graphs, the more analogous would be the climates. Some examples
are provided in Figs. 1 to 8. The similarity in the pairs of diagrams is
striking ; the diagram on the left belongs to a station of the Indian sub-
continent, that on the right is a station of another country.

404. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

These graphs are in fact the ombrothermic diagrams of Bagnouls &
Gaussen (1953). The abscissa bears January as the first month for the
stations of the northern hemisphere but July for the southern hemis-
phere. Thus the stations are rendered comparable between the two
hemispheres. The dry period is also depicted on the diagram by hatches
according to the definition of these authors that a month is dry when
its average precipitation (in mm.) is less than twice its mean tempera-
ture (in °C): P<2T. The precipitation and temperature values are
the results of the averages of several years and so of course the inter-
yearly variability which may be important in certain cases is not con-
sidered. Another disadvantage of comparison of climates by diagrams
is that only relatively few stations show a strict similarity in the preci-
pitation and temperature curves. Therefore analogy by means of diag-
rams alone is not possible and there arises the need of a classification.
Bagnouls & Gaussen’s (1957) classification of biological climates is
presented in a diagrammatic form by this author in Fig. 9. Within the
framework of this broad classification based mainly on the rhythms of
precipitation and temperature, a further climatic analogy may be reached
by resemblances in the temperature, rainfall and length of the dry season
classes.

The factor of temperature is indicated by the letter (t). Gaussen
(1949) distinguishes 6 principal classes of temperature on the basis of
the mean temperature of the coldest month (m) of the year which is a
limiting factor for the vegetation, or of the hottest month (M) of the
year. The values of the classes of temperature modified from those of
Gaussen are given below:

ty > M<10°€

tips ca 0. ats Se

5 > M=10°C. m=—S'C

ts > —5<m<0°C

[ed Oa WEG ele

ta -10=—m= 15; €

tg nu 3 lS) =m 22036

te > m>20°C. Mean annual <30°C
t, : Mean annual > 30°C

The factor of precipitation is designated by the letter ‘S’ andits values
as modified from the scale of Gaussen (l.c.) are:

S4 : > 3000 mm. of annual precipitation
Sig: 2500 to 3000 mm. of annual precipitation
Se 5; 2000: to, 2500 G3 alle 4 oe 4
Sargict 210 1500.to 2000 47; eae tind. bs

S$, = 4250/0 15008. 15 ean

ANALOGOUS BIOCLIMATES 405

Ss, : 1000 to 1250 mm. of annual precipitation

Sa rub SU tool OOO Bea se om
Sen 2 OUUtO 750. wee ey es al
Ss e250 10 S00 ee een ae x
Sere a LOU Lor 2 Oi esr are a
Se : Sele ae 2) Swern ie

The dry period is indicated by the letter ‘X’. The dryness is expressed
in number of dry months (P<2T). The values ofthe classes of ‘X’ are:

Xy : 1 month dry
Mie 12 months dry
Xo aie is +
Xo 3 : 4 ) 99
Xz > ike ieee Rs
CE Ri Geary -
X4 7 fee ee a
Mics eie .o ” »
X; ae Owens es
Depend | Onin 7

Xe : 11 to 12 months dry

In the cold climates, the frost period should also be taken into account.

Results obtained with reference to the dry tract of the Indian sub-continent

The above bioclimatic methods are applied here to bring out those
stations of the world which have climates analogous to the stations of
the dry tracts of the sub-continent (Table 1). Evidently the dry bio-
climates fall within several categories (desertic, subdesertic with tropi-
cal, mediterranean, irregular régimes ; mediterranean and tropical accen-
tuated types with 7 to 8 months dry) as may be seen in Table 1.

In the first column of this Table is presented the bioclimate accord-
ing to the biological classification of climates of Bagnouls & Gaussen
(1957) and in the second column the value of each ecological factor.
Stations and their respective countries figure in columns 3 and 4. Lati-
tude, longitude form columns 5-6. The latitude factor is of particular
interest as a representative of the photoperiod ; it may account both
for the intensity and duration of light. In the last column is presented
the vegetation type of the station according to Champion (1936) for the
stations of the Indian sub-continent and according to Schimper & Von
Faber (1935) and Dansereau (1957) for the other stations.

Stations falling within the same biological climate (or bioclimate)
imply a general analogy. Further precision is given by the values of
the temperature, precipitation and the length of the dry season classes
pointing out the degrees of similitude.

406 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

TABLE 1

BIOCLIMATES OF THE STATIONS OF THE DRY TRACTS OF THE INDIAN SUB-CONTINENT

AND STATIONS HAVING ANALOGOUS BIOCLIMATES IN THE WORLD

Value of

Bioclimate each :
ecological Stationt Country Latitude Longitude Vege-
factor tation
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
Hot desertic t, Sg Xg Nokkundi W. Pakis- 28°49’N 62°45’E Desert
with medi- tan
terranean ‘ Helwan UAR 29°52 NG 43 20d f.
tendency - Abbasia . th 30° S“N: 31° A7E Lf
(winter pa As Sal- Iraq 30° S’N 44° 3’E Semi-
rains) man desert
iiig 16 Oe Lima Peru 12° 05’S. 77° 03’W__ Desert
te Ss;5 X¢ Massaoua Erytrea 15°36’N 39° 27’E x
Hot desertic ts3;4 Ss1g Xe El Paso USA 31° 47’"N_ 106° 30’W a
with tro- ee Mendoza Argen- 32° 53’S_ 68° 50’W a
pical ten- tina
dency Fe Gilgit Kashmir 35°55’N_ 74° 23’E i
(Summer
rains)
t, Ssr6 Xe Baha- W.Pakis- 29° 24’N 71° 47’E a
walpur tan
Rs Khanpur aa 28° 39’N 70° 41’E ve
an Multan BA 30° 12’N 70° 31’E Thorn
forest
ta Se Xe Aas = 28° 17’N_ 68° 27’E Desert
a
tays-Ssig6 Xe Las Bela s 26° 14’°N_ 66° 19’E i
tips Se. Ne) OUKKUF ue 27° 47’N_ 68° 54’E .
2 Fort Mauri- 22° 41’N_ 12° 42’W -
Gouraud tania
t; OG Ne ‘Haya Tchad 18° 00’N__17° 10’W a3
Largeau
Hot desertic ts;4 Ss;¢ Xe Puerto- Argen- 43° 15'S.) 65° 22’W__ Desert
rains with- Madryn tina
out sea- 95 Las Vegas Nevada, 36° 10’N 115° 10’W ,,
sonal USA
rhythm t, Se GXeis Alice= Australia 23° 38’S 133°37’E Scrub
Springs
tz Ssr¢ Xe Metlaoui Tunisia 34°20’N 8° 22’E Desert
ne Ouled- Algeria 34°25’°N = 55° 04’E Fr
Djellal
bs Sibi W.Pakis- 29° 33’N 67° 53’E *
tan
i Panjgour ms 26° 58’N_ 64° 06’E a
wa Dera $s 31° 49’N 70° 55’E -
Ismail
Khan
“A Tucson Arizona, 32°15’N 110°57’'W _ ,,
USA
af ee Australia 30° 45’S 121° 3’E Scrub
ie
t, Ss Xg Swakop- S.W. 22° 42’S__ 14° 32’E__— Desert
mund Africa

ANALOGOUS BIOCLIMATES

407.

PT EI TEE I PTL LE ELIE EE SSE LP SE OE SLY 2 SED EE SE TPR SSE SATO,

Value of
each
Bioclimate ecological
factor
(1) (2)
te Ss Xe
tajs Se X¢
t; Ss Xe
Hot-sub- tsj4 S. Xs
desertic
with medi- tsa Se Xe
terranean
tendency ,
ty Sse Xs
ts S56 Xsre
ta Sse Xe
t, Ss a

tars Sore Xsv6
tals Ss/e Xe
ts Ss) 6 X56
Hot sub-de-
sertic with t3,4 Ss
tropical
tendency
tore Ss/ 6 »
t, Sars X;

ts S; Xs

Xs5/6

Station! Country Latitude
(3) (4) (5)
Mossa- Angola £52. 12°S

medes
Taman- Algeria 22° 50’N
rasset
Yuma Arizona, 32° 45’N
USA
Port Mauri- | 20° 56’N
Etienne ‘tania
Aden Arabia 12° 46’N
Lamba- Peru 6° 43'S
yeque
Krasno- USSR 40° 09’N
vodsk
Dalban- W.Pakis- 28° 54’N
din tan
Zahedan Iran 29° 30’N
Beer- Israel 31° 15’N
sheba
Almeria Spain 36° 50’N
Baghdad Iraq 33° 20’N
Alexan- UAR 31° 12’N
dria
Broken Australia 31°57’S
Hill
Jéricho Jordan 31°%-527Ni
O’okiep S.Africa 29° 36’S
Punta Tor- Chili 29° 5548
tuga
Ormara W. Pakis- 25° 15’N
tan
Pasni = 25° 16’N
Iranchere Iran 21° 13’°N
Souakin Sudan 19° 0O7’N
Bannu W.Pakis- 33°00’N
tan
Santa Argentina 26° 41’S
Maria
Agra India 27° 10’N
Cata- Argentina 28° 29’S
marca
Fort Tuli Rhodesia 21° 52’S
Rehoboth S.West 23° 19’S
Africa
Hissar India 29° 10’N
Lyallpur W.Pakis- 31° 26’N
tan
Khushab = 32° 18’N

Omaruru_ S. West
Africa

Longitude Vege-

(6)

12° 09’E
Se Sl B
114° 36’W
17° 03’W
45° 3’E
Toe 54°W
52,999 E
64° 26’E
60° 52’"E
34° 43’E
2° 26’W
44° 20’E
Oe our
141° 30’E
35728 E

17° 52’E
TAS 22 .W

64° 39’E

63° 28’E
60° 42’E
37° 20’E

70° 36’E

66° 40’W

78° 02’E

65° 44’W

29° 12’E
iWin Nee

65° 44’E
73° 04’E
72° 22’E

21° 35’S Jf 18° 13’E

tation ©

(7)

Desert
99°

99

99

Semi-
desert
Desert

Steppe
Scrub
Semi-
desert
Scrub

Desert
Scrub
Desert

39

Semi-
desert

Dry sub-
tropical

forest
Scrub

Thorn
forest
Scrub

Savanna
Scrub

Thorn
forest

93

Scrub

i

408

Hot

Bioclimate

(1)

desertic
without
seasonal
rhythm

each
ecological
factor

(2)

tz S; Xe

te Ssr6 Xe
tars Sa X5
tars Sals Xs

tars Ss Xs

9°
ters Ss X56
tals Ss Xs/6

99

99
tals S56 Xe

Ca

5 Sais Xs

ts Ss X516

sub- tsa S; Xs5

Value of

Sri

Station?

(3)

Gan-
ganagar
Mont-
gomery
Arequipa
Mazatlan
Kotah

Ajmer
Jaipur
Main-
puri
Jam-
nagar
Jodhpur
Barmer
Bikaner

Bhuj
El-Fasher
Hydera-
bad
Badin
Karachi
Kidal

Diourbel
Baroma

Lome

Fort
Lamy

Deesa

Bellary
Elobeid
Abécher
St. Louis
Joco-
Capelo
Dwarka

Tulear
Nouak-
chott
Khar-

toum

Roswell

Country
(4)

India

W.Pakis-
tan
Peru
Mexico
India

Sudan
W.Pakis-
tan

99
99
Sudan

Senegal
Mozam-
bique

Togo
Tchad

India

Sudan
Tchad
Senegal
Angola

India

Mada-
gascar

Mauri-
tania

Sudan

New

- Mexico,

USA

W.Pakis-
tan

Latitude

(5)

29 SN
30° 39’N

16° 22’S
235 124N
25° 11’N

26° 27'N
26°55 aN
27° 14’N
22° 29'N
26° 18’N
25° 45’N
28° O1’N
23° 15’N
137°28N
2D) 204N
24° 38’N
24° 48’N
18° 26’N
14° 50’N
16° O'S
6° O7’N
12° 10’N
24° 14’N
15° 09’N
Mere TUE i)
13° 49’N
16° O1’N
8° 48'S
22° 22'N
23° 20'S
18° O7’N

Std a3 7aN

33° 24’N

S12 9aN

Longitude

(6)

73°93 E
73° 08’E
71 33'E

-106° 25’W

TS” WE

74° 37'E
13° 0E
79° 03’E

70° 04’E

73° O1E
Ae 230
73° 18’E

69° 48’E
Dies pall Ves
68° 25/E
68° 54’E
66° 59’E

1° 227E
16° 09’W
33° 12°E

1° 14’E
14° 60’E
12° 9218
76° 51’E
25> 216E
20° 51’E

16° 30’W -

13° 1378
69° 05’E
43° 41’E
15° 56’W
32° 33°E

104° 33’W

69° 27’E

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

Vege-
tation

(7)

Desert

Thorn
forest
Desert
Scrub
Thorn
forest

Thorn
forest
Scrub
Thorn
forest
Semi-
desert
Savanna

Thorn
forest

Scrub

99 4
Savanna
9% y)

Thorn |
forest
Scrub

Semi-
desert
Desert

Steppe

Dry sub-
tropical
forest

ANALOGOUS BIOCLIMATES 409

Fane eR IRE MIN ART eh

Value of

amobim

each
Bioclimate ecological Station' Country Latitude Longitude Vege-
factor tation
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
Dry-Sub-
tsa Ss Xs516 Miran- W. Pakis- 33°57’N 70° 07’E tropical
shah tan forest
tla Ramee iow yAulis Algeria 32° 45’N 0° 35’W Semi-
Sefra desert
te eS eis Lahore W.Pakis- 31°35’N 74° 20’E Thorn
tan forest
od Peshawar 34° O1’N 71° 35’E Dry sub-
tropical
forest
~ St. Luis- Mexico 22° 9’N 101°01’W Scrub
Potosi
- Cool- Australia 30°57’S 121° 10’E xf
gardie
ts ‘Ssig Xe Phoenix Arizona, 33° 28’N 112° O’W Semi-
USA desert
tere OR OX Ghinda __ Erytrea 15° 26’N 39°07’E Scrub
ts Sars Xs Coimba- India 11°00’N 76° 58’E Thorn
tore forest
Ue aR Os Bardera Somalia 2° 30’N 42° 53’E Scrub
Mediterra- 3,4 Ssrg Xa El-Kan- Algeria 31° 13’N 32° 43’E Semi-
nean tara desert
accentua- AJ Matmata Tunisia 33° 37’N =9° 54’E_ ‘Scrub
ted
(7-8
months es Teheran Iran 35° 42’N 51° 25’E Semi-
dry) desert
“ Santa- Argentina 50° 1’S 68° 32’W_ Steppe
Cruz
ty4 Ss Xs Wana W.Pakis- 32° 18’N 69° 44’E Dry sub-
tan tropical
forest
if Dizfoul Iran 32° 25’N 48° 35’E Semi-
desert
tg) ry Ss) 6 X4) 5 Deitr-es- Syria 35° 20’N 40° 11’E Scrub
Zor
AS Kalat W.Pakis- 29°02’N 66° 35’E Dry sub-
tan tropical
forest
bo Quetta Fe 30° 10’N_ 67° O1’E es
a Chaman oe 30° 55’N_ 66° 28’E
- Fresno Califor- 36° 41’N 119° 47’W Semi-
nia, USA desert
i. Kerman Iran 30° 03’N 57° 02’E Ba
Ps Sar- Argen- 45° 35'S. 69° 4"W_ Steppe
miento tina
Tropical ts S, Xa5 Soalala Madagas- 16°04’S 45°20’E Savanna
accentua- car
ted (7-8 os Maroua Came- 10°35’N_ 14° 20’E =
months roons
dry) a Kaolack Senegal 14°02’N 16° 04’W 35
. Kayes Sudan 14° 25’N_ 11° 34’W Bs
is Pamban India 9° 16° Ni an (9015- Bs obhorn
forest
* Quixer- - Brazil 5° 12’S 39° 18’W_ Scrub

410 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

Value of
each
Bioclimate ecological Station! Country Latitude Longitude Vege-
factor tation
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
ts Sas X4 Ahmed- India 19°05’N 74°55’E Thorn
nagar forest
ae Sholapur is 17° 40’N 75° 54’E a
cs Poona re 18°°32’N-. 7351 E a
Mf Bijapur a8 16° 49°N’ 75° 43%E rs
si Gulburga a 17°21’N 76° 51’E «
i Raichur at 16° 124N 77-01 Ke
* Kurnool ie 15°50’N_ 78° 04’E ip
i Gadag a 155.250N) ge Soc “ts
A Hydera- - 17°26’ N 78°27’ E ie
bad (Dn)
ah Miraj oy 16°49’N 74°41’E ue
a Renti- eH 16° 33’N 79° 33’E Ns
chintala
5 Betioky Mada- 21° 30’S 44°26’E Scrub
gascar
ts Sars Xafs Matam Senegal 15°38’N 13°13’W Savanna
= Segou Sudan 13° 30’N_ 6° 15’W nh
bs Dohad India 22° 50’N 74°16’E Thorn
forest —
5 Rajkot Ne 22° 18’N_ 70° 50’E 55
. Veraval fe 20755° N 707228 3
a Bhav- a 21° 45°N” 72° 128
nagar
a Malegaon mn 20° 33’N_ 74° 32’E 5
- Ahmeda- i 23 024N Vai 2eore
bad
- Auranga- 19° 53’N 75° 20’E
bad
te Sas Xa5 Niamey Nigeria 13°30’N 2°06’E Savanna
Meso- thon DXaie Aligarh India 27°53’N_ 78° 04’E Thorn
tropical forest
accentuated tg Sais Xa Bulawayo Rhodesia 20°9’S 28°40’E Savanna
(7-8 months
_ dry) s Monter- Mexico 25°40’N_ 100° 18’W Scrub
rey
ip Zacatecas Xi: 22° 58’N___ 102° 19’W zB
ow | Salta Argen- 24° 47’S 65° 25’W a
tina
ta Sars Xays New India 28° 35’N 77° 12’E Thorn-
BS Delhi forest
Léon Mexico 21°7’N~ 101°41’W Scrub
t, Ss X, Mahala- Bechuana- 23°6’S 26° 40’E as
pya land
WAS She Ane Wind- S.West 22° 34S WWAi2zZe pas

hoek Africa

1The stations of the Indian sub-continent are in italics.
The Climatological Tables of Observatories in India, World Weather Records—
Smithsonian Misc. Publications and Annales des Services Météorologiques de la
France d’ Outre-Mer are the main sources of the climatic data.

ANALOGOUS BIOCLIMATES 411

It ensues from this Table 1 that the vegetation in the hot desertic
climate is predominantly of a desertic type, 30 out of 34 stations pos-
sessing this type, the remaining few having semi-desert, scrub or thorn
forest. More than half the number of stations in the hot subdesertic
climate have either thorn forest (22 stations) or its physiognomically
allied type the scrub (17 stations). The difference between thorn forest
and scrub is mainly one of the nomenclature. The remaining types
are desert, semi-desert, savanna and steppe.

In the mediterranean accentuated climate, there are 5 stations having
semi-desert, 4 having dry subtropical forest and 2 each having steppe
and scrub. In the tropical and meso-tropical accentuated type there
are 21 thorn forest stations, and 8 each of savanna and scrub. The
difference in the land-use may account for the existence of thorn forest
in India and savanna in Africa under the same bioclimate. In other
cases the soils may intervene in deciding the vegetation.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

Further work on analogous bioclimates is in progress. It is essen-
tial to recognise stable and unstable climates and the variability in the
climatic elements of the latter type where the climate of a given year
may not be comparable in rainfall amount, régime and distribution to
that derived from the figures of averages.

It may also be remembered that bioclimate is only a part of the com-
plete ecology of a species. For the introduction of exotics, a study of
the total ecological requirements of the species is indispensable. This
includes not only the edaphic factors but also the biotic ones. The
vanilla orchid (Vanilla planifolia Andrews) when planted in the Reunion
Island grew well but did not fructify naturally in the absence of the
pollinating insect from its native Central America.

In the framework of climate, the critical factor involved in deter-
mining the area of a species may not be an apparent one. For instance,
teak (Tectona grandis L.f.) has quite a broad amplitude for the rainfall
conditions : 750 to 2500 mm. of annual rainfall, length of dry season
of 4 to 8 months and mean temperature of the coldest month from 15
to over 20°C ; yet it is absent on the Coromandel coast where con-
ditions well within these amplitudes are obtained. However, the season
of occurrence of rains in this belt is quite peculiar (dissymetric) and teak
disappears from those regions of southern India where May and/or
June rains are very poor (Legris & Meher-Homji 1968).

In the distribution of sal (Shorea robusta Gaertn.) the crucial fac-
tor is the timely arrival of rains for the germination of seeds which have
a very short period of viability. Nursery practices overcome such
difficulties in artificial plantations.

412 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)
Finally, the soil factor may intervene to compensate the climate
and may result in imparting a wide distributional range to the species.
Cassia auriculata L. thrives on the black clayey cotton soils of the semi-
arid Deccan where annual rainfall is of the order of 700 mm. with 7
to 8 months dry. In the coastal region of Tamil Nadu with a more
humid climate (rainfall over 1000 mm. ; 6 months dry), C. auriculata is
encountered on the less water retentive sandy loamy soils. Soymida
febrifuga Juss. occupies wet sites (valleys) in a dry region like Sariska
in N.E. Rajasthan ; in humid tracts of Orissa and Bihar it grows on
eroded localities. In the mediterranean climate of France, the holly
oak (Quercus ilex L.) is indifferent in its edaphic requirements but in
the wetter atlantic climate it occurs only on calcareous soil which pro-
vides a dry substratum, and on warmer southern slopes.

REFERENCES

Azz, G. (1954): Ecologie agricole.
J. Balliére et fils, Paris.

BAGNOULS, F. & GAuSSEN, H. (1953):
Saison seche et régime xérothermique.
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tions végétales. t. III, vol. I, art 8, 47 p.
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(1957): Les climats biologi-
ques et leurs classification. Ann. de
Géogr. 355: 193-220.

BHARUCHA, F. R. & SHANBHAG, G. Y.
(1957) : Precipitation effectiveness in rela-
tion to the vegetation of India, Pakistan
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sity of Bombay.

CHAMPION, H. G. (1936): A prelimi-
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India and Burma. Indian For. Rec. 1:
1-286.

CHAPTAL, L. (1933): La
tation graphique des climats.
Assoc. Géogr. fr.

DANSEREAU, P. (1957) : Biogeography.
An ecological perspective. The Ronald
Press Co., New York.

DE MaArTONNE, E. (1926): Aréisme
et indice d’aridité. C.R.Acad. Sci. 182:
1395-1398.

EMBERGER, L. & GAUSSEN, H. ef al.
(1962-63): Carte bioclimatique de la
Région Méditerranéenne. Recherche
sur la zone aride, 22. Unesco, Paris;
FAO, Rome.

GAUSSEN, H. (1949): Projects pour
diverses cartes du monde au 1/1.000.000.
La carte écologique du tapis végétal.
Ann. Agron. t. 19: 78.

GRISEBACH, A. (1884): Die Vegeta-
tion der Erde. Bd. I und II. Leipzig.

Humso.tpt, A. (1805): Essai sur la
géographie des plantes. Paris.

représen-
Bull.

KAUSHIK, R. C., KAUL, R.N. & Sus-
RAHMANYAM, V. P. (1969) : Homoclimes
and introduction of trees and shrubs with
special reference to the arid and semi-
arid zone of India. Indian For. 95(5) :

283-292.

KOpPEN, W. (1900): Versuch einer
Klassification der Klimate vorsugs-
weise nach ihren Bezeihungen zur Pflan-

zenwelt. Geogr. Zeitschr. 6: 593-611 ;

657-679.

(1918) : Klassification der
klimate nach Temperature, Nieder-
schlag und Jahresverlauf. Peterm.
Mittel. 64 : 193-203 ; 243-248.

LANG, R. (1920): Verwitterung und
Bodenbuildung als Einfuhrung in die
Bodenkunde. Stuttgart, Schweizer-
bartsche verlagobuchlgd. 123 p.

Lecris, P. & MEHER-Homiyl, V. M.
(1968) : Vegetation maps of India. Symp.

Recent Adv. Trop. Ecol. 1: 32-41.
Varanasi.
MeHER-Homyl, V. M. (1963): Les

bioclimats du sub-continent Indien et
leurs types analogues dans le monde.
Trav. Sect. Sci. Tech. Inst. Fr. Pondi-
cherry, 7(1-2): 1-386.

———— (1967): On delimiting arid
and semi-arid climates of India. Indian
Geogr. J. 42: 1-6.

MELWYN Howe, G. (1960) : Homo-
climes within the British Commonwealth.
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cal crop geography of Greece and its
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ANALOGOUS

Nuttonson, M. Y. (1947b): Ecological
geography of Czechoslovakia and its
agro-climatic analogues in North
America. ibid. Study no. 3.

= (1947c) : Ecological crop
geography of China and its agro-climatic
analogues in North America. ibid.
Study no. 7.

———— (1951): Ecological crop

geography and field practices of Japan.
Japan’s natural vegetation and agro-
climatic analogues in North America.
ibid.

Penck, A. (1910): Versuch einer
klimaklassification auf physiologischer
grundlage. Sitz. Ber. Phys. Math. KI.
Preuss Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 236.

RAUNKIAER, C. (1908): Livsformens
Statistik Som Grundlag for biologisk
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SCHIMPER, A. F. W. & Von FABER,
F. C. (1935): Pflanzengeographie auf
physiologischer Grundlage. Fischer, Jena.

BIOCLIMATES 413
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zone of India. Trop. Ecol. 10(1) : 34-44.
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———— (1920b): Agricultural clima-
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THORNTHWAITE, C. W. (1933): The
climates of the earth. Geogr. Rev. 23:
433-440.

———— (1948): An approach to-
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Geogr. Rev. 38 : 55-94.

TRANSEAU, E. (1905): Forest centres
of Eastern America. The American
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WALTER, H. (1955a): Die Klima-
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tationskundliche und landwirtschaftliche
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(1955b) : Klimadiagramm-
karte der Turkei. Ulmer Vlg. Stuttgart.

Arthropod Fauna of the nests of some
common birds in Poona, India, with
special reference to blood sucking forms

BY

T. RAMACHANDRA RAO AND P. K. RAJAGOPALAN
Virus Research Centre, Poonat

A study of the arthropod fauna of the nests of six common birds of
Poona was made. The number of nests examined were : 56 Corvus splen-
dens, 35 Ploceus philippinus, 14 Acridotheres tristis, 4 Passer domesticus,
4 Hirundo concolor and one Copsychus saularis. All the arthropods
collected were classified and the frequency of their occurrence and
number collected were recorded. The blood sucking forms received |
special attention. Those collected were: Mites:—Ornithonyssus bursa,
and a new species of Pellonyssus of the family Dermanyssidae and two
species of Laelaps of the family Laelaptidae ; Ticks :—one species each
of Haemaphysalis and Argas ; Diptera :—Four species of Culicoides and
one species of Sandfly (Sergentomyia); one louse and two species of
anthocorid bugs.

The factors governing the association of these blood sucking forms
and the avian hosts are discussed. Mites were the most abundant among
the arthropods collected. While crow nests harboured both the common
species, viz. O. bursa and Pellonyssus, weaverbird nests did not, except
for a solitary specimen, have Ornithonyssus.

INTRODUCTION

It is well known that nests of birds harbour a rich and varied arthropod
fauna. Though naturalists including those in India, have often been
attracted by them there have been till recently few studies exclusively

)
:

devoted to them. Most of the observations of the fauna of bird nests ©
have been stray ones made in connection with the habits of the birds —

concerned. Woodroffe (1953) made an outstanding contribution to the |

subject by his study of the insects and mites in the nests of some birds

in Great Britain and by presenting a useful bibliography. He has also |

critically reviewed the important work of Nordberg (1936) in Finland,
which had been completely overlooked by other workers. A brief but
very informative review has also been made by Rothschild & Clay
(1952): i

While nests of birds offer to the zoologist an interesting ecological |
niche to study the inter-relationships between birds, their ectoparasites |

1 The Virus Research Centre was, jointly maintained by the Indian Council of
M edical Research and the Rockefeller Foundation at the time this study was made.

ARTHROPOD FAUNA OF BIRD NESTS 415

and other nest-inhabiting fauna, they provide the medical research workers
with a convenient place to look into for the probable arthropod vectors
of diseases of man and animals, particularly of those diseases in the epide-
miology of which birds have a role. The observations recorded in this
paper were made in the course of a wider study of the ectoparasites of
birds in connection with virological investigations in India.

The main objective of these studies was to determine the blood suck-
ing arthropods associated with birds and their fledglings within their
nests. While the other arthropods collected were also enumerated and
preserved there was neither time nor immediate necessity to embark upon
a detailed taxonomic study of allthe forms. It has however been possible
to sort out the fauna at least up to orders but in the case of blood sucking
forms the identifications have been made up to species wherever possible.
As it is believed that this is the first systematic study of its kind on the
nests of Indian birds the data collected are deemed worthy of presentation
though they may fall short of the requirements of a thorough ecological
investigation. The work was done mainly during the year 1953 and has
hitherto remained unrecorded. Subsequently nests of several species
have been examined from time to time and the findings of the previous
study generally confirmed.

The authors gratefully acknowledge the help given by Mr. B. S. Lamba
in the collection of the nests and their transportation to the laboratory.
Dr. J. A. Kerr, the then Director, and Dr. Harold N. Johnson the then
Virologist at this Centre made many useful suggestions for which thanks
are due to them.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The material consisted of 56 nests of Corvus splendens (the Common
House Crow); 35 of Ploceus philippinus (the Baya or the Common Weaver-
bird) ; 14 of Acridotheres tristis (the Common Myna) ; 4 of Passer domes-
ticus (House Sparrow) ; 4 of Hirundo concolor (the Dusky Crag Martin)

and one of Copsychus saularis (the Magpie Robin). The studies were
carried out mainly between May and November 1953 and were supple-

mented by a few observations in 1954. The nests were collected in and
around Poona City and brought to the laboratory in bags or sheets of
plastic cloth well sealed to prevent the escape of arthropods. Data
recorded for each nest included the date, the name of the tree, or a
description of the location, the number of eggs or fledglings found and their
approximate age. Ona few occasions more than one nest located on the
same tree have been handled as one nest.

On arrival at the laboratory the nests were pulled apart and processed
the same day in Berlese funnels which were specially designed for the
purpose. The funnels were made of bright new tinplate and had an upper

416 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

diameter of 18 inches and a length of 24inches. They tapered down to a
diameter of one inch at the bottom which had a stem 2 inches long
and one inch in diameter. A grid made of 1/4 inch galvanised
wire netting was fitted inside the funnel at its middle height. Over the
funnel was a 150 watt electric bulb with a polished conical reflector made
of tinplate. Three such funnels were mounted on a wooden stand.
Conical glass flasks of one litre capacity were sealed with adhesive tape
and paraffin to the stems of the funnels to receive the arthropods which
would crawl away from the nests when the light was turned on. The
apparatus was kept functioning for 24 hours but the first collecting flask
was replaced by a new one at the end of the first two hours. It was the
general experience that the vast majority of the arthropods collected by
this method were found in the flasks within the first two hours. The
arthropods were chloroformed and examined immediately after the
removal of the flasks from the funnels. All the blood sucking arthropods
were immediately separated, identified and those which could be used for
virological studies were made into pools for inoculation into mice.
Adequate samples were however retained for further identifications. The
remaining material was preserved either in spirit or mounted on slides as
found necessary.

No special descriptions of the nests are necessary as they were typical
of the nests of the birds studied. Regarding the Iccation of the nests 13
crow nests were on Banyan trees, 18 on Tamarind trees and 10 on Neem
trees and the rest on five other kinds of trees. Sixteen weaverbird nests
were on Babul trees and five on Toddy palms. Twelve myna nests were
in holes in stone road bridges or in stone walls and two in holes in trees.
All the sparrow nests were in holes in a stone bridge.

Of the 56 nests of crows, eight were deserted, 15 had one to five eggs,
two had an egg and two fledglings each and the remaining had one to four
fledglings. Among the 35 weaverbird nests, 12 were deserted, eight had
one to four eggs and the remaining one to four fledglings each. One myna
nest was deserted and 13 had one to three fledglings each. Two sparrow
nests had three fledglings each and one had three eggs each and one had
three eggs and one fledgling.

All the weaverbird nests examined contained one or more small lumps
of clay inside. This is a well known feature but there was no evidence of
any larvae of beetles being stuck into them. It may be recalled that there
is popular belief among some naturalists that the Baya uses the mud for
sticking light producing larvae of beetles.

RESULTS

The data collected are summarised in Tables 1, 2 and 3. Table1
provides information on the number of nests of each kind of bird

ARTHROPOD FAUNA OF BIRD NESTS 417

examined and the months during which they were examined. Table 2
provides information on the blood sucking arthropods collected and
Table 3 gives the data on all arthropod groups collected and the number
of times they were found.

TABLE 1

NUMBER OF BIRD NESTS EXAMINED, POONA

a 3 © 3
S < 3 = S a8
enn 2s eS 2 Sty) Pe ee eS
28 ss < 5 § = 8 Ne
5 5 S8 55 as =s R5
0 A, x A ss S)
1953
May a 7
June 28 2 ©,
July 25 5 aa
August ee sa 6 3 1
September oe 13 1 ae 3
October cite 15 ves at hy
November ie Z es ss i 1
1954
February os as Ee Fi
April 3 ae: a ys
November we 5
Total 56 35 14 4 4 1

From the point of view of sheer numbers mites, particularly parasitic
mesostigmatid mites, were the predominating group of arthropods in the
nests of all birds except the House sparrow. From the point of view of
frequency of occurrence Coleoptera and Diptera share the pride of place.
Whether numerical abundance or frequency of occurrence should be
used as the criterion for determining the dominance of any group is
generally a moot question but for the purpose of this study it seems best
to grade the groups according to both. The order of abundance of the
major groups may be represented as follows :

Nests of House Crow __ Nests of Weaverbird Nests of Myna
_ Numbers Frequency Numbers Frequency Numbers Frequency
Mites Diptera Mites Coleoptera Mites Coleoptera
Diptera Coleop- Psocop- Hemiptera Coleop- Mites
tera tera tera

Coleoptera Mites Hemiptera Mites Diptera Diptera

418 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

Hymenoptera Psocoptera Diptera Psocoptera

Psocoptera Hemip- Hymenop- Hymenoptera
tera tera

Collembola Lepidoptera
Lepidoptera Collembola

TABLE 2

BLOOD SUCKING ARTHROPODS COLLECTED IN NESTS OF THREE SPECIES OF BIRDS

Corvus Ploceus Acridotheres
Nests of splendens Philippinus tristis
Total number of nests examined 56 35 14
DIPTERA
Culicoides spp.
No. of times found .. & 34 11 2
Total found aS 198 88 3
Maximum No. found in any nest.. 47 21 2,
Sergentomyia sp.
No. of times found .. es 4
Total found - 4
Maximum No. found in any nest.. 1
HEMIPTERA
Anthocoridae
No. of times found .. at 14 De
Total found sis 73 281
Maximum No. found i in any nest.. 18 51
ACARINES
Ornithonyssus bursa
No. of times found .. ny 19 1 6
Total found a 13,742+ 1 709+
Maximum No. found i in any nest. . 10,000++ 1 400+
Pellonyssus sp.
No. of times found... - 13 29 5
Total found ee 212s 15,876+ 464+
Maximum No. found in any nest... 1500+ 10,000+ 200+
Laelaptidae
No. of times found .. ve Sg 2; yD,
Total found ae he 300+ 10
Maximum No. found i in any nest.. a 200+ 9
TICKS
Haemaphysalis sp. es ste ve 1 5
Argas sp. at 5. Wake ne 1 :

In the nests of House sparrows the most abundant group was Collem-
bola followed closely by mites.

419

ARTHROPOD FAUNA OF BIRD NESTS

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ARTHROPOD FAUNA OF BIRD NESTS 421

The blood sucking forms will be first considered in detail followed by
a general review of the fauna. The blood sucking arthropods found

were :—

Mites Dermanyssidae Ornithonyssus bursa(Berlese), Pellony-
ssus Sp. N.
Laelaptidae Laelaps spp. Two species.
Ticks Ixodidae Haemaphysalis sp. (once only).
Argasidae Argas sp. (once only).
Diptera Psychodidae Sergentomyia punjabensis (= Phle-

botomus antennatus Sinton).
Ceratopogonidae Culicoides oxystoma.

C. guttifer.

Culicoides (Trithecoides) flaviscutatus.

Wirth & Hubert 1959 (formerly
included under the Culicoides
anophelis group on the basis of
the presence of 3 spermathecae,
and subsequently the group has
been studied and a new species
established).

Culicoides sp. undet.

Anoplura Genus and species indet (once only).
Hemiptera: | Anthocoridae Blaptostethus piceus Aabr. and
(Provisionally included) Cardiastethus sp.

Ornithonyssus bursa (formerly known as Bdellonyssus bursa) is the
well known tropical fowl mite having a wide distribution in the tropics
of both eastern and western hemispheres. In and around Poona it occurs
in good numbers in coops of domestic chicken. Fonseca (1948), in his
monograph on Macronyssidae (now family Dermanyssidae) lists Gallus
domesticus, Columba livia domestica, Passer domesticus domesticus
‘Hibou’ a bird, and Homo as the recorded hosts of which Gallus and
Homo are recorded as hosts in India. Strandtmann & Wharton (1958)
add the bandicoot and ‘ hen, turkeys, wild birds and wood thrush’ to
the host list. The present study therefore adds Corvus splendens and
Acridotheres tristis to the host list for the species. Apart from the finding
of these mites in the nests they have been collected directly off the bodies
of the birds themselves.

_ It is interesting that while 19 out of 56 crow nests and six out of 14
myna nests harboured O. bursa, except for one solitary specimen this

422 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

mite was not found in any of the 35 weaverbird nests examined. Even
the solitary specimen might have been accidentally introduced. This
is remarkable considering the findings that this species is very widely
distributed in and around Poona and that weaverbird nests harbour large
numbers of another mite of the same family. The largest number found
in any nest was conservatively estimated as 10,000-+ in a crow nest
examined on June 29, 1953. Usually all the developmental stages were
found in the nests and a good proportion of adults and protonymphs
had taken fresh blood meals.

The species of Pellonyssus (formerly included under Steatonyssus)+
found in the nests seem to be a new one and is being recorded here for the
first time. It is being separately described?. Only four species of
‘ Steatonyssus’ (as understood earlier) had hitherto been recorded from
India, viz. Pellonyssus viator Hirst (=Steatonyssus viator) from Cypselus
(= Micropus) affiris, the Indian Swift, from Calcutta; Steatonyssus
javensis (Oudemans) from an unknown host, probably a bat, from
Khandala some 45 miles NW of Poona City ; Steatonyssus hubli Hire-
gaudar & Bal, from a bat, Pipistrellus ceylonensis, in the Deccan, and
Steatonyssus musculi, from a mammal (probably a bat) in Bombay
(Strandtmann & Wharton 1958). The present records of Corvus splen-
dens, Acridotheres tristis and Ploceus philippinus as hosts are new for the
genus Pellonyssus. It is significant to note that for a common species,
Pellonyssus has not been taken at any time in the coops of domestic
chicken.

Pellonyssus sp. was found in 13 crow nests, 29 weaverbird nests and
five myna nests. On two occasions it was associated with O. bursa in
crow nests and on four occasions in myna nests. It was the sole repre-
sentative (except for the solitary specimen of O. bursa mentioned above)
of Dermanyssidae in weaverbird nests. The maximum number found
in any nest was approximately 10,000-++ in a weaverbird nest examined
on October 8, 1953. This species was comparatively more numerous
than O. bursa wherever it occurred. All developmental stages were
usually found and a good proportion of adults and protonymphs were
found to have taken fresh blood meals. 7

Laelaptidae are characteristically parasites of mammals and their
occurrence in the nests of birds calls for special comment. There was
not a single specimen of this family in the nests of crows. They were
found in only two weaverbird nests collected on the same day and in two

1 The genus Pellonyssus was erected in 1956 (Claude & Yunker 1956) separating
it from Steatonyssus on the basis of differences in the shape of the female sternal plate
and the male chela. Pe/lonyssus are primarily ectoparasites of birds, and Steatonyssus
of mammals, particularly chiropterans.

2 Proposed to be named P. deccanus Rao. Thanks are due to Dr. F. Da Fonseca
of Instituto Butantan, Sao Paulo, Brazil, for pointing out that this is a new species, ~

ARTHROPOD FAUNA OF BIRD NESTS 423

myna nests. A few deserted weaverbird nests were collected on
November 5, 1954, long after the nesting season for the bird.
B. S. Lamba who collected the nests immediately noticed that one of them
contained a few young mice. The nest was brought to the laboratory
and when examined was found to contain inside a secondary nest of field
mice. Nine live young mice with a large number of mites crawling on
their bodies were taken out. The nest itself yielded about 200 mites all
of most probably Laelaps sp. Another nest collected later in the day by
one of the authors (TRR) also contained a secondary mouse nest and
though there were no live mice in it, yielded about 100 laelaptid mites.
The single myna nest from which nine laelaptids were collected was located
in a hole in a stone bridge, and had two fledglings. In all the three cases
the mites showed evidence of having taken blood meals. While in the
case of weaverbird nests one may infer that the mites had fed on mice
there was no evidence for a similar opinion in the case of the myna nest.
But the location of the myna nests was such that mice might have nor-
mally frequented them and it may be that the laelaptid mites there had been
introduced by the visiting mice. The specific identifications of the
laelaptids have not yet been made. Two species seem to be present.

Among ticks only one engorged specimen of a nymph of Haemaphy-
salis sp. was found in the nest of a weaverbird and one Argas sp. in the
nest ofacrow. Several Haemaphysalis species have been collected on birds
in and around Poona by us and therefore the finding of only one speci-
meninthenestis surprising. The specimen has not been well preserved
and specific identification is not possible. Argas spp. are not quite com-
mon round about Poona though they have been occasionally collected
in chicken houses. Several unsuccessful special searches for Argasidae
were made in the holes and crevices and under bark of trees on which
birds roost at night. The scarcity of Argasidae in the nests is therefore
not unexpected.

The Phlebotominae found consisted of only four specimens, two males
and two females, one each in four crow nests. All belong to the recum-
bent haired group of sandflies and the males have been identified as
Sergentomya punjabensis (formerly known as P. antennatus). Large
numbers of sandflies have sometimes been collected in the hollows and
crevices of trees in and around Poona, and their occurrence in the nests
may be accidental.

Culicoides spp. were the sole representatives in the nests of blood
sucking Diptera. Twenty-seven males and 171 females were found in

1 The authors are grateful to Dr. R. A. O. Smith at that time of the All India Insti-
tute of Hygiene, Calcutta, for examining representative slides and confirming the identi-
fications of Culicoides. He was of the opinion that the single specimen of the fourth
species found in a crow nest may be a new species. It has perfectly clear wings and is
unlike the only other species with clear wings described from India, C. albipinnes (now
Known as C. kamrupi).

424 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

34 crow nests, 27 males and 61 females in 11 weaverbird nests and no males
and three females in two myna nests. The species found were :

C. oxystonia in 17 crow nests and two myna nests.
C. guttifer in 16 crow nests and seven weaverbird nests.
C. flaviscutatus in one crow nest [formerly included under C.

anophelis because of the presence of three
spermathecae. Subsequently this group
has been studied and several species with
three spermathecae have been discovered.
Sen & Dasgupta (1959) have recorded 33
species of Culicoides in India].

Culicoides sp. indet.

It is noteworthy that C. oxystoma did not occur in weaverbird nests
at all. In crow nests C. oxystoma and C. guttifer were found together
on eight occasions. Many of the females had taken fresh blood meals
and though the suspicion is strong it cannot be stated that all of them had
fed on the birds in the nests.

Anthocoridae formed the majority of Hemiptera collected in the nests.
They are a cosmopolitan group of bugs some of which are well known to
occur in bird’s nests. The two forms found in the present studies were
Blaptostethes piceus and Cardiastethes sp.1 They were found in 14 crow
nests, 25 weaverbird nests. All developmental stages were found and
the maximum number found was 83 in a weaverbird nest. In general
appearance they were bright pinkish in colour and many of them had a
bright pink fluid in their abdomen. Whether it was blood or whether the
colour of the fluid was merely a secondary effect of the general coloration
of the body cannot be stated. The members of this family are mainly
predators on mites but at least one species, the cosmopolitan Lytocoris
compestris is definitely known to bite human beings and ‘suck’ blood
(Imms 1951; Rothschild & Clay 1952 ; and Woodroffe 1953). There-
fore the Anthocoridae are for the present provisionally included in the
blood sucking arthropods.

A solitary specimen of Anoplura was found in the nest of a myna
which has not yet been identified. As sucking lice are rarely, if ever,
found on birds its presence in the nest may be accidental.

1 The identification of the two species of Anthocoridae has been kindly made by
Dr. W. E. China of the British Museum. He says that Blaptostethes piceus var pal-
lescens has been recorded from Bombay and that Cardiastethes sp. may be a new species
or a small race of the European species, the Palaearctic C. fasciventris (Garbl). The
authors are most grateful to Dr. China for these comments.

ARTHROPOD FAUNA. OF BIRD NESTS 425

Arthropods other than the blood sucking forms have not been studied in
detail and only brief notes regarding each group will be given below.
The non-parasitic mites found were :—

Mesostigmata .. Uropodina ; once in myna nest and thrice in
sparrow nest. They were quite abundant
on a couple of occasions.

Fedrizzina ; once in myna nest.
Others; thrice in crow nests.

Trombidiformes .. Cheyletidae ; twice in crow nests.
Smaridiidae ; thrice in crow nests.
Others ; five times in crow nests.

Sarcoptiformes .. Tyroglyphidae ; once in crow nest.
Oribatei ; five times in crow nests, thrice in
myna nests and twice in sparrow nests.

Hydrachnellae .. Once in crow nest.
Others .. Once in weaverbird nest.

Generic identifications have not been made. Some are predators
and some scavengers attracted to the nests by the other fauna. Uro-
podina and Oribatei were the only two groups found in any appreciable
numbers.

Collembola: None was found in the weaverbird nests but some
numbers commonly found in other nests. In one sparrow nest over a
thousand were collected.

Thysanura: ‘They were rare and Lepisma sp. was the only form.

Orthoptera: They were rare but over hundred were collected from 2
sparrow nest. They were almost entirely members of the Blattidae.

Dermaptera: Forficulidae were found on two occasions in crow
nests and once in myna nest.

Psocoptera: ‘They were abundantly found in crow and weaverbird
nests.

Hemiptera: Apart from the Anthocoridae already referred to the
only other family found was Pentatomidae, in 16 crow nests and six
weaverbird nests.

Embioptera: They were rare having been found only twice in crow
nests and in a magpie-robin nest.

426 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

Lepidoptera: Adults of Microlepidoptera were found on four
occasions in crow nests. Larvae of Lepidoptera were common.

Coleoptera: They were rich both in number and variety. Both
adults and larvae were frequently found. No identifications of adults have
been made but among the larvae commonly found were Chrysomelidae,
Dermestidae, Coccinellidae and Buprestidae.

Diptera: They were quite abundant in crow nests. The majority
of the adults of Diptera other than Culicoides were members of Psycho-
didae and Chloropidae. Psychodinae occurred in 22 crow nests and two
myna nests. Chloropidae (‘Eyeflies’) were found in 14 crow nests.
Neither of these families was represented in weaverbird nests. The
larvae found mainly consisted of Muscidae, Calliphoridae and a few
Psychodidae.

Hymenoptera: They consisted mainly of ants.

Myriapoda: Only three centipedes and one millipede were found in
sparrow nests.

Arachnids other than mites and ticks : They were comparatively rare.
Pseudoscorpions occurred only in four crow nests, two myna nests and
one sparow nest. Spiders were found twice in weaverbird nests and 16
times in crow nests. One crow nest had a scorpion.

DISCUSSION

The primary objective of this study was the determination of the
blood sucking arthropods associated with the common birds in their
nests in and around Poona. It was established that two species of
dermanyssid mites, viz. Ornithonyssus bursa and Pellonyssus sp., and two
species of Culicoides, viz. C. oxystoma and C. guttifer are very frequently
associated with the birds studied. The other blood sucking arthropods ©
except the anthocorid bugs which are provisionally included among them,
were too few to merit comment.

While both the species of mites and both the species of midges men-
tioned above were found in the nests of House crows and mynas, O.
bursa and C. oxystoma were not found in the nests of weaverbirds.. This
may either be due to a real difference in the host parasite relationship or
to causes connected with the environment and habits of the birds.
Furthermore extensive studies would be needed to answer this question.

The occurrence of mites in the nests was expected but the frequent
presence of Culicoides was somewhat of a surprise. They cannot be
regarded as accidental visitors for they were present in 47 of the 112 nests

ART HROPOD FAUNA OF BIRD NESTS 427

examined. The presence of both males and females leads one to the
question whether their occurrence in the nests was merely due to the faci-
lities offered by the nest material for breeding or to a direct attraction
exerted by the birds. So little is known of the biology of this group of
midges in India that one hesitates to dwell on this question at any length.
Mention may be made in this connection of the suspected role they play
in the transmission of the virus of Blue tongue of sheep and African
horse sickness both of which have occurred in India.

The anthocorid bugs were found in 39 nests. This group has received
practically no attention from medical entomologists considering the fact
that at least one member of the family is known to suck blood and that
they are frequently found in the nests of birds. It would be worthwhile
to study their habits in greater detail and explore the possibility of their
being connected with the dissemination of disease producing organisms.

Notable for their complete absence in the nests studied were members
of Siphonaptera (fleas), Cimicidae (‘ bed-bugs’) and Hippoboscidae
(louseflies) all of which have been reported frequently as occurring in
the nest in other countries. Fleas are apparently not common para-
sites of birds in and around Poona as no flea has been collected on any
of a good number of wild birds examined (VRC unpublished data),
though Echidnophaga gallinacea has sometimes been found in chicken
houses.

Cimicidae are known to occur in the nests of some birds in India.
Reference may be made to the interesting observation by Abdulali (1942)
on the occurrence of Cimex rotundatus in the nests of swifts and terns
in the Vengurla Rocks off the southernmost coast of Bombay State.

Hippoboscid flies were quite frequently found by the authors on the
bodies of crows and mynas in and around Poona and their total absence
in the nests is noteworthy. These flies have the habit of leaving the body
of the host within a matter of seconds after the bird is knocked down by
gun shot and very quick action was usually necessary on the part of the
collector to put the knocked down bird into the collecting bag in order
to secure the flies. But in the case of nests there is no possibility of such
a quick escape of the flies as the nests were collected and secured in the
collecting bag intact. Therefore the complete absence of hippoboscid
flies in the nests would indicate that the flies do not parasitize the fledg-
lings as readily as they do the adult birds. As no pupae of the louseflies
were also found in the nests perhaps the birds become infested elsewhere.

The total absence of Mallophaga and feather mites in the nests also
calls for comment. All the species of birds examined in and around
Poona have been infested by Mallophaga and several families of feather
mites. Sometimes the infestation is quite heavy particularly in the case
of the crows. It is well known that these groups of parasites rarely

428 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

leave the bodies of the hosts but one would have expected that a few of
them would stay away from the birds and be found in the nest material.

An ecologist would like further to analyse the arthropod fauna of
nests either quantitatively to determine the constancy of occurrence and
dominance of any group and ‘ fidelity of association between the several
groups of nidicoles’ or qualitatively to classify them as ectoparasites of
birds, scavengers, predators and parasites, accidental visitors and so on.
Interesting and profitable as such studies are, the data collected in the
present investigation are not detailed enough for the purpose.

The studies were all made on nests collected during daytime. There
is no doubt that the nests are visited by several types of arthropods at
night notably by mosquitoes and sandflies. Strictly speaking they should
also be included in the lists of arthropods found in the nests, but classi-
fied as visitors rather than as regular members of the fauna.

Several pools made from mites and Culicoides found in the nests
were inoculated into mice but no pathogenic virus was isolated. Much
significance need not be attached to this negative finding as it is well
known that a virus isolation in nature would require an enormous amount
of effort at the appropriate time. Neither O. bursa nor any species of ©
Pellonyssus has yet been definitely incriminated anywhere as a vector of
any virus disease though the former has long been suspected in view of
its close association with domestic poultry. None of the pools of Culi-
coides processed have yielded any virus though their role in the epide-
miology of some virus diseases (Blue tongue, African horse sickness) is
known. Because of their association with birds they deserve more
attention than they have received hitherto. |

Mention may, however, be made here of the isolation of Sindbis virus,
from a pool of Ornithonyssus bursa collected from domestic chicken in
a place in Kanara District (formerly in Bombay State and from Novem-
ber 1956 in Mysore State) (Shah e¢ a/. 1960). The mere isolation from
arthropods does not, however, confirm its status as a vector.

REFERENCES

ABDULALI, H. (1942): The terns and
Edible-nest swifts at WVengurla, West
Coast India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
43(3) : 446-451.

CLARK, G. M. & YUNKER, C. E.
(1956): A new genus and species of
Dermanyssidae (Acarina : Mesostigmata)
from the English sparrow, with obser-
vations on its lifecycle. Proc. Helmin-
thol. Soc. Washington 23: 93-101.

FonseEcA, F. DA (1948) : A monograph
of the genera and species of Macronys-
sidae Oudemans, 1930 (Synon : Liponys-

sidae Vitzthum, -1931). Proc. Zool. Soc.
Lond. 118 (2): 249-334.

HIREGAUDAR, L. S. & BAL, D. V.
(1956) : Some ectoparasites of bats from
India. Agra Uni. J. of Res., (Science)
5(1) : 1-134.

Imus, A. D. (1951): A general text
book of Entomology. Metheun and
Co. Ltd. London.

NorDBERG, S. (1936): Biologisch-
oiklogische Untersuchungen Uber die
Vogelnidicolen. Acta Zoologica Fennica,
21, Helsingfors (In German).

ARTHROPOD FAUNA OF BIRD NESTS

KorTHSCcHILD, M. & C.ay, T. (1952):
Fleas, Flukes and Cuckoos. A study of
bird parasites. Collins. St. James Place,
London.

SEN, P. & Das Gupta, S. K. (1959) :
Studies on Indian Culicoides (Cerato-
pogonidae: Diptera). Ann. Ent. Soc.
Amer. 52: 617-630.

SHAH, K. V., JOHNSON, H. N., RAo,
T. R., RAJAGOPALAN, P. K. & LAMBA,
B. S. (1960) : Isolation of five strains of

429
Sindbis virus in India. Ind. J. Med.
Res. 48 : 300-308.

STRANDTMANN, R. W. & WHARTON,
C. V. (1958) : Manual of Mesostigmatid
mites. Contribution No. 4 of Institute
of Acarology, College Park, USA.

WooprorfFE, C. E. (1953): An eco-
logical study of the insects and mites of
certain birds in Britain. Bull. Ent. Res.
44 : 739-772.

Preliminary observations on the
natural resistance of sixty-nine Species
of Indian timber to Marine Borer
attack at Bombay

BY

L. N. SANTHAKUMARAN

Wood Preservation Centre, Central Institute of Fisheries Education,
Bombay-58

(With a text-figure)

INTRODUCTION

Destruction of timber constructions in sea water by marine wood
borers being well known and universal in occurrence, problems pertain-
ing to protection of timber in marine environments have engaged the
attention of scientists from very early times. It is known that certain
species of timber possess a high degree of resistance to the destructive
activity of wood borers, though none of them has absolute immunity
to their attack. Several investigators have studied the natural dura-
bility of different kinds of timber in a bid to select the right type for
marine constructions (Atwood & Johnson 1924 ; and Wangaard 1953,
in America; Gonggrijp 1932; Spoon & Loosjes 1946; Bavandamm
1948, 1949 ; and Roch 1955, in Europe ; Wilson 1941, and Johnson &
Moore 1950, in Australia ; Thomas 1933, in Malaya ; Edmondson 1955,
in Hawaii Islands ; Bianchi 1932 and 1934, in Indonesia ; Scott 1932,
in Burma ; and Fforde 1931, in Africa). In India some of the earliest
studies on this subject are those of Troup (1909), Messent P. Glynn
(1920), Pearson (1932) and Howard (1948). Observations of Nair —
(1956) in Madras harbour and Kayamkulam backwaters (Kerala), of
Nagabhushanam (1960) in Visakhapatnam harbour and of Balasubra-
manyam & Menon (1963) in Cochin harbour are recent contributions
in this field.

The durability of timber varies considerably in different localities on
account of variations in species of borers and their abundance. Salinity
and temperature usually act as limiting factors on the activity and dis-
tribution of these pests and the rapid reaction of borers, especially ship-
worms, to even slight change in conditions, results in varying perform-
ance of a timber species in different localities. It is, therefore, neces-
sary to study the life of the same species of timber in different regions.

RESISTANCE OF INDIAN TIMBER TO MARINE BORERS 431

The work of Nair (1956) and of Balasubramanyam & Menon (1963)
include only very few species of timber and that of Nagabhushanam
(1960) is confined to the east coast of India. The present paper gives a
preliminary report on the resistance of sixty-nine species of Indian tim-
ber to marine borers in Bombay waters.

MATERIAL AND METHOD

Panels of sixty-nine species of timber, studied in the present work,
were received from the Forest Research Institute & Colleges, Dehra
Dun. These panels, 30 cm. x 3°8 cm.x3°8 cm. were arranged as ‘ lad-
ders ’, each containing 10 panels, by tying them with 5 mm. diameter
nylon rope threaded through holes bored at each end (Fig. 1). The
distance between two adjacent panels was about 7°5 cm. Seven such
‘ladders ’ (one of them containing 11 panels as Bombax ceiba Linn. and
Pinus roxburghii Sargent have been procured from two growing areas,
making the total number of panels 71) were firmly secured to a pair of
long slotted iron bars. The whole set was then suspended on sufficient
length of mild steel chain so that the panels were always five feet below
the extreme low tide level. The frame was properly weighted so as to
anchor it in position.

The test site—the Burmah-Shell Jetty at Trombay—provides typical
marine conditions which are influenced only by the south-west .mon-
soon. Intensive borer activity and heavy settlement of foulers have
been noticed in this place, both marked by seasonal variations. The
test panels were immersed on 15th March 1967, and were removed to
the laboratory for final inspection and assessment of destruction on 16th
December 1967, after a period of nine months’ continuous submergence.
No periodic examination of the panels was made during the course of
the studies. However, the panels were taken out and scraped clean of
the foulers at intervals of two months so as to allow access to borer
larvae tothe timber surface. This was actually found necessary because
of the heavy settlement of barnacles, completely covering the panels and
giving them a sort of mechanical protection from borer infestation.
During final assessment in the laboratory the panels were cleaned well
and the number of borer holes was carefully counted and recorded.
(In cases where more than 300 borers could be counted, the number
has been expressed as ‘numerous’). The panels were later cut open
into halves and the extent of internal destruction was roughly assessed
by visual examination.

RESULTS

The important borers encountered during the present study are
Bankia campanellata Moll & Roch, Lyrodus pedicellatus Quatrefages,
Bankia rochi Moll and Martesia striata Linnaeus. Of these B. rochi

432 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

f
p E ; :

! u—4

5% ba.

be——y
ep -
”

Fig.1:- DESIGN OF THE EXPERIMENT

30cm

NYLON
ROPE

PANEL

Sa
-
34
q

TEST

RESISTANCE OF INDIAN TIMBER TO MARINE BORERS — 433

and M. striata were found to settle only in very small numbers. One
specimen of Nausitora hedleyi Schepman was also collected from a panel
of Albizzia odoratissima Benth.

Data on incidence of borers on different panels, the extent of damage
caused to them expressed in percentage, localities from where the panels
were procured and the common names of timber species are given in
Table 1. The table shows that while none of the sixty-nine species
escaped attack of borers, 21 species suffered destruction below 20%,
11 of them between 21 to 50% and the remaining 27 species over 50%
destruction. Family-wise distribution of resistant species of timber is
given in Table 2.

DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY

1. Observations on natural durability of sixty-nine species of Indian
timber, belonging to 30 families are included in this report. Even though
the duration of observation may be insufficient for a definite evaluation
of the life of many species, the studies enable elimination of non-resis-
tant varieties and screening out promising ones, worthy of consideration
for further studies. A scrutiny of Table 2 reveals that Moraceae and
Leguminosae contain some species which are highly resistant to borer
attack.

2. The durability of any untreated panel is very much influenced
by the time of the year at which it is exposed to borer-attack. In other
words, it depends upon seasonal variations in the intensity of borers
available to carry out destruction. Earlier studies have revealed that
in the present locality the peak settlement of borers and the consequent
destruction of a panel are maximum during July-August anda panel of
Mangifera indica Linnaeus, immersed during this short period alone,
suffered 58% destruction (Santhakumaran, unpublished). Hence it
is justifiable to believe that, although the duration of the experiment was
nine months starting from March, the non-durable species might have
suffered heavy destruction even within a much earlier period, that is to
say, months before the study was terminated in December. More-
over, the highly vulnerable species had only few, small, live specimens
in the burrows showing that the early settlers had already perished when
the timber was exhausted due to overcrowding.

3. Ascrutiny of the data, given in Table 1, indicates that there is no
definite correlation between the number of borer hols and the inter-
nal damage caused to the timber panels. For example, although the
species of Artocarpus lakoocha Roxb. (272 borers), Hopea parviflora
Bedd. (numerous) and Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr. (= Odina
wodier Roxb., numerous) have harboured large number of borers, the
destruction of timber is only about 2%, 5%, and 18% respectively. On

434 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

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435

RESISTANCE OF INDIAN TIMBER TO MARINE BORERS

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TABLE |

PARTICULARS OF TIMBER SPECIES AND EXTENT OF DESTRUCTION CAUSED BY BORERS IN PRELIMINARY TRIALS AT BOMBAY

Borer entry holes on

State from panels Extent
No. Timber species Family Trade name which ———— d of Rem
= lamage
procured Ship | Mere oy
worms | fartesia °
1. Madhuca indica (Gmel.) Sapotaceae Mahua Orissa 151 3 ia) Many pits
(= Bassia latifolia Roxb.)
2. Terminalia paniculata Roth. Combretaceae Kindal Tamil Nadu 83 2 1:0
3. Artocarpus lakoocha Roxb. Moraceae TaEsorh or West Bengal 272 3 2-0 Pits only
jarhal
4. Artocarpus heterophyllus -do- Kathal Tamil Nadu 160 1 2:0 Pits only
Lamk. (=Artocarpus inte-
grifolia L.f.)
5. Kingiodendron pinnatum Leguminosae Piney -do- 72 5 20
(Roxb.) Harms. (=Hard-
wickia binata Roxb.)
6. Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. -do- Bijasal -do- 145 1 2-0 Pits only
7. Xylia xylocarpa Taub. __5do- Trul -do- 98 Nil 20
8. iSteriowpermum chelonoides _ Bignoniaceae Padri West Bengal 85 2 40
DC.
9. Hopea parviflora Bedd. Dipterocarpaceae Hopea Coorg Numerous Nil 5:0 Pits only
10. Borassus flabellifer Linn. Palmae Palmyra Palm Bihar 103 2 70
or Tari
11. Lagerstroemia parviflora Lythraceae Lendi Orissa 152 4 8:0 Pits only
Roxb.
12. slerocereEs dalbergioides Leguminosae Padauk Andaman 190 10 8-0
Roxb.
13. Tectona grandis Linn. f. Verbenaceae Teak Tamil Nadu 181 6 11-0 Superficial small
tunnels
14. Ulmaceae Kanju Bihar 203 7 11-0 Many pits

Holoptelea integrifolia
Planch.

Dalbergia latifolia Roxb
Calophyllum elatum Bedd.

(=Calophyllum tomento-

sum Wt.)

Artocarpus sp.

Schleichera oleosa Oken.
(=Schleichera trijuga
Willd.)

Lannea coromandelica

(Houtt.). Merr. (= Odina

wodier Roxb.)
Eucalyptus sp.

Tetrameles nudiflora R. Br.

Aphanamixis polystachya

(Wall.) Parker (=Amoora

rohituka W. & A.)
Amoora wallichi King
Dipterocarpus sp.

Terminalia chebula Retz.
Hopea sp.

Artocarpus hirsuta Lamk.
Bridelia retusa Spreng.

Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.)
W. &A.

Dipterocarpus turbinatus
Gaertn. f.

Lagerstroemia lanceolata
Wall.

Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.

Anogeissus latifolia Roxb.

Mesua ferrea Linn.

Leguminosae
Guttiferae

Moraceae
Sapindaceae

Anacardiaceae

Myrtaceae
Datiscaceae

Meliaceae
5 -do-

Dipterocarpaceae
Combretaceae
Dipterocarpaceae
Moraceae
Euphorbiaceae
Combretaceae
Dipterocarpaceae
Lythraceae
Leguminosae

Combretaceae
Guttiferae

Rosewood
Poon

Kusum

Jhingan

Maina

Pitraj
Amari
Myrabolan or

Hararh

Aini

Kasi

Arjun

Teli Gurjan
Benteak
Shisham
Axlewood

Masua or
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Bombay
Tamil Nadu

-do-
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Bombay

Uttar Pradesh
Andaman

Tripura
West Bengal
Mysore
West Bengal

Tamil Nadu
“Coorg

Uttar Pradesh

Bihar
Manipur
Bombay
Punjab

Tamil Nadu
Mysore

103
96

Numerous

173
163

254

53
183
Numerous

87

171
265
102
195
226
266

‘Numerous
-do-

ann

wa

Nil

£

Tunnels at right
angle to the
grain

One of the ends
of the panel
worn out due
to abrasion

One huge tunnel

One end severely
damaged

Numerous small
pits

Ends severely
damaged

a eee

(©) 149 104 ‘KIFIOOS “ISIH TYMYALYN AVAWOE “IVNUNOL Feb

SYaYOd ANIMVW OL YAIWIL NVIGNI JO FONVISISTY

Sp

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Borer entry holes on

|
| State from panels Bulent
No. Timber species Family | Trade name which Shi damage Remarks
procured P 5 oy
worms Martesia °
35. Terminalia alata Heyne ex Combretaceae Laurel Vindhya Numerous 1 58.0
Roth. var. nepalensis Pradesh
(Haines) Fernandez
(=Terminalia tomentosa
W. & A.)
36. Gmelina arborea Linn. Verbenaceae Gamari Bombay -do- 4 58:0
37. Careya arborea Roxb. Myrtaceae Kumbhi Tripura -do- Nil 58:0
38. Diospyros melanoxylon Ebenaceae Ebony Bombay -do- 1 60°0 Three huge tun-
Roxb. nels
39. Dillenia indica Linn. Dilleniaceae lea or Assam -do- 6 60:0
alta
40. Bombax ceiba Linn. Bombacaceae Semul Dehra Dun 227 8) 65:0 80% destruction
(=Bombax malabaricum DC.) inapanel from
Kutch
41. Albizzia sp. Leguminosae Madhya 115 2 67:0 Twelve large
Pradesh tunnels
42. Albizzia odoratissima Benth. -do- Kalasiris Uttar 89 3 68°0 Five huge tun-
Pradesh nels
43. Michelia champaca Linn. Magnoliaceae Champ West Bengal Numerous 1 68-0.
44. Michelia doltsopa Bush. -do- Champ -do- 220 2 68-0
Ham. ex DC. (=Michelia
excelsa Blume)
45. Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Myrtaceae Jamun Madhya Numerous 3 70:0
(= Eugenia jambolana Lam.) Pradesh
46. Dysoxylum malabaricum Meliaceae White cedar Tamil Nadu Numerous 4 70:0
Bedd.
47. Cynometra polyandra Roxb. Leguminosae Ping Assam 194 8 70°0
48. Castanopsis hystrix ADC. Cupuliferae Hingori -do- 187 3 72:0
49. Shorea robusta Gaertn. f. Dipterocarpaceae Sal Mindhya 260 3 72:0
rades}
$0. Casuarina equisetifolia Forst. Casuarinaceae Casuarina Bombay Numerous 2 75-0

51. Chukrasia velutina Wt. &
mn. (= Chukrasia tabu-
faris A. Juss.)

52. Cryptomeria japonicaD.Don Taxodiaceae
53. Palaquium ellipticum (Dalz.) Sapotaceae

Engler. (= Dichopsis elli-
ptica Bth.)

54. Grewia tilaefolia Vahl Tiliaceae

55. Zanthoxylum limonella Rutaceae
(Dennst.) Alston.

56. Soymida febrifuga A. Juss. Meliaceae

57. Mimusops sp. Sapotaceae

58. Ougeinia oojeinensis (Roxb.) Leguminosae

Hochreut (= Ougeinia
dalbergioides Benth.)

59. Albizzia chinensis (Osbeck) -do-
Merr. (=Albizzia stipulata
Boiy.)
60. Mangifera indica Linn. Anacardiaceae
61. Pinus roxburghii Sargent Coniferae

(=Pinus longifolia Roxb.)

62. Exbucklandia populnea
(R. Br. ex Griffith) R.W.
Brown (=Bucklandia po-
pulnea R.Br.)

Hamamelideae

63. Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex Coniferae
Lambert) G. Don

64. Machilus macrantha Nees Lauraceae

65. Polyalthia fragrans (Dalz.) Anonaceae
Bedd.

66. Picea smithiana (Wall.) Coniferae
Boiss (=Picea morinda
Link).

67. Vateria indica Linn.

68. Sonneratia apetala Ham.

69. Salmalia insignis (Wall.)
Schott & Endl. (=Bom-
bax insigne Wall.)

Dipterocarpaceae
Lythraceae
Bombacaceae

Chie! Mysore Numerous 3 75:0
Suji West Bengal -do- Nil 75-0
Pali Mysore -do- 5 78-0
Dhaman Tamil Nadu 290 4 80:0
Mullilam Kerala Numerous Nil 80:0
Rohini Bombay 239 4 80:0
Andaman Numerous 5 80-0
Sandan Uttar -do- 1 80:0
Pradesh
Siris Andhra -do- Nil 80:0
Pradesh
Mango Assam -do- 4 85:0
Chir Kashmir Numerous 4 85-0
Pipli West Bengal -do- 1 90:0
Deodar Kashmir -do- Nil 90-0
Machilus Kerala -do- 1 92:0
Gauri Coorg -do- 3 92-0
Spruce Himachal -do- 6 94-0
Pradesh
Vellapine Kerala -do- Nil 95°0
Keora West Bengal -do- Nil 96°0
Semul Andaman -do- 2 97-0

Seven huge -tun-
nels

95% destruction
in a panel
from Dehra
Dun

The species are arranged in the order of decreasing resistance to borers.

9fb

(©) L9 ‘10A ‘ALAIOOS “ISIH TV¥UNLVN AVAWNOT “TVNYAOL

SYFYOd ANIYVW OL YAMWIL NViGNI JO FON¥ LSISTY

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438 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

the other hand, species Jike Albizzia odoratissima Benth, Castanopsis
hystrix A.DC., Cynometra polyandra Roxb. and Albizzia spp. have less
than 200 borers, whereas their damage was found to be 68%, 72%,
70% and 67% respectively. In the case of A. odoratissima, 92 borers
accomplished 68% destruction. The larvae of shipworms show no
special attraction to any timber and their settlement on a timber sub-
stratum is only accidental and influenced by the fouling accumulation.
Hence it is possible that a test panel receives a large number of larvae,
but the number of successful borers and their depth of penetration
depend on the natural durability of that particular species of timber.
In many cases, like Terminalia chebula Retz. and Tectona grandis Linn. f.
only a few superficial tunnels were noticed and the holes were mere
pits indicating unsuccessful penetration resulting in low percentage
destruction compared to the number of entry holes. The number of
borer holes as a criterion for grouping the results has been used by many
workers (Purushotham & Santhakumaran 1962), but such expressions

do not offer any satisfactory means for comparative studies. Splitting —

open the panel and assessing the internal damage by visual examination
are essential for this purpose. If continuation of the test is needed,
X-ray photography can be used.

4. The incidence of M. striata appears somewhat higher on panels

comparatively unmolested by shipworms (Table 3). In most of the

resistant panels, the destruction is mainly caused by large specimens of
M. striata and the shipworms are present either as numerous pits or as
a few superficial tunnels. Similar behaviour has been noticed by
Edmondson (1955). Moore (1947) noted that no timber is naturally
resistant to Martesia attack, although it may resist teredinids and crus-
tacean borers. Spoon et al. (1946) also state that Martesia is capable
of attacking hard woods.

5. Of the twenty-one species which were found to possess some
degree of resistance to borer attack, many like Kingiodendron pinnatum
(Roxb.) Harms. (=AHardwickia binata Roxb.), Steriospermum chelo-

noides DC., Borassus flabellifer Linn., Schleichera oleosa Oken. (=S.

trijuga Willd.), Artocarpus lakoocha Roxb. and Holoptelea integrifolia
Planch. are not presently used in marine constructions (Appendix 4, Jour-
nal of the Timber Dryers’ and Preservers’ Association of India, 7(2), 1961).-
It may be mentioned in this connection that K. pinnatum (= Hardwickia

binata Roxb.) is sometimes used as a substitute for teak, in planking ~

for cargo barges built at Kakinada (Paul B. Zeiner & Kjeld Rasmussen
1958). It, however, cracks when cut into thin planks and in spite of

its durability, this might restrict its use in fishing vessels. Timber species —
most commonly used at present for marine construction generally belong~
to the largely non-resistant varieties. The present studies indicate the~
possibility of substituting these non-durable species with bettertimber |

RESISTANCE OF INDIAN TIMBER TO MARINE BORERS 439

in constructional work. Troup (1909), while ‘discussing the resistance
of Indian timber, has mentioned that A. /akoocha and Madhuca indica
(Gmel.) (=Bassia latifolia Roxb.) are borer resistant. The present

TABLE 2

FAMILYWISE DISTRIBUTION OF RESISTANT SPECIES OF TIMBER

|

; : Percentage
No. Family Species Alte ncion
1. Anacardiaceae Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr. 18-0

(= Odina wodier Roxb.)
2. Bignoniaceae Steriospermum chelonoides DC. 4:0
3. Combretaceae Terminalia paniculata Roth. 1:0
4. Datiscaceae Tetrameles nudiflora R.Br. 20:0
5. Dipterocarpaceae Hopea parviflora Bedd. 5:0
6. Guttiferae Calophyllum elatum Bedd. 13:0

(=Calophyllum tomentosum Wt.)
7. Leguminosae Dalbergia latifolia Roxb. 12:0

Kingiodendron pinnatum (Roxb.) 2.0

Harms.

(=Hardwickia binata Roxb.)

Pterocarpus dalbergioides Roxb. 8:0

Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. 2°0

Xylia xylocarpa Taub. 2:0
8. Lythraceae Lagerstroemia parviflora Roxb. 8:0
9. Moraceae Artocarpus heterophyllus Lamk. 2:0

(=Artocarpus integrifolia L.f.)

Artocarpus lakoocha Roxb. 2°0

Artocarpus Sp. 13:0
10. Myrtaceae Eucalyptus sp. 18-0
11. Palmae Borassus flabellifer Linn. 7-0
12. Sapindaceae Schleichera oleosa Oken.

(=Schleichera trijuga Willd.) 15-0
13. Sapotaceae Madhuca indica (Gmel.) |

(=Bassia latifolia Roxb.) 1:0
14. Ulmaceae Holoptelea integrifolia Planch. 11:0
15. Verbenaceae Tectona grandis Linn. f. 11:0

INCIDENCE OF Martesia ON DIFFERENT SPECIES OF TIMBER

TABLE 3

Number of ite:
Range of destruction timber species =a
| Range Almber Average
|
0 to 20% 21 nil to 10 84 4-00
21 to 50% 11 1 to 6 32 2:9i
Sto 77 20 nil to 88 56 2°80
76 to 100% 17 nil to 6 40 2°35
results support this statement. Pearson (1932), has listed, Shorea

robusta Gaertn. f., Terminalia alata nepalensis (Haines) Fernandez

\
|

Number of Martesia

440 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

(=T. tomentosa W. & A.), Tectona grandis Linn. f., Steriospermum spp.
as suitable for harbour work. However, the first two species have shown
no borer resistance in the present study.

6. A comparison of the results given in this report with that of
Nagabhushanam (1960) shows that most of the timber found resistant
in Bombay, are badly damaged in Visakhapatnam harbour, probably
due to increased activity of Martesia (in Trombay this borer is never
found to settle in Jarge numbers). This is again in accordance with the
observations of Spoon et al. (1946) and Moore (1947).

7. Balasubramanyam & Menon (1963), found the performance of
Terminalia alata nepalensis (=T. tomentosa) much better than Artocar-
pus hirsuta Lamk., in Cochin waters. In this study, it was noticed that
while the former had reached a destruction of 58%, the latter showed
only 33% damage. The destruction suffered by the various species
tested at Cochin was far less than the corresponding values obtained at
Bombay, even though the duration of immersion in Bombay was only
9 months and that in Cochin was about 15 months.

8. Seven species reported in this paper, namely Mangifera indica
Linn., Casuarina equisetifolia Forst., Cryptomeria japonica D. Don,
Bombax ceiba Linn., Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels [=Eugenia jambolana
Lam., E. cumini (L.)|, Tectona grandis Linn. f. and Artocarpus hetero-
phyllus Lamk. (=A. integrifolia L.f.), have been studied in Hawaiian
waters (Edmondson 1955) with almost identical results. The first five
species are quickly damaged by marine borers in both the localities.
Panels of M. indica were badly damaged in Kayamkulam within 3 months
(Nair 1956). As for T. grandis the period of destruction in Hawaii
ranged from 3 months to 3 years, whereas in Bombay it suffered only
11% damage in 9 months. However, as mentioned by Edmondson
(1955), there is always too much inconsistencies in the performance of
teak samples. Kuriyan (1952) has found teak absolutely free from any
attack during 365 days of continuous immersion at Krusadai, whereas
Nair (1956) noticed light attack in 6 months at Kayamkulam (Kerala).
A. heterophyllus was badly damaged by Teredo and Limnoria within five
months at Hawaii. In the present study it has undergone only 2% des-
truction. It may be due to variation in the repellant factors. However,
more study is required to substantiate the present result.

9. Opinions differ as to the exact phenomenon that can be accoun-
ted for the natural durability of wood in marine conditions. Many
of the foreign timber, which were accredited with great natural dura-
bility, have been found to possess certain poisonous chemicals
Moll (1948), while discussing the factors responsible for the resistance
of wood against borers, attributes it to the presence of ‘beberine’ in
Green-heart [ Ocotea rodiaei(R. Schomb.) Mez.], turpentine oilin Turpen-
tine (Syncarpea laurifolia Ten.) tannins in Oak (Quercus spp.) and resins

RESISTANCE OF INDIAN TIMBER TO MARINE BORERS 441

in some pine wood. He also correlates the density and hardness of
wood to their resistance. However, according to Gonggrijp (1932),
Amos & Dadswell (1948), and Edmondson (1955), the silica content
of the wood play an important role in their borer resistance. But the
inconsistent behaviour of timber samples having different quantities
of silica content tends to make it apparent that silica content is of little
effect and the poisonous inclusions separately or combined with density
and hardness of wood may be the important factors.

Further studies on natural durability, with particular reference to
species of the more resistant families, are in progress.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The above work was carried out in the Central Institute of Fisheries
Education, Bombay, under the scheme for the ‘ Protection of Timber
against the attack of Marine Organisms ’ sponsored by the Wood Preser-
vation Branch of the Forest Research Institute & Colleges, Dehra Dun.
The author is deeply indebted to Shri K. H. Alikunhi, Director & Re-
search Guide, (Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Bombay) for
guidance and encouragement during the course of the investigations and
also for critically going through the manuscript. I also wish to express
my sincere thanks to Dr. A. Purushotham, Director of Biological Re-
search, Forest Research Institute & Colleges, for kindly supplying the
timber panels used in the test. The facilities offered by M/s. Burmah-
Shell Refineries for immersing the test panels from their Jetty at Trom-
bay are gratefully acknowledged.

REFERENCES

Amos, G. L. & DADSWELL, H. E.
(1948) : Siliceous inclusions in wood in
relation to marine borer resistance.
Jour.Counc. Scient. Indust. Res.(Australia)
21(3) : 190-196.

Atwoop, W. G. & JOHNSON, A. A.
(1924): Marine structures and_ their
deterioration. Rept. Comm. Marine
Piling Invest., Nat. Research Council,
Washington.

BALASUBRAMANYAM, R. & MENON, T.R.
(1963): Destruction of boat building
timbers by marine organisms in the Port
of Cochin, Part I—Raft tests. J. Mar.
biol. Assoc. India 5(2) : 294-309.

BAVENDAMM, W. (1948) : Die naturliche
Dauerhaftigkeit des Holzes. Holz-
Zentralbl. (Stuttgart) 74(32) : 263-264.

———— (1949): Tests on the natural
resistance of wood, particularly of tropi-
cal wood, to fungi, termites and marine
borers. Commonwealth Scientific and

Industrial Research Organisation, Divi-
sion of Forest Products, Australia-1.
BrANCHI, A. T. J. (1932): Nadere
gegevens omtrent de aantasting van
Nederlandisch-Indische houtsoorten door
paalworm en andare in zee -en_ brak-
Se reoue dieren. Mededeelingen
van het Boschbouwproefstation j
25 : 101-147. Mane any
(1934) : The resistance of some
Netherlands East Indian timbers against
the attack of shipworms (Teredo). Fifth
Pacific Sci. Congress (Canada, 1933)
Proc. 5: 3903-3906. /
EpMonpson, C. H. (1955) : Resistance
of poecs eae borers in Hawaiian
waters. Bull. Bernice P. Bis
ee ene hop Museum
FFORDE, F. C. (1931) : Sea water tests
of timbers of Kenya Colony. Rep. Comm.
(Deter. Structures). Inst. Civil Engin.
(London) 12: 14-16.

442

Gonccrup, J. W. (1932): Gegevens
betreffende een onderzoek naar Neder-
andsch-Indische houtsoorten, welke
tegen den paalworm bestand zijn, Mede-
deelingen van het Boschbouwproefstation,
25: 1-99.

Howarp, A. L. (1948): A manual of
the timbers of the world: their charac-
teristics and uses. IIIrd ed., (London).

IREDALE, T., JOHNSON, R. . OC
MCNEILL, F. A. (1932): Destruction of
timber by marine organisms in the
port of Sydney. Rep. Maritime Service
Board of New South Wales : 1-148.

JoHNSON, R. A. & Moore, D. D.
(1950): The natural resistance of timber
to marine borer attack: Western
Australia timbers. Port of Sydney Jour.
SQ) 59-972

Kurivan, G. K. (1952) : Notes on the
attachment of marine sedentary orga-
nisms on different surfaces. J. Zool.
Soc. India 4: 157-171.

MEssENT, P. G. (1920): Bombay
Rep. Comm. (Deter. Structures) Inst.
Civil Engin., (London) 1 : 214-219.

MoLL, F. (1948): Naturliche dauer-
haftigkeit des Holzes. Holz-zentralbl
(Stuttgart), 74(21) : 163.

Moore, D. D. (1947): Destruction of
timber by marine borers. Martesia
striata. Port of Sydney Jour. 1(3):
74-75.

NAGABHUSHANAM, R. (1960) : Resist-
ance of Indian timbers to attack by marine

borers. Journal of the Timber Dryers’
and Preservers’ Association of India
6(1) : 1.

Nair, N. B. (1956): Resistance of
certain untreated Indian timbers to
marine borer attack. Jour. Sci. Industr.
Res. 15C(12) : 282.

PEARSON, R. S. & Brown, H. P.
(1932): Commercial timbers of India.
Govt. of India, Central Publication
Branch, Calcutta.

PURUSHOTHAM A. & SANTHA-

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

KUMARAN, L. N. (1962): Table giving
details of replies received from various
organisations regarding panel tests on
timber species in sea waters. Journal of
the Timber Dryers’ and Preservers’ Asso-
ciation of India 8(3) : 12-31.

RocH, F. (1955): Die Terediniden
Ost-und Westindiens der Hollandischen
Museum—Sammlungen zu Amsterdam
ung Leiden. Zool. Mededeelingen 34(8) :
1252

ScoTT, C. W. (1932): Tests in the
Rangoon river on the damage by marine
borers to various woods, including
Burma Teak and British Guiana Green-
heart, creosoted and untreated. Burma
Forest Bull. 28: 1-10.

Spoon, W. & LoosjgEs, F. R. (1946):
Onderzoek naar de duurzaamheid tegen
paalworm van eenige tropische hout-
soorten. Overgedrukt uit het weekblad
* De Ingenieur’ 32: 1-8.

THomMas, A. V. (1933): Tests on the
resistance to marine borer attack of some
Malayan timbers untreated and treated
with preservatives. Malayan Forester
2(4) : 179-182.

Troup, R. S. (1909): Indian woods
and their uses, Indian Forest Mem. Econ.
Products, Calcutta Ser. 10): W+
CCXVIII.

WANGAARD, F. F. (1953): Tropical
American woods for durable waterfront
structures, report of marine borer con-
ference (1952), sponsored by the William
Clapp Laboratory and the Marine
Laboratory, University of Miami, Sec-
tion T: 1-25.

WILSON, H. B. (1941): Resistance of
Australian timbers to attack by marine
borers. Jour. Counc. Scient. Indust. Res.
(Australia) 14(4): 263-265.

ZIENER, PAUL, B. & RASMUSSEN,
KJELD. (1958): Report No. 1 to the
Government of India on fishing boats.
FAO Report No. 945.

Studies on bottom-living diatoms
of a freshwater fish pond

BY

C. S. SrncH?
Central Inland Fisheries Research Sub-Station, Cuttack (Orissa), India

(With three plates)

INTRODUCTION

Bottom-flora of ponds, dominated mainly by diatoms, have a
direct bearing on the production of bottom feeding fishes, since they
form the food of these fishes directly, or indirectly through zooplankters
which feed on the algae. They also serve as indicators of the soil and
water conditions at the bottom of the water body. Very little work has
been done on the soil diatoms of India and, in particular, of fish ponds.
Much work pertaining to the bottom living algae and their distribution in
relation to physico-chemical conditions has been done by Round (1953,
~ 1955, 1957, 1960). A preliminary taxonomic study of the soil diatom
flora of Kolhapur was made by Gandhi (1956). In view of the scanty
information available on the soil diatom flora of ponds in India, an
attempt has been made to study the diatom flora of a fish pond
with special reference to their taxonomy and seasonal fluctuation in
relation to certain chemical factors of bottom soil] and water. The data
obtained are presented here.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The samples for the present investigation were col/ected at monthly
intervals from April 1966 to March 1967 from the Barang fish farm.
Barang (20° 20’ N. 85° 50’ E.) is situated at a distance of 12 km. from
Cuttack in Orissa State. To collect the bottom soil and water an Ekman
dredge and a locally made water sampler of one litre capacity respectively
were uSed. To provide the medium for the growth of bottom algae
_ Sufficient quantity of water and soil were collected. Pond water was
filtered twice with Whatman filter paper No. 44 to make it free from
living organisms as far as possible and also to supply the dissolved mineral
nutrients required for the growth of soilalgae. Different experimental

SS

Ne

1Present address: Dept. of Biological Sciences, School of Basic Sciences &
Humanities, U.P. Agricultural University, Pantnagar, Dist. Nainital, India.

444. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

jars were set up with double filtered pond water and soi] to assess the
diatom population. In these jars, a set of four slides fitted in cork were
inserted in such a way that the free ends of the slides touched the soil at
the bottom of the jars.

The qualitative and quantitative estimation was made following the
method suggested by Sladeckova (1962) by examining the diatoms which
appeared in area of 2450 mm. on each slide and also by counting the
diatom remains obtained by cleaning and boiling a sample of the soil
used in the experimental jars in a mixture of sulphuric acid and nitric
acid. After washing, the diatom remains were mounted in styrax
on slides and all the species in each sample were recorded. For obser-
vations on seasonal fluctuations average counts from three sets were
taken. The arbitrary terms like abundant, common, present, rare and
absent were used to denote the percentage of organisms recorded ranging
from 76 to 100 ; 51 to 75 ; 26 to 50; 1 to 25 and zero respectively.

In all, 10 genera representing 25 species of diatoms and their seasonal
fluctuations in relation to certain chemical features of water and soil are
described. The water samples were analysed for pH, phosphate, silica
and nitrates following the methods given in ‘ Standard methods for the
examination of the water and waste water ’ A.P.H.A. (1965), and the soil
according to the methods given by Piper (1950). The classification as
given by Hustedt (1930) has been followed.

SYSTEMATIC LIST

1. Synedra affinis Kitz.
F. Hustedt in A. Pascher’s Die Stsswasserfl. Mitteleuropas 10:
159-160, f. 184, 1930. (Text-fig. 1)
Length—110, ; breadth—4-5 p ; striations—12-13 in 10p.

2. §. ulna (Nitz.) Ebr. var. subaequalis Grun. Li

Van Heurck, Syn. Dist. t. 38, f. 8, 11, 12, 13, 23 t) 39, tb, ose
(Text-fig. 2)

Length—113-116 » ; breadth—4-5 p ; striations—12-14 in 10 p.

3. Eunotia pseudolunaris Venkt. in Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. (B), 10:
311, £..53, 61, 1939.” (M@lext-fe; 3)

Length—129-199 » ; breadth—4-5 p ; striations—15-18 in 10m.

4. KE. valida Hust. in A. Pascher’s Die Sisswasserfl, Mitteleuropas
10: 178, f. 229, 1930. (Text-figs. 4, 5, 6)
Length—35-64 » ; breadth—3-6 » ; striations—12-16 in 10.

AN

10.

PT:

12.

LS:

14.

15,

BOTTOM LIVING DIATOMS | 445

E. pectinalis (Kitz.) Rabh. var. ventralis (Ehr.) Hust. ibidem 10:
182, f. 241, 1930. (Text-fig. 7)

Length—36-40 yu ; breadth—9-10 p ; striations—| 1-12in 10yz.

E. sudetica O. Mill. var. bidens Hust. ibidem 10: 182, f. 243, 1930.
(Text-fig. 8)

Length—40-48 p ; breadth—6-9 » ; striations—12-13 in 10p.

Neidium affine (Ehr.) Cleve var. longiceps (Greg.) Cleve F. Hustedt, |
ibidem 10: 244, f. 318, 1930. (Text-fig. 9)

Length—30-45 » ; breadth—7-8; striations—22-24 in 10, and
clearly punctate.

Gomphonema sphaerophorum Ehr.

F. Hustedt, ibidem 10 : 372, f. 695, 1930. (Text-fig. 10)
Length—38-58 » ; breadth—8-10 ; striations 13-14 in 10yz.

G. gracile Ehr.

F. Hustedt, ibidem 10 : 376, f. 702, 1930. (Text-fig. 11)

Length—61-75 uw ; breadth—9-10 p ; striations—11-13 in 10p.

Navicula radiosa Kitz. Van Heurck, Syn. Diat. t. 7, f. 20, 1881.
(Text-fig. 12)

Length—41-45 uw ; breadth—6-7 p» ; striations—12-14 in 10.

N. ingrata G. Krasske in Arch. Hydrobiol. 33 : 528, t. 11, f. 17-18.

_ 1938 et in F. Hustedt, Die Kieselalgen 7 (3) : 137, f. 1270, 1930-
1932. (Vext-fig. 13)

Length—33-35; breadth—9-10,;. striations—24-26 (faintly
visible) in 10.

N. subadnata Hust. in Rabenhorst’s Kryptogamen-flora 7 (3:2):
233, f. 1354, 1932. (Text-figs. 14-15)

Length—9-10, ; breadth—5S p ; striations—22 in 10y.

N. krasskei Hust. in A. Pascher’s Die Susswasserfl. Mitteleuropas
10: 287, f. 481, 1930. (Text-fig. 16)

Length—6-15; breadth—4-6p ; striations—38-40 (very faintly
visible) in 10 pu.

Pinnularia interrupta W. Smith

F. Hustedt, ibidem 10 : 317, f. 572, 1930. (Text-fig. 17)

Length—49-52 uw ; breadth—8-10 ; costae—10-12 in 10p.

P. gibba Ehr.

F. Hustedt, ibidem 10 : 327, f. 600, 1930. (Text-fig. 18)
Length—S0-71 » ; breadth—7-12 uw ; costae—10-12 in 10 yn.
6

446 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

wu

nN

oe

=i

PTT

ae

var.

9. Neidium affine (Ehr.) Cleve

7. E. pectinalis (Kttz.) Rabh.
10. Gomphonema_ sphaerophorum Ehr.

2. S. ulna (Nitz.) Ehr. var. subaequalis Grun.

4-6. E. valida Hust.

ventralis (Ehr.) Hust. 8. E. sudeticaO. Mill. var. bidens Hust.

Text-figs. 1-10. 1. Synedra affinis Kitz.
var. longiceps (Greg.) Cleve.

Eunotia pseudolunaris Venkt.

3.

BOTTOM LIVING DIATOMS _— 447

16. P. major W. Smith, Syn. Brit. Diatom. 1: 54, pl. 17, f. 162, 1853.
(Text-fig. 20)

Length—96-98 » ; breadth—18-19, (in middle) and 13-14, (to-
wards ends) ; costae—9-10 in 10 wu.
17. P. viridis (Nitz.) Ehr. var. turgidus Singh in Proc. nat. Acad. Sci.
(B) 32 : 239, f. 28, 29, 1962. (Text-fig. 19)
| Length—60-62 p ; ; breadth—15-16p ; costae—9-10 in 10h.
18. Amphora veneta Kitz., F. Hustedt in Pascher’s Die Sitisswasserfl.
Mitteleuropas 10, p. 345, f. 631, 1930. (Text-fig. 21)
Length—20-25 u ; breadth—4-6 » ; striations—10-12 in?10y.
19. Cymbella turgida (Grog.) Cleve, Van Heurck, Syn. Diat. tas f 12
1881. (Text-fig. 22)
ene te 41; breadth—10-11y ; striations—6-7 in 10p.

\)
ayy

if
= =I cy
wo | Se =.
oF AS —4
0) Z Sa a
Fi} —¥
oe IS —¥
1S —h
= i —F
1S, oa —
Za: =o.
— —H v
PS =s
ES | A =
i 2 é
iB =i
— Ck +
F = Ca —
Cir 4 ——
= — ERED *
> ' “<-sg —H
SARE; |
‘: = ) Es —H
— s
ia |) SS —F
Ki a
| ard 4 FH
} oo Hl SH cH
‘ S =i
Re | Se i
f> | Sa —
=a i
| J
<4
| Zi =
i i
i ED 7
if Se
b Sy
: S

SYN ORS.
Sih mes

es aa

Text-figs. 11-19. Gomphonema gracile Ehr. 12. Navicula radiosa Kitz. 13. N. ingrata
(3. Krasske 14-15. N. subadnata Hust. 16. N. krasskei Hust. 17. Pinnularia interrupta W.
>mith 18. P. gibbaEhr. 19. P. viridis (Nitz.) Ehr. var..turgidus Singh. -

20. C. wallaceana Hust., A. Schmidt. Atl. Diatomaceenk: t. 379, f. 12,
1874-1934. (Text-fig. 23)

Length—65-68 » ; breadth—13-15 1 ; striations—7 in 10.

448 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)
21. Nitzschia palea (Kitz.) W. Smith, Cleve-Euler, Diat. Schwed.
Finn. 5: 90, f. 1504 a-b, 1951-55. (Text-figs. 24, 25)

Length—16-25; breadth—3-44; keel punctae—12 in 10 ee
striations—28-30 in 10.

22. N. lorenziana Grun. var. subtilis Grun., A. Schmidt. Ati.
Diatomaceenk. t. 335, f. 6-8, 1874-1934. (Text-figs. 26, 27)

Length—110-145 » ; breadth—6-7 u ; striations—22-24 (very faint)
in 10p.

:
LS
.
——

=
aes |
2D

Panratae

POO YIN

26
27

Text-figs. 20-30, 20. Pinnularia major W. Smith. 21. Amphora veneta Kiitz. 22. Cym-
bella turgida Gee) Cleve. 23. C. wallaceana Hust. 24-25. Nitzschia palea (Kutz.) W. Smith.
26-27. N. lorenziana Grun. var. subtilis Grun. 28. N. acicularis W. Smith. 29. N. paleacea Grun.
30. Hantzschia amphioxys (Ehr.) Grun. var. densestriata (Fout.) Cleve.

449

BOTTOM LIVING DIATOMS

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ae a <a sia Sa soe so “hs la Ale sae aG suaplg ‘IRA DINApNS “9°
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ie i a atest sa ee Tat a ae = ae oA as DEE al way,
a me a oe qed +e ae at eee par Pais siapunjopnasd DYOUNT = *€
eer aieotz ala Ss is agalceie Ste ie a 25 ae — Syjonbavqns *xes DUNS °C
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450 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

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BOTTOM LIVING DIATOMS 451

23. N. acicularis W. Smith, F. Hustedt loc. cit. 10: 423, f. 821, 1930.
(Text-fig. 28)
Length—30-36 4; breadth—3-4; keel punctae—15 in 10,4 ;
striations—invisible.
24. N. paleacea Grun., A. Schmidt At/. Diatomaceenk. t. 349, f. 14,
1874-1934. (Text-fig. 29)
Length—14-16; breadth—4-5; keel punctae—10-12 in 10p;
striations—invisible.

25. Hantzschia amphioxys (Ehr.) Grun, var. densestriata (Fout.) Cleve
in Cleve—Euler, Diat. Schwed. Finn. 5 : 49, f. 1419 n-p, 1951-55.
(Text-fig. 30)

Length—30-34u; breadth—S-64; keel puncte—small 8-9 in
10 » ; striations—19-23 (very faint) in 10p.

TABLE 2

SEASONAL RANGES IN SOME PHYSICO-CHEMICAL CONDITIONS OF BOTTOM SOIL AND
WATER OF A POND AT BARANG DURING APRIL 1966 TO MARCH 1967

Period Soil Water

pH Phos-_ Silica Nitrate pH Phos- Silica Nitrate

phate | phate
ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm
April- 6°5 4°5 16°0 29 TO: ~- 70305 9-0 0°04
June to to to to to to
5°6 18-0 3:0 0:06 10°5 0:05
July- 65 5°8 18:0 3°0 70 ~=0°08 12:0 0:07
September to to to to to to
6:0 20°0 3°05 0-1 15:0 0:09
Octoher-- GS: 4:4. 140 724.” 2 0°04: «90... 0°03.
_ December to to to i to to to
4°5 1520) ices 225 0:05 925 0:04
January- 6.5 5:0 14-0 2°5 6:8 0:06 11:0 0:05
March to to to to to to
5c5 es 2°6 0°07 ies 0:06

_ DISCUSSION

Variations in number of diatoms were phate throughout the year,
which is evident from. the above data... Similar observations. were: re-
corded ~ by other workers like Lund (1942), Round (1957, 1960).
However, Table 1 shows comparatively more diatoms during the months

452 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

of October, November and December. During this period the abundant
forms were Gomphonema sphaerophorum, G. gracile, and Navicula radiosa
and common forms were Synedra affinis, S. ulna var. subaequalis, Eunotia
valida, Navicula subadnata, N. krasskei, Pinnularia interrupta, P. gibba,
Cymbella turgida and Nitzschia acicularis. Their presence coincided. with
considerable reduction in phosphate, silica and nitrate values, (Table 2).
It is a well known fact that nitrate is essential in the synthesis and main-
tenance of protein, carbohydrates and fats in plant cells and that diatoms
are capable of reducing nitrate to nitrite in ponds (Reid 1966).
Phosphate is often considered to be the most critical single factor in the
operation of energy transfer system during metabolism of cells and is
normally required in a very small amount. Silica is equally important
in the formation of frustules of diatoms. It is evident from the present
investigations that during the months of October, November and
December when the phosphate, silica and nitrate contents are at their
minimum, the cell number increases (Tables 1 & 2). It clearly indicates
the inverse relationship between the diatoms and the chemical factors
mentioned above. Pearsall (1923) has also observed that when diatoms
come up in large numbers, nitrates and silica get depleted. My observa-
tions agree with the conclusions drawn by Patrick (1948), Round (1960),
Singh (1964) and Reid (1966).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to express his gratitude to Dr. M. T. Philipose for
suggesting the problem, encouragement and for helpful suggestions
in the preparation of the manuscript. Thanks are due to Dr. V.G.
Jhingran, Director, for providing necessary facilities and valuable sugges-
tions.

REFERENCES

ANONYMOUS (1965) : Standard methods
for the examination of water and waste
water. American Public Health Associa-
tion, 1965, New York : 796 p.

GANDHI, H. P. (1956): A preliminary
account of the soil diatom-flora of Kol-
hapur. J. Indian bot. Soc. 35 : 402-408.

HustTEpDT, Fr. (1930): Bacillariophyta
(Diatomaceae) in A. Pascher, Die Szss-
wasserflora Mitteleuropas 10: 1-466.
Jena.

PATRICK, R. (1948) : Factors affecting
the distribution of diatoms. Bot. Rey.
14: 473-524.

PEARSALL, W. H. (1923): A theory of
diatom periodicity. J. Ecol. 11 : 165-183.

_Preer, C. S. (1950): Soil and plant
analysis. University of Adelaide, 368 p.

ReIp, G. K. (1966): Ecology of Inland
waters and Estuaries. Reinhold Publish-

ing Corporation, New York, pp. 176-
02.

Rounp, F. E. (1953): An _ investiga-
tion of two benthic algal communities in
Malham Tarn, Yorkshire. J. Ecol. 41;
174-197,

(1955): Some observations
on the benthic algal flora of four
small ponds. Arch. Hydrobiol.50:111-135.

———— (1957, 1960): Studies on
bottom-living algae in some lakes of the
English lake Districts. J. Ecol. 45: 133-
148 ; 342-360, 1957 ; 48: 529-547, 1960.

SINGH, C. S. (1964): Seasonal fluc-
tuation in diatom population. Internat.
Tropical Ecol, 5: 42-51.

SLADECKOVA, A. (1962) : Limnological
investigation methods for the periphyton
community. Bot. Rev. 28 : 286-350.

Observations on the breeding of
Storks in India and Ceylon

BY

M. PHILIP KAHL

Dept. of Ornithology, American Museum of Natural History,
New York

(With five plates)

This paper reports on some observations made on breeding storks in India
and Ceylon during August-October 1966, August-December 1967, and January
1968. Observations are reported on breeding dates, behaviour, ecology,
morphology, and taxonomic relationships of the six species nesting in this area.

Based on these studies I would recommend the following changes from the
classification given by Peters (1931): Ibis leucocephalus to Mycteria leuco-
cephala ; Dissoura episcopus to Ciconia episcopus ; Xenorhynchus asiaticus to
Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus.

INTRODUCTION

The Indian subcontinent contains six breeding species of storks
(Ciconiidae). In number of breeding species it is surpassed only by
Africa, which contains eight. My visits to India in August-October
1966 and August-December 1967 and to Ceylon in December 1967-
January 1968 were part of a continuing study of the ecology and com-
parative behaviour of the storks of the world.

In India, breeding storks were studied principally in and near the
Keoladeo Ghana Sanctuary at Bharatpur, Rajasthan ; inthe Brahmaputra
flood-plain of central Assam; and at Periyar Sanctuary, Kerala. In
Ceylon, I studied storks at Wilpattu National Park and, briefly,
at Kalamatiya Lagoon, on the south-west coast.

In this paper I have followed the nomenclature of Peters (1931) but
have suggested changes where I feel that new evidence warrants them.

STORKS OF INDIA AND CEYLON
Ibis leucocephalus Painted Stork

An abundant nester at Bharatpur, where several thousand pairs breed
in years of adequate flooding. In 1966 and 1967 egg-laying began in
late August after the monsoon rains and water froma nearby reservoir had
flooded the nesting and feeding areas, and fish had moved into the shallow

454 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

water. Most nests were built.in low ‘ babul’ trees (Acacia arabica),
growing in shallow water. Here Painted Storks nest in close association
with a variety of other water birds (Plate I) such as Anastomus oscitans,
Threskiornis melanocephala, Platalea leucorodia, Egretta garzetta, E.
intermedia, and Phalacrocorax niger. The breeding colonies at the
Keoladeo Ghana have been previously described by Ali (1953).

Whenever one member of a pair of Painted Storks, returns to the nest
after an absence, the bird and its mate greet each other with a version of
the ‘ Up-Down’ display, shown in a variety of forms by all species of
storks. Both birds point their bills upward, gape them widely open,
and utter a weak, hissing scream of 1-2 seconds duration, which sounds
much like the ‘ fizz’ produced by uncapping a carbonated beverage.
The head and neck are then moved downward and from side to side
(Plate 1); during the downward motion, the vocalization is repeated once
or twice at 2-3 second intervals. Between vocalizations—during which
the bill is gaped open—single, double, or triple audible snaps of the bill
are given in rapid succession. However, the Painted Stork does not
produce a irue prolonged clattering sound during the greeting display—
as do some other storks, such as Ciconia, Dissoura, Xenorhynchus, and
Leptoptilos. True clattering in the Painted Stork is heard only during
copulation and, occasionally, in short bursts during other courtship dis-
plays and during intra- or interspecific fights.

Behaviour patterns observed in the Painted Stork were qualitatively
similar to homologous patterns shown by the Yellowbilled Stork (Jbis
ibis) of Africa, the Milky Stork (/bis cinereus) of south-east Asia, and the
Wood Stork (Mycteria americana) of the Americas (details to be published
separately). Their agreement in behaviour, coupled with morphological
similarities, confirms their close relationships, and I believe that they
should be united under one genus. The genus Mycteria has priority
and, thus, the scientific name of the Painted Stork would become Mycteria
l-ucocephala (Pennant).

Anastomus oscitans Asian Openbill Stork

Another abundant colonial species at Bharatpur, found breeding in
the same trees as the previous species but generally beginning to nest
several weeks earlicr. In 1966 some Openbills laid eggs in early August
and many had completed clutches by the third weekin August. In 1967
both the monsoon flooding and egg-laying occurred about 10 days later.
Apparently Openbills begin breeding only after flooding increases the
availability of their food supply by bringing the Pila snails out of esti-
vation (Saxena 1956). At Wilpattu National Park, Ceylon, Openbills
were just starting to nest, but had not yet laid eggs in the nests that I saw,
in late December 1967. Extralimital observations were also made in
the large breeding colony at Wat Pai Lorm, near Bangkok, Thailand,

J. BomBay NAT. Hist Soc. 67 (3) PLATE [
Kahl : Storks

Above : A typical nest-tree at the Keoladeo Ghana colony, containing nests of the Painted and

Openbill Storks. Below : The “‘Up-Down”’ greeting display, being given by a pair of Painted

Storks, The male is on the right. Note erection of upper-back feathers and drooping of undevr-tail
coverts.

(Photos ; Author)

- Sen Se

(ong oppo.
9}0U) SUI}EQNSUI J[elUsJ :SsuIpUR}S sv, “INd}e1eyg ‘AIeN}JOURS
BueYL) OdPP[OIY 9} 1B SOU AI9Y} Je SYIOIG poyoouyovyg jo lied v

I] LV 1g

BREEDING OF STORKS 455

where nests in all stages—from eggs to large, nearly-fledged young—
were found in early February 1968.

The large fresh-water snail, Pila globosa, is a favourite food of Open-
bills. I agree with Ali & Ripley (1968 : 96) that the gap in the bill is not
meant for crushing snails. The techniques used by Anastomus to extract
molluscs from their shells—generally without extensive damage to the
shell—is the subject of another paper (Kahl, in press, a). Briefly, the
bird wedges the thin tip of the lower mandible under the operculum of
the snail and, apparently, severs the snail’s columellar muscle, frecing the
body from the shell. Usually the operculum is snipped off by the tip of
the bill, but in the case of small snails, the body may be swallowed with
the operculum still attached.

At the beginning of the breeding season, adult Openbills are imma-

culate white, with black primaries, secondaries, scapulars, and tail, and
with bright, deep-pink legs. Soon after the eggs are laid the white plumage
turns a dirty grey, apparently through a change in the individual feathers
(without a moult), and the legs fade to a duller pink.
_ Inthe nests at Bharatpur that I was able to follow closely, both parents
shared the duties of incubation and feeding of the young. On several
occasions a parent was seen to regurgitate a quantity (estimated at
100-200 cc.) of water and drool it over the eggs. Whether this was mainly
to cool the eggs or to maintain a proper humidity is not known.
Hume & Oates (1890 : 225) recorded that Openbill nests are somehow
wetted by the parents but apparently did not see them regurgitate water
into the nest ; they hypothesized that such moisture aided in fermentation,
which in turn added warmth for incubation. Watering of the eggs has
been noted in the African Openbill and several other species of storks
(Kahl, unpub. notes), and in the lapwing, Vanellus malabaricus (Jayakar &
Spurway 1965), although in the latter species the water was carried in the
belly feathers rather than being regurgitated.

The ‘Up-Down’ greeting display of the Openbill (Plate II) is
remarkably similar to that in the Painted Stork (described above). The
neck is much more strongly arched forward, and the vocalizations are
rather loud, oft-repeated, low-pitched and hollow honking sounds,
approximately 0°5 second in duration and uttered about once per second.
It is perhaps appropriate here to point out that the photograph of
Anastomus oscitans reproduced in Thomson’s (1964) NEW DICTIONARY OF
BIRDS (Plate 28) and labelled ‘greeting display’ is actually a head-
rubbing comfort movement ; it was correctly captioned when originally
published in Huxley (1962). During the ‘ Up-Down’ display the Open-
-bill does not throw its head all the way over onto the back, as does the
White Stork (Ciconia ciconia) nor does it clatter. During the hundreds
‘of hours that I spent observing Openbills during two breeding seasons, I
never heard true bill-clattering given during a ritualized display. During

456 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

copulation the male beats his bill rapidly back and forth against the bill
of the female and produces a clattering sound ; however, here the clat-
tering comes from the contact of the two bills, rather than from a rapid
opening and closing of the bill as in the other storks.

Dissoura episcopus Whitenecked or Woollynecked Stork

This stork is widespread, if uncommon, as a breeder in northern India
but does not nest in colonies. During 1966 and 1967 I located three
active nests within a 50 km. radius of Bharatpur and another at Sholaka,
approximately halfway between Bharatpur and New Delhi. From the
ages of the young in the nests, I calculated that egg-laying in this area had
occurred in early or mid-July. At Periyar Sanctuary, Kerala, I found
a nest in mid-December 1967 that, judging by the parents’ behaviour,
probably contained eggs. Dr. Salim Ali (personal comm.) once saw a
nest with large young at Periyar during the month of February.

The nests I found were of medium bulk, approximately 1 m.in diameter,
and composed of sticks and small branches. They were placed in the
tops of ‘ Neem’ (Azadirachta indica) and ‘ Imli’ (Tamarindus indicus)
trees and were from 10-20 m. above the ground.

Half-grown nestlings resemble adults in pattern, except that they lack
the purple iridescence on their wings and breast and have white feathers
on the parts of the face that are bare plumbeous skin in the adults.

Few social displays were seen in wild birds, probably because most
nests were found late in the season after the young were well grown.
Furthermore, my observations on a number of species of storks suggest
that in the tropics the solitary-nesting species probably mate for life,
and, thus, are less demonstrative at the nest with a ‘familiar’ mate ;
whereas colonial-nesting species probably choose a new mate each
season, and, thus, tend to display more. This hypothesis is based partly
on the fact that solitary species often return to the same nest in successive
years, and are frequently seen in pairs even outside the breeding season.

In colonial species, there is much shifting about of females, from
nest to nest, during pair-formation, and such a system would seem in-
compatible with a permanent pair-bond. Moreover, it is unlikely that
many colonial storks reclaim the same nest in successive seasons, because
few of the flimsy structures survive from one year to the next. From
ringing data we know that the White Stork (C. ciconia) of Europe—
normally a non-colonial species—often remates with the same partner
for many seasons ; in this species the attraction seems to be mainly to the
nest, rather than to the individual mate, per se (Schuz 1938: 578),

The question of the duration of the pair-bond in the various storks will,
of course, remain open until it can be demonstrated through extensive
ringing operations. Such a programme would seem highly desirable—and

BREEDING OF STORKS 437

feasible—at the Keoladeo Ghana Sanctuary, especially among the
colonial species.

I did witness an ‘ Up-Down.’ display in a pair of Whitenecked Storks
in the Dehiwela Zoo, Colombo, Ceylon, in December 1967. This
display and the accompanying high-pitched, whistling vocalizations were
strikingly similar to the ‘ Up-Down’ of Abdim’s Stork (Sphenorhynchus
abdimii) of Africa, and also showed affinities with the Maguari Stork
(Euxenura galeata) of South America, and the White Stork (C. ciconia)
and Black Stork (C. nigra) of Europe ; details of these displays will be
published elsewhere. Based on these observations, as well as other
behavioural and morphological similarities, I propose that all of these
genera be included in the genus Ciconia. Thus, the scientific name of the
Whitenecked Stork would become Ciconia episcopus (Boddaert) ; such a
nomenclature has already been adopted for episcopus by Ripley (1961)
and Ali & Ripley (1968).

Xenorhynchus asiaticus Blacknecked Stork

This species was observed at length only in the vicinity of Bharatpur,
where I found two nests in 1966 and seven nests (occupied by at least five
different pairs)in 1967. The massive solitary nests, about 2 m. in diameter
and 1-1°5 m. deep, were placed in the crowns of ‘ Peepul’ (Ficus reli-
giosa) or ‘Kadum’ (Mitragyna parvifolia) trees, usually in flooded
woodlands. A nest with at least one young about two weeks old was
found on 15 October 1966, indicating that egg-laying had occurred in
early September. In 1967 a few nests were visited by Blacknecks in late
August and early September, but egg-laying in most pairs probably was not
until late September or October. The rains were more prolonged in
1967 and flooding was more extensive ; perhaps these ecological condi-
tions caused the delay in the initiation of breeding.

Several times I saw Blacknecked Storks regurgitate a large quantity
(1-2 litres) of water and drool it over the contents of the nest (presumed
to be eggs). On one occasion a bird drank 21 times in the marsh, flew
back to the nest, and regurgitated the water over the platform. Watering
the eggs has also been observed in the closely related Saddlebill Stork
(Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis) in Africa (Kahl, unpubl. notes).

To my knowledge the Blacknecked Stork is exclusively a solitary nester.
Pairs of birds were frequently seen together before nesting began, and I
think it highly likely that they remain mated for life.

Most pairs watched were quite undemonstrative at the nest, seeming
to pay scant attention to the comings and goings of their mate. However,
I did witness and take motion-pictures of the spectacular greeting
display—homologous to the ‘ Up-Down’ in other storks—on several
occasions, This display was described by Hume & Oates (1890 : 266)
and has apparently not been recorded since. Hume’s observations were

458- JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

of birds on the ground, away from the nest, but I saw it performed only
by pairs in trees, usually on nest-platforms. The birds stood erect,
facing each other, with their wings widely spread and the tips of one
bird’s wings nearly touching those of the other. They fluttered
their wings rapidly (c. 3-4 times per second) and clattered loudly while
holding their bills in the normal position, about 30-45° below the
horizontal.

Unlike the other Indian storks, the sexes of the Blacknecked can be
distinguished at a glance. The male has a dark brown iris, whereas:
the female has a bright lemon-yellow iris, which contrasts sharply with the
black feathers of the head (Plate IJ). In this sexual dimorphism, as well
as in numerous other aspects of morphology and in general behaviour,
the Blacknecked Stork shows very close affinities with the Saddlebill
Stork (Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis) of Africa. I believe that the two
should be considered congeneric. Both genera were described on the
same page of Bonaparte (1857) ; however, the name Ephippiorhynchus
appeared first on the page and, thus, has priority (Mayr, Linsley & Usingér
1953 : 222) over Xenorhynchus. Therefore, the scientific name of the
Blacknecked Stork would become Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus (Latham).

Leptoptilos dubius Greater Adjutant Stork

Non-breeding individuals or small flocks were seen at Bharatpur in
August 1966 and near New Delhi in August 1967. However, the only
nest (Plates IIIf & IV) found was in the Kaziranga Wildlife Sanctuary,
Assam, in November-December 1967. This is apparently the only record
in this century of L. dubius breeding within the borders of India
(Ali & Ripley 1968 : 107).

The Kaziranga nest was in the crown of a ‘ Satian’ tree (Aistronia
scholaris) about 27-30 m. high, growing in a small forest at the edge of an
elephant-grass savannah (Plate III). The nest was in the highest tree
within 500m. When.found on 27th November 1967, it contained two
young approximately 30-35 days old, indicating that the eggs had been
laid in late September.

Most behaviour patterns of the adults at the nest and of non-breeding
wild birds, as well as of captives observed in the New Delhi and Calcutta
Zoos, were closely similar to those of the Marabou Stork (L. crumeniferus)
which was extensively studied in Africa (Kahl 1966a). However, the
‘Up-Down’ greeting display was an exception. In the Marabou’s
‘ Up-Down ’, the bird throws its head vertically upward, utters a series
of high-pitched squeals and lower-pitched, cow-like ‘moos’; and then
points its bill downward and clatters loudly. The homologous display in
dubius is similar in form and vocalizations, except that the clattering is
done upward ; as the head is lowered toward the normal position, all
clattering ceases before the bill has reached the horizontal.

J. BomBAY NAT. Hist. Soc, 67 (3) PLATE III
Kahl : Storks.

Nest-tree of L. dubius in Kaziranga Wildlife Sanctuary, Assam. The nest is at the top of
the main trunk. (Rings around trunk are a ladder used by climbers to trim branches
surrounding nest for an unobstructed view.)

(Photo : Author)

DUIWwUIsY

’ : ‘ ee 2a. UF PPE VF Avr « . = =
SI ‘JJo] Oy} UO ‘aeUIa} SUL *L96] JOqus.eq Ul “WessY “ArenjOUeS OjI[P]IAA PSURIIZE SY Ul JsoU M194} UO S}UuRINIpY Jo}eeIH jo ued v

SYIOIS = [YRH
AI dLV1d (¢) L9 ‘OOS “LSIH “LVN AVAWOg ‘f

BREEDING OF STORKS 459

Since the ‘ Up-Down’ display appears to be of major importance in
the maintenance of the pair-bond in all storks, I doubt that dubius and
crumeniferus would freely interbreed even if sympatric. Therefore, I
would reject the suggestion of some authors (e.g. Meinertzhagen 1951)
that they be considered conspecific. I do feel that dubius and crumeniferus
are closely enough related to be considered a superspecies (Amadon 1966).

Although my observations on dubius were incomplete, judging from
the behaviour I did see and the behaviour of its close relative crumeni-
ferus, I would question the statement made by Beker (1935: 447), and
reiterated by Ali & Ripley (1968 : 107), that the ‘courtship dance’ of
dubius is similar to that of the Blacknecked Stork. The behavioural
repertoires of these two species are really quite different. A more com-
plete discussion of the behaviour of the Adjutants is presented elsewhere
(Kahl, in press, b).

Leptoptilos javanicus Lesser Adjutant Stork

In late November 1967 approximately 36 active nests of javanicus
were found in the Laokhowa Reserve, near Nowgong, Assam. Most of
the nests contained nestlings 30-75 days of age, indicating that egg-laying
took place between mid-August and late September.

The nests were scattered in a loose colony—with 1-6 nests per tree—
over several hectares of second-growth forest. Most were in the tops of
‘Satian’ (Aistronia scholaris) and ‘ Simul’ (Salmalia malabarica) trees
15-20 m. high. The structures were rather flimsy platforms of sticks,
0°7-1 m. in diameter, lined with smaller twigs and green leaves.

The Lesser Adjutant is reputed to be less of a scavenger than its larger
cousin, dubius (Ali & Ripley 1968: 108). My observations of food
brought to the nest tend to confirm this, although, like crumeniferus in
Africa (Kahl 1966b), dubius may also bring a significant proportion of
live prey to its young. Food given to javanicus nestlings was fed by re-
gurgitation and consisted of fish, frogs, and rats. Most of these items
were probably captured alive in nearby marshes and fields. However,
the tremendous odour given off by one large rat brought to a nestling in a
nest only 8 m. from my observation platform indicated that it had been
picked up dead. Both adults fed the nestlings in the nests that I watched.
Several times I witnessed parents regurgitating water to nestlings
(Plate V). Watering the young has been observed in several other species
of storks (Kahl 1966b, & unpubl. notes) and may be related to the peculiar
mechanism for thermoregulation that all storks possess. Birds of this

_ family commonly excrete a dilute urine onto the bare portion of the leg ;

the evaporative cooling produced by this liquid apparently aids in the
prevention of hyperthermia (Kahl 1963). Thus, nestling storks require
more water than do other species that do not employ polyuria as a thermo-
regulatory device.

460 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

The majority of behaviour patterns observed in Lesser Adjutants
were Closely similar to those of the Greater Adjutant. The ‘ Up-Down’
greeting display incorporated an upward clattering (Plate V), similar to
dubius (see above) and quite different from crumeniferus in Africa.
Vocalizations heard during displays of javanicus were hoarser and more
rasping than those given by dubius. I did not find javanicus to be more
shy than dubius (at least at the nest), as has been previously reported
(Ali & Ripley 1968 : 108).

Since the observed behaviour of the two species appeared similar, one
wonders what factors serve as isolating mechanisms to prevent inter-
breeding in areas, such as Burma, where the two Adjutants nest together
in large mixed colonies (Smythies 1953). Perhaps there are important
differences in the displays which function during courtship and pair-
formation (Kahl, in press, b), or perhaps the morphological differences
between the two species are sufficient to prevent the formation of hybrid
pairs.

In appearance, the two Adjutants are generally similar, but there are
a number of discreet differences that are most apparent during the breed-
ing season (cf. Plates IJ & IV). Both Adjutants have dark blue-black
upper parts in non-breeding plumage. The back and wings of dubius
take on a noticeably paler, almost powder-blue, colour during the breed-
ing season and the greater secondary coverts become a very light grey,
forming a contrasting light band down the wing that is conspicuous when
the bird is standing or in flight. In javanicus the upper parts remain a

dark, slaty, blue-black in the breeding plumage, and only the inner 4-5

greater secondary coverts are very narrowly edged with white. The
median secondary coverts (not the greater coverts, as is widely stated in
the literature) have oval copper-coloured spots, approximately 20 mm.
long, near their tips.

In breeding plumage both Adjutants possess well-developed, fluffy
under-tail coverts, which are spread and drooped conspicuously during
social displays. In javanicus these coverts are pure white, but in dubius
they grade from white at their base to dark smoky-grey at their tips.

Furthermore, the heads and necks of the two species differ significantly.
The bill of dubius is more massive, often with a slightly decurved culmen ;
that of javanicus is slimmer and slightly recurved. The forehead of dubius
is covered with dark encrustations, having the appearance of scabs of
dried blood, whereas javanicus has a smooth, light yellowish-tan frontal-
plate. The neck of dubius is largely unfeathered and has at its base in
front a large air sac that can be inflated to a length of 20-30 cm.
Although I did not observe it, I think it probable that this throat-sac in
dubius is displayed prominently during courtship, as is the similar sac of
crumeniferus (Kahl 1966a). A large, pendant throat-sac is lacking in
Javanicus.

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461

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The field work was done under research grants from the National
Geographic Society, Washington, D.C., and this paper was written while
the author was a Chapman Research Fellow at the American Museum of

Natural History, New York.

I am very grateful to Dr. Salim Ali for encouragement and advice

throughout the study.

Without the benefit of his wide experience with
Indian birds this project would have been much more difficult.

I am

also indebted to P. Abeyesundere (Colombo), E, P. Gee (Shillong),
P. C. Gogoi (Nowgong), Hukum Singh (Bharatpur), and to the officers
and staffs of the Departments of Forestry of Rajasthan and Assam and
the Kaziranga Wildlife Sanctuary, respectively, for helpful information

and field assistance.

My wife, Doris, assisted greatly in the preparation

of the manuscript and in many other ways during the course of the field

work.

REFERENCES

ALI, S. (1953) : The Keoladeo Ghana
of Bharatpur (Rajasthan). J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 51: 531-536.

——— & Rrptey, S. D. (1968) :
Handbook of the Birds of India and
Pakistan. Vol. 1. Bombay: Oxford
Univ. Press.

Amapon, D. (1966) : The superspecies
concept. Syst. Zool. 15: 245-249.

Baker, E. C. S. (1935): The nidifi-
cation of birds of the Indian Empire.
Vol. 4. London: Taylor & Francis.

BONAPARTE, C. L. (1857) : Conspectus
generum avium. Tom. 2. Leiden:
E. J. Brill.

Hume, A. O. & Oates, E. W. (1890):
The nests and eggs of Indian birds.
Second Edition. Vol. 3. London:
R. H. Porter.

Hux.ey, J. S. (1962): The Openbill
Stork, Anastomus oscitans. Ibis 104:
4142:

JAYAKAR, S.D. & SpuRWAY, H. (1965) :
The Yellow-wattled Lapwing, Vanellus
malabaricus (Boddaert), a tropical dry-
season nester. II. Additional data on
breeding biology. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 62 : 1-14.

KAHL, M. P. (1963) : Thermoregula-
tion in the Wood Stork, with special
reference to the role of the legs. Physiol.
Zool. 36: 141-151.

(1966a) : Comparative etho-
logy of the Ciconiidae. Part 1. The
Marabou Stork, Leptoptilos crumeniferus
(Lesson). Behaviour 27: 76-106.

(1966b) : A contribution to
the ecology and reproductive biology of

7

ferus) in East Africa. J.

the Marabou Stork (Leptoptilos crumeni-
Zool. 148:
289-311.

———— (in press, a): Food and
feeding behavior of Openbill Storks. J.
f. Ornith,

——— (in press, b): Comparative
ethology of the Ciconiidae. Part2. The
Adjutant Storks, Leptoptilos dubius
(Gmelin) and L. javanicus (Horsfield).

Mayr, E., LINsLey, E. G. & USINGER,
R. L. (1953): Methods and _ principles
of systematic Zoology. New York:
McGraw-Hill.

MEINERTZHAGEN, R. (1951) : Some
relationships between African, Oriental,
and Palaearctic genera and species. Jbis
93 : 443-459.

Perers, J. L. (1931): Check-list of
birds of the world. Vol.1. Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press.

RripLey, S. D. (1961): A Synopsis of

the Birds of India and _ Pakistan.
Bombay. Bombay Natural History
Society.

SAXENA, B. B. (1956) : Some observa-
tions on the ecology and behaviour of the
common Indian apple-snail, Pila globosa
(Swainson). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
53 : 733-736.

Scutiz, E. (1938): Uber Biologie und
Okologie des Weissen Storchs (Ciconia

c. ciconia). Proc. Internat. Ornith.
Congr. 8: 577-591.
SMYTHIES, B. E. (1953): Birds of
Burma. Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd.
THOMSON, A. L. (1964): A new dic-
tionary of birds. London: Nelson.

Cyclonic damage to Plant Tissues

B. G. L. Swamy anp K. V. KRISHNAMURTHY
Presidency College, Madras 5

(With two plates containing eight text-figures) .

Following a cyclone in Madras the foliage of certain trees and shrubs
exhibited marked symptoms of decay and defoliation. In Azadirachta indica
the margins alone suffered decay while the remaining part of the lamina con-
tinued to function normally. A histological study of such leaflets indicates
that the exposed cells of the lamina proliferate into wound tissue which contri-
butes towards the reconstitution of a new margin. During this process the
mechanism of regeneration is very similar to that described for leaf tissues.
subjected to artificial surgery.

On 3-xi-1966, the coastal regions of Madras City and neighbour-
hood suffered one of the worst cyclonic ravages. According to the
official meteorological reports there was 61 mm. rainfall during 12
hours with a wind velocity of 120 km. per hour. In the city of Madras
several trees were uprooted, branches mutilated, and the growing parts
of many arborescent and shrubby plants that were directly exposed
to the cyclone, damaged. é

Various types of pathological reactivity were noticed on different
genera of plants. In most of the relatively large, thin, simple leaved
plants the lamina was subjected to severe degrees of tearing, the torn
parts eventually dropping away. In Minmusops and Thespesia the leaves
turned uniformly yellow and got abscissed within 24 hours after the
cyclone. In quite a number of genera possessing small or large simple
leaves like Cletodendron, Duranta, Lantuna, Bougainvillea, Morinda,
etc., discoloration of the leaf margin was noticed immediately after the
cessation of the gale; the leaves, however, remained intact on the
trees for varying periods from one to two weeks. In the leaves
of Colophyllum, Morus and pongamia the discoloration associated with
desiccation extended centripetally throughout the laminal surface sub-
sequent to which abscission followed. Discoloured lesions appeared
as endemic spots on the leaves of Lagerstroemia.

The reaction exhibited by taxa possessing compound leaves belongs
to a different category. In Peltophorum and Deionix the leaflets ab-
scissed following discoloration while the gale was at its peak. In
Azadirachta indica A. Juss. the margins of the leaflets to a distance

CYCLONIC DAMAGE TO PLANT TISSUES 463

of 2 to 4 millimetres suffered discoloration associated with necrosis of
the constituent cells. The first sign of discoloration and necrosis was
noticed at the apex of the leaflet, soon spreading in the basipetal direc-
tion along the margins. At the optimum level of affectation the
concerned area showed from outside (a) a blackish colour of. lighter
intensity merging into a darker pitch of the same colour and (b) a
lighter green zone immediately adjoining the colour of the normal
leaflet (Fig. 2). Separation of the affected area occurred. interior to
the light green zone. The affected area began drying up a day after
the cyclone; on the next day it separated itself off from the lamina
in the form of a dry, papery membrane. The most surprising pheno-
menon, however, is that the residual leaflets remained on the tree as
long as the newly produced leaves or older leaves borne on that side
of the tree which was not directly hit by the cyclone. In other. words,
in spite of the damage the residual leaflets appeared to carry on
normal function. These leaflets simulate the shape of the normal
ones obviously because of the discoloured zone which runs nearly
parallel to the outline of the leaflet (cf. Figs. 1 & 3).

When the residual leaflet continues to take part in the metabolic
activities, one naturally suspects a mechanism to ‘heal’ the exposed
margins. The following account is concerned with a study of this
phenomenon.

‘HEALING’ PROCESS

In the normal leaflet the adaxial palisade tissue stops short of the
extreme margin. Beneath the hypodermis along the margin is a nest
of cells, the primary walls of which show thickenings similar to the
collenchyma cells (Fig. 4). It is from this margin to a depth of 2 to
4 mm. that becomes affected. The zone ‘A’ deteriorates at a very
rapid rate and as such the histological changes in this zone prior
to decay could not be studied. In zone ‘B’ the first indication of
the decay is seen in the slight enlargement of the mesophyll cells;
the palisade cells increase slightly along the narrow diameter and
the spongy cells increase in surface area. As a consequence, the cell
alignment becomes disturbed more conspicuously in the spongy part
of the mesophyll (Fig 5; cf. cells in ‘B’ zone with those in ‘L’). The
chloroplasts lose their typical green colour and the capacity to retain
biological stains and the nucleus conspicuously shrinks in size
exhibiting a rather amorphous structure. |

With the decay being initiated in the zone ‘B’, the adjacent palisade
cells begin to divide by walls parallel to the surface of the lamina.

464. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

Although the width of this tissue exhibiting division from the zone ‘B’
varies slightly at different leaves of one and the same leaflet. on an
average measures 300 microns. It is not all the cells of this tissue that
undergo division and the largest number of cells show only one
division wall particularly in the interior. Towards the edge, however,
two or three walls could be seen in many cells which in turn undergo
a division or two by walls at right angles to the surface. These cells
enlarge and re-align themselves (see arrow in Fig. 6). In the spongy
part of the mesophyll the exposed cells divide by walls parallel to the
exposed surface. A larger number of divisions occur in these cells
than in those of the palisade tissue and the thus formed tissue appears
relatively more compact presenting a semblance of seriation (Fig. 7).
It is quite possible that a few of the deep-seated cells of the spongy
mesophyll also may initiate one or two divisions.

The newly produced cells of the spongy mesophyll sector soon
lose their seriate arrangement partly due to slight enlargement and
partly due to de-differentiation as oil secreting idioblasts (Fig. 8). A
few of these cells also show the accumulation of tannin materials as
in the norma] tissue. It is noteworthy that the newly formed surface
cells fail to develop cuticular deposits on their outer faces. On the
other hand, their surface is covered over by the cutinised debris of
zone ‘B’ (Figs. 7 & 8).

DISCUSSION

A generalized sequence of events leading to the reconstitution of
the exposed margin of the lamina following the decay of the true
margin of the leaflet of Azadirachta involves (a) division of the
superficial parenchyma cells by walls parallel to the surface resulting
in (b) a provisional seriate arrangement of the derivative cells and
(c) differentiation of these cells into some of the very cell types that
is normally associated with the unaffected part of the lamina, like the
secretory idioblasts and tanniferous cells. This sequence of events is
not very different from that seen in the wound healing phenomenon
in the dicotyledonous tissues. The degree of morphological expression
of the phenomenon in the present case, however, is rather feeble.

With particular reference to the leaves of Dicotyledons the histo-
logical responses observed in the present case are somewhat similar
to the condition described by Wylie (1930). He recognizes two zones
in the affected tissues, pseudocicatrice and cicatrice. In the pseu-
docicatrice region the cells collapse as such (due to the loss of water
from the exposed surface according to the author) and in the cicatrice

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J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 67 (3)

Swamy: Cyclone damage

Ficures 4 to 8: Fig. 4. Transection of the marginal part of a normal leaflet.
Fig. 5. An early stage in the onset of pathological condition. For explanation of
*“L’,°B’ & ‘A’ seetext. Fig. 6. Cell divisions in the palisade and spongy mesophyll
layers in the region ‘L’. Arrow points to the divisions in the palisade layer. Figs.
7 & 8. Progressive stages in the reconstitution of the new margin of the leaflet. (All
figures x 630).

The stippled cells represent tanniferous cells or oil secreting cells.

CYCLONIC DAMAGE TO PLANT TISSUES 465

region the cells become dilated. It is the latter cells that divide and
contribuie to the wound tissue. In the present case the pseudocicatrice
region may be identified with margin of the leaflet that appears
dark in colour. If the dilation of cells is taken to be a criterion for
identifying the cicatrice zone, it would correspond to the pale streak
area in the affected leaflet. However, divisions are not noted in the

cells of this area; after dilation, there is a gradual loss of protoplasts

and the cells collapse persisting as debris along the reconstituted margin.
On the other hand, the cells that contribute towards the differentiation
of wound tissue are those that lie in immediate contact with the latter
debris. This difference between Wylie’s observations and that of ours
may possibly be due to the artificiai surgery and natural injury
respectively. However, the generality of the wound healing pheno-
menon in either case remains the same.

Vhe totipotency of parenchyma cells in dicotyledons is becoming
increasingly evident through recent experimental studies. The paren-
chyma cell appears to retain its morphological designation as long as it
remains in contact with its neighbouring cells in a given tissue or
structure. In the present case the palisade cells and the spongy meso-
phyll cells continue to retain their morphological identity as long as
the lamina remains uninjured. The moment injury occurs, wound
tissue proliferates alike from both palisade cells and spongy mesophyll
cells of this area; after dilation, there is a gradual loss of protoplasts
to differentiate into cell types of the same morphological category,
they do differentiate into other cell types associated with the leaf tissue,
such as secretory idioblasts and tanniferous cells.

REFERENCE

Wy ik, R. B. (1930) : Cicatrization of
foliage leaves. 1. Wound responses of
certain mesophytic leaves. Bot. Gaz.
90 : 260-278,

Agricultural Research—Progress,
Problems and Prospects

BY

M. S. SWAMINATHAN
Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi

(With four text-figures)

LANDMARKS IN AGRICULTURAL EVOLUTION

Taking world agriculture as a whole, the selection of plants suitable
for domestication from the extensive wild flora and _ their subsequent
improvement through conscious or unconscious breeding, the con-
version of geological deposits into soils and planned efforts to conserve
and provide water to crops have been the major components of
progress until the 17th century. The next significant advance came
with the introduction of cereal-legume rotations and addition of
nutrients in the form of fertilizers in the 18th and 19th centuries.
The beginning of this century marked the re-discovery of Mendel’s
laws of inheritance and the use of the principles of genetics in the
tailoring of plants adapted to the changing physico-chemical, biological,
technological, economic and social components of the environment. This
development in turn triggered rapid progress in industrial activity
related to agriculiure, particularly those relating to fertilizers, pesticides
and other agricultural chemicais, machinery and post-harvest techno-
iogy. A few of the significant landmarks of this recent evolutionary
phase are indicated in Table 1 (adapted from Witwer 1969).
Countries which have taken advantage of these scientific developments
are today faced with the problem of surpluses of farm and animal
produce, while those which neglected them are fighting for food self-
sufficiency.

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TOWARDS COMPARATIVE STAGNATION
IN AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY IN JNDIA

During the first half of this century more and more food and
milk were being produced respectively from less and less land and cow
population in several countries of the world. In contrast, productivity
remained stagnant in many of our important food crops during this

AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH 467

period, although a rise in total production occurred due to an increase
in the area both under cultivation and under irrigation. Organised

TABLE 1

SOME SIGNIFICANT MILESTONES IN AGRICULTURAL ADVANCE IN THE 20TH CENTURY

Approximate year of

Milestone widespread use
‘Hybrid Maize ee 1933
Chlorinated hydrocarbons for insect control at 1945
Minimum tillage i 1945
Foliar feeding ae 1945
Direct application of anhydrous ammonia ae 1947
Hybrid Sorghum ie 1957
Chemical weed control oe 1958
_ Systemic. biocides se 1959
Dwarf wheat on 1961
Dwarf rice ; ne 1965
~ Opaque-2 Maize na 1965
_Gossypol-free cotton seed ue 1969

Hybrid barley es 1969

scientific efforts in agriculture began with the establishment of the
Indian Agricultural Research Institute in 1905 at Pusa in Bihar
Research, however, did not make an appreciable impact on production
except in crops like sugarcane, largely due to the absence of the
developmental substrate essential for research results to strike roots.
Research, particularly in the fields of plant breeding and plant
protection, did, however, help to minimise the fluctuations in production,
excepting those caused by the weather, in crops like wheat and rice.
Developments in the post-independence era such as the initiation of
the Community Development programme, national extension net-work,
irrigation projects, fertilizer factories, and finally the Intensive Agriculture
District programme provided the stimulus for a radical reorientation of
agricultural. research policies and goals. The High-yielding Varieties
programme and the National Demonstration programme generated the
feed-back relationship between agricultural scientists on the one hand
and extension agencies and farmers on the other, which is vital for
a dynamic research programme. :

REORIENTATION OF RESEARCH GOALS

Half of a scientist’s difficulties are over once the problem needing
solution is clearly formulated. The widespread awareness now in
evidence of the role of science in promoting agrarian prosperity has
in turn led to a re-examination and reorientation of research pro-

468 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

grammes. For exampie, the following are some of the major
research goals in cross breeding set for themselves by the scientists
of the Indian Agricultural Research Institute:

(a) Enhancement of the content of oral contraceptive principles like Diosgenin
present in some plants, so as to help in population control programme.

(b) Combining yield with the genetic upgrading of the quality and quantity of
proteins present in cereals, pulses, tuber crops and other food as well as
fodder and feed crops, so as to contribute towards the elimination of
protein-calorie malnutrition.

(c) Development of varieties suitable for increasing the income and employment
potential of farms of small size through a series of multiple and mixed
cropping systems, based on choices and alternatives from an economic
standpoint and on sound principles of ecology from the scientific stand-
point.

(d) Achieving stability of production as well as improvement in yield in areas
characterised by low and uncertain rainfall and adverse environmental
problems such as flood or alkalinity or salinity.

(e) Development of strains in the major agricultural and horticultural plants
which would help to achieve the yield potential theoretically possible under
a given environment.

(f) Breeding varieties of crops which can stimulate the development of industries
in areas characterised by poverty and population pressure, such as the
monoculture rice belts.

(g) Upgrading the quality and yield of industrial crops such as fibre, sugar and
oilseed crops.

(h) Development and use of genetic techniques for accelerating the pace of
breeding for better yield and quality in perennial crops such as fruit and
forest trees, plantation crops such as tea, coffee, rubber and pepper, and
palms like coconut and arecanut.

(i) Tailoring varieties in appropriate plants to the specifications of the food
industry and of the export market.

(j) Collection and conservation of gene pools.

DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-YIELDING VARIETIES

Exploitation of F, hybrid vigour as in mainze, Sorghum and pear!
raillet, the introduction of a plant type possessing a dwarf and non-
lodging habit and photo-insensitivity as in wheat and rice and
population improvement procedures as in maize and Sorghum have
been the major genetic mechanisms employed so far in developing
crop varieties which respond well tc good soil fertility and manage-
ment. In many of the currentiy available high-yielding varieties, the
total dry matter production is similar to that of the earlier tall
varieties, but the harvest index (i.e., the ratio of grain to total dry
matter) is far better resulting in higher yield. A further improvement
in yield potential can come about if a substantial improvement in
total dry matter production together with a high harvest. index can

AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH , 469

-be achieved. For achieving this, conceptual models of different crop
plants (termed ‘ideotype’ by Donald 1968) based on a synthes’s of
knowledge from morphology, physiology, biochemistry, climatology,
ecology and pathology would have to be constructed and used in
plant breeding programmes. |

Some of the selection criteria that will form the basis for the
development of new varieties in the future are given in Table 2. In

TABLE 2

CHARACTERISTICS OF CROP IDEOTYPES

Hybrid vigour or additive gene action.

Early Maturity.

High photosynthetic ability.

Low photorespiration.

Photo-insensitivity.

High response to nutrients.

Multiple resistance to insects and diseases.

Better protein quantity and quality.

Synchronised development of inflorescences.

Crop canopies that can retain and fix a maximum of CO,.

SOowmiannhRwn—

—

our country endowed with abundant sunlight, a major criterion of
new varieties should be improved phytosynthetic capability, which
can be achieved through selection of plants having better light-
receiving systems, leaf surface characteristics most conduc.ve to CO, up-
take, low perogisome or CO,—phororespiration and low CO, compensa-
tion points. The ideotvpes drawn up for wheat by Donald (1968) ard
Asana (1970) are given in Fig. I.

How HIGH CAN BE THE YIELD OF HIGH-YIELDING VARIETIES?

During a 12-hour day length, about 500 calories/Cm? of radiat'on
are received on earth. Of this, only 222 Calories/Cm? are in the
visible part of the light spectrum and thus useful for photosynthesis.
If all this energy. is converted into dry matter by plants, 77 g/m°/day
-can be obtained, which is equivalent to 770 Kg/ha/day (Loomis,
Williams & Duncan 1967). Theoretically, therefore, there is a
possibility of producing 281.0 tonnes/ha. of dry matter during a year,
provided the photosynthetic rate is not limited by other factors like
carbon dioxide, water and nutrition. If a harvest index of 0.5 can
be reached, we can get an economic yield of about 140-5 tonnes per
hectare per year. The potential yield per day, the h‘ghest yield
obtained in any National demonstration or trial and the average yie'd
of some of the major cereals, millets. pulses. oilseeds and tuber crop;
are indicated in Figs. 2 to 4. The data used for constructing these
figures are given in Table 3. It would be obvious from this data that

470 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

while we work towards realising the theoretical potential, we have a
long way to go before our average yield attains a respectable relation-

WHEAT IDEOTYPES

SJ

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IX

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SS Suse
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DONALD ' ASANA
(1968) > ot ~~ (1970)

Fic. 1. Conceptual models of the wheat plant developed by Donald (1968) for
maximum productiom and by Asana (1970) for unirrigated conditions. Donald has
suggested a uniculm habit with leaves which will not shade each other, while Asana
has proposed horizontal leaves for intercepting and retaining dew, a branched ear and
a deep root system. ‘Such ideo mines are based on considerable research i in production
physiology. ;

ship with the highest yield already reached in the country. The
potential for the future is’ immense, since the maximum yield of the
economic product obtained so far in’ any multiple cropping system
is only about 20 tonnes per hectare per year in contrast to the theore-
tical possibility of about 140 tonnes /ha/year. The scope for research
on enhancing the production potential is particularly great in pulses,
oilseeds and tuber crops (Figs. 3 & 4).

471
A

0?

PEARL MILLET

POTENTIAL
d pear! millet.

3. HIGHEST IN INDI

t. THEORETICAL
4. AVERAGE ,,

2
THEORETICAL
POTENTIAL
HIGHEST IN INDIA
AVERAGE IN INDIA

, Maize an

°

|
4.

yi
3

YIELD POTENTIAL &
REALISATION

MAIZE
wheat

b)

1ce

AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH

YIELD POTENTIAL AND REALISATION
The actual and potential yields in r

RICE:

Fic. 2.

01 X AVO/VHNWS

LENTIL

'

4
AVERAGE

PEAS BEANS

DRY DRY
PULSE CROPS —

V3dMOD

WVYONDV19
SNOOW

Q34SNI1
Qa aSidvu

OIL SEED CROPS

Note the

Iseeds and pulse crops.

mm Ol

«

The actual and potential yields

Fic. 3.
enormous scope for improvement.

472 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)
AGRONOMY FOR HIGH YIELDS

The agronomic practices adopted will determine whether or not
the yield potential of a variety wili be realised. Some of the new
TABLE 3

AVERAGE & HIGHEST PRODUCTIVITY REPORTED IN INDIA
CEREALS & MILLETS

{

: | | Q/Ha. | Vegetation | Cal/ Cal/
cteps | PNETSSS Wy ereuesa dwar: _ Period | Ha 10° a x 108
| |
Rice ao” 670 100°00 3520 120 35°20 2298
Maize 28 113 110°00 3630 90 59298 4°43
Wheat fir7 7163 3440 120 24°64 = 2°05
Sorghum Dez 98-00 3550 130 34°79 2°67
Bajra 3°8 67°10 3270 130 21°94 1°68

| |
| | Cal/Ha
| Q/Ha. | Veg. |Cal/Ha) ,:
Crops Av. | Highest ae -| Period | 10° Edible ee
| | | | |
Potato .. 80°0 411:00 840 120 34°52 95% 2502
Tapioca .. 130°0 480-00 1530 300 73°44 85% 2°44
Sweet-Potato s. ~98°O °372700 1140 135 42°40 87, 3°14
Yam ae, , 5820 -be190200 1130 135 21°47 eA 1°59

irends in agronomy are listed in Table 4. The photo-insensitive
nature of the new varieties makes it possible to think and plan de

TABLE 4

RECENT TRENDS IN AGRONOMIC RESEARCH

High plant density.

Weed-free environments.

Minimum tillage.

Controlled release of fertilizer and bacterial fertilizers.

Foliar feeding.

Use of low cost anhydrous ammonia as a nitrogen fertilizer.

Soil moisture control through irrigation and alteration of structure and per-
meability.

CO, fertilisation.

Co-ordinated pest and disease control.

Aerial application of fertilizer, pesticides and agricultural chemicals.

Soo NAAR

—

novo on such problems as sowing dates and seasons. For example, the
new hybrids of maize give much higher yield during the rabi season

AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH. 473

779

than during kharif, wherever the temperatures during rabi are not too
low. for maize (Table 5).

YIELD POTENTIAL AND REALISATION
1. THEORETICAL 2. POTENTIAL
3. HIGHEST RECORDED IN INDIA = 4. AVERAGE IN INDIA

26
i]

24
20
a
a6)
qm
x=
>
x
euiz
e
<x
U

8

4

4.
POTATO TAPIOCA SWEET POTATO YAM

Fic. 4. Actual and potential yields in some tuber crops. The potential for
improvement is very great in these crops also.
TABLE 5

MEAN PERFORMANCE OF CERTAIN MAIZE VARIETIES
DURING RABI & KHARIF SEASON OF 1965, 1966 AND 1968 AT HYDERABAD

|
Mean Grain Yield Kg./Ha

Variety 7 Kharif | Rabi Percentage of Kharif
| l

Local An 5359 5181 96°7

Deccan He 5624 7848 139°5

Ganga-3 - 5745 7169 © 124:7
| Ganga-2 7 5642 5937. 105:2 Based on one year data
Ganga 101 ae 4632 5872 126°8

Amber v5 4881 SOT ale 7 ) Based on two years
| Jawahar ss 5219 8280 8 158°7 Data
|

An important aspect of the agronomic practices should be the
| ‘breeding’ of soils suited for sustained high productivity. This would
involve simultaneous attention to the physical, biological, chemical
and topographical facets of soil fertility. Intensive agriculture based
on modern plant breeding without coincident steps in soil breedinz

474 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

would result ultimately in agricultural disaster than agricultural pro-
gress. Unfortunately, there has been little realisation of this position
so far.

1

PEST AND DISEASE: CONTROL. :

It is practically impossible to breed a variety possessing resistance
to all pests and diseases as well as high yield and quality. This is
both due to the wide variability occurring within the pest and
pathogen — populations as well as due to various forms of negative
relationships existing in the plant with regard to mechanisms of
resistance. For example, rusts of wheat survive best in the host plant
when the cells contain high sugar. In contrast, pathogens like
Alternaria and Helminthosporium grow better when the level of sugar
in the cell is low. Herice, what is needed in every crop plant is the
development of a co-ordinated strategy of control, involving an
appropriate admixture of genetic, chemical and agronomic approaches.
Diseases and pests, which ‘can be avoided by simple agronomic
procedures such as a change in the date of sowing, are best eradicated
in- this manner. With the rapid development of the seed industry,
seed-borne diseases can be controlled through seed treatments. Genetic
“control will be the method of choice, where usable sources of resist:
ance are readily available and where a disease or pest is very wide-
spread in its occurrence. The approaches likely to give the best

TABLE 6

CO-ORDINATED DISEASE'& PEST CONTROL IN ‘Sorghum vulgare

Strategy of Control
Disease/pest Casual Agent Gencic Chemi- Agro-

Vo cal nomic

Sugary disease Sphacelia sorghi — +- +
Downy mildew Sclerospora sorghi + — +
Grain smut Sphacelotheca sorghi — =F Se
Loose smut Sphacelotheca cruenta — a —
Leaf rust Puccinia purpuria + + ss
* Leaf blight , Helminthosporium turcicum ++ —- _
Shoot fly Atherigona varia soccata — — ae Sah
Stemborer Chilo zonellus + - —
, Midge Contarinia sorghicola — = ae

results in Sorghum are indicated in Table 6. Such exercises will have
to be done in each crop.

AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH . EWA. 475

_. DEVELOPMENT OF AN ECOLOGY-CUM-ECONOMICS, BASED MULTIPLE
CROFPING ‘CAFETERIA’ SYSTEM.

_ Multiple or relay cropping would help to increase the income
and employment potential of holdings of small size.. However, the
intensive exploitation of land and unscientific crop rotations could.
lead to very undesirable consequences. There should, therefore, be
some ground rules in the introduction of multiple cropping patterns.
Among these are:

. (1) No two crops sharing in common the same pests and diseases
should be grown in succession.

(2) One crop should be deep rooted and another with more
Shallow roots, so that different layers of the soil can be tapped for
nutrients. Varieties of crops also differ in rooting pattern and if a
deep-rooted crop like cotton is grown during kharif, a wheat variety
like Sonalika or Sharbati Sonora suffers less from micro-nutrient
deficiency than Kalyan Sona which also taps nutrients from the lower
layers of the soil.

(3) Attention to the restoration of soil fertility through the
cultivation of at least one leguminous crop should find place in the
rotation. If the stalks of maize are not needed for feeding cattle.
their incorporation in the soil beips to improve soil structure. _On the
above lines we should evolve for each agro-climatic areas, a multiple
cropping ‘Cafeteria’ with a wide choice of alternative crops from which
the farmer can choose an appropriate combination suited to his needs
and input-mobilizing ‘potential and the demands of the market
(Table 7).

TABLE 7
BREEDING VARIETIES FOR A MULTIPLE CROPPING ‘ CAFETARIA’ AT DELHI

Late December/

Mid-April/ Mid-June Late June-Sept. October-December Mid-April

Green Gram Maize Potato Wheat

(Pusa Baisakhi) (Ganga-5 Jawahar (Kufri Alankar (Sharbati Sonora,
ars. Hi-Starch) Kufri Chamatkar) Sonalika) ©
Cow Pea Sorghum Vegetables Barley
(Phalaguni) (C.S.H.1) Mustard (Suphala (K 15/96-1, |
_ DS-17 M) BDH-4)
Pearl Millet Oats
(H.B.1, H.B.4) : (Kent Early:
Russian)
Cotton, Fodder Vegetables
Crops

Rice (B.C.5 and
B.C.6)

476. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

Multiple cropping is a very potent instrument for improving the
economic position of a farmer with a small holding and for banishing
under-employment and unemployment. Studies in the Agricultural
Economics Department of the Punjab Agricultural University have
clearly shown that the employment potential of agriculture can be
greatly enhanced by double cropping in lands with irrigation facilities.
Studies have also revealed that in the Ludhiana District, there has
been an appreciable increase in real income among all classes of farmers,
big, medium and small, as well as among landiess labour. This is
not true in many other 1.A.D.P. districts where the farming techno-
logy has not become as advanced as in the Punjab. In as much as
69 per cent of our work-force will depend upon agriculture for employ-
ment even by 1981, the social significance of a technological up-
grading of the employment potential of our cropping systems is obvious. :

In addition to the economic and sociological advantages of multiple
cropping in irrigated areas this tool, if deployed scientifically, can
also become a powerful method of minimising the incidence of pests
and diseases. Examples of a multiple cropping system based only on
economic considerations and of one on the ecology-cum-economics
concept and analyse their biological implications follow. With water
becoming available in many of the River Valley Projects, there is a
great temptation to grow two or three crops of rice one after the
other. Even in summer, paddy cultivation is becoming popular but
already it is clear that where summer paddy is grown pests like
jassids become serious in the succeeding kharif paddy crop, as was
observed in parts of Bihar last year. Conversely, in some parts of
Bihar where a mono-culture of tobacco was formerly adopted there
was a serious incidence of oradbanche. . When tobacco was introduced
into a multiple cropping system involving crops like wheat and maize,
the orubanche menace began to reccede.

ENHANCING THE YIELD AND INCOME OF UNIRRIGATED AGRICULTURE

Recent research has shown that apart from the limitations imposed
by Jow and uncertain moisture levels, the missing links in elevating
and stabilizing yields of rainfed agriculture have been the non-
availability of crop varieties of suitable duration and growth rhythm,
poor plant population, absence of attention to rectifying the defects
in soil structure, improper tillage, lack of application of nutrients and
plant protection procedures and poor storage and marketing. In
addition, problems like fragmentation of holdings and lack of organised
supply of inputs made the few steps taken in the past in the field

AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH 477

of soil and moisture conservation even less effective than they might
have otherwise been. :

Much progress can be achieved in rainfed farming if a new
technology is introduced, comprising of the following components:
(1) land consolidation and soil conservation, (2) improvements in tillage
leading to better soil structure and root penetration, (3) addition of
organic matter in the form of plant residues with a view to improving
the physical and biological characteristics of the soil, (4) adoption of
water-harvesting procedures. resuiting in storing as much of the
precipitation as possible: for the use of crops, (5) addition of plant
mutrients through deep placement of fertilizers and foliar feeding,
if necessary by aircraft, (6) improving the biological fixation of
nitrogen through the use of efficient strains of rhizobia, particularly
those which are tolerant to salt and use of pelleted bacterial cultures
for buffering the bacteria against acidity and alkalinity, (7) the
introduction of photo-insensitive and quick maturing crops which are
less affected by drought, (8) replacement of a single long duration
crop with a series of double and mixed crop rotations from which
the farmer can be advised to adopt the one which is most suited to
the likely weather pattern during a season and to giving him the
maximum income, (9) popularisation of crops like Soyabean, high-
protein maize, macaroni wheat, short-duration varieties of castor and
cotton and perennial crops like cashewnut, oil palm and dates which
can form the base for small scale food industries and export earnings,
(10) popularisation of high-yielding fodder grasses and high protein
bajra, and (11) genetic upgrading of the non-descript cattle population
by an extensive programme of artificial insemination using superior
breeds particularly European breeds, acclimatised in the tropical parts
of Australia. While the above would constitute the major ingredients
of an immediate action plan. a systematic survey and development of
ground water resources should be continued so as to further increase
the income potential of agriculture in the dry areas. A book entitled
A NEW TECHNOLOGY FOR DRY LAND FARMING has been published recently
by the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, which gives ‘details of
the research carried out in this field.

BANISHING MALNUTRITION

The major contributions of agricultural research in this field are
the following: i
(a) Genetic upgrading Of protein quality in staple grains:

It is now possible to upgrade the quality of proteins in cereals,
millets and other food crops very considerably by genetic techniques.

8

478 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

Composite varieties of maize possessing protein properties nearly similar
to that of milk are now under multiplication (Table 8). High protein
varieties of rice and wheat as well as a highly nutritive new cereal,
Triticale, are under development. A great merit of this approach is

TABLE 8

IMPROVEMENT OF THE AMINO-ACID COMPOSITION OF MAIZE BY THE INCORPORATION
OF OPAQUE-2 & FLOURY-2 GENES OF AMINO-ACID/100g. PROTEIN

Yellow Yellow White
Ganga-3 Opaque-2 Floury-2 | Opaque-2
Protein % 10°3 10°6 11°6 15
Glutamic Acid me 23°3 20°6 19:9 18°3
Lysine 5 1:6 3°5 4-1 4:2
Leucine Ah L742 11°4 11°6 10°7
Isoleucine 3°9 4:0 3°6 4:3

that a dent on the malnuirition problem can be easily made without any
special educational effort.

(b) Increasing the production of pulse crops:

New short-duration and high-yielding varieties of the major pulse
crops such as Cajanus cajan, Phaseolus aureus and Phaseolus mungo:
have been developed, so that pulse crops can find a place in the
rotations in irrigated areas. Much of the area under pulses is rain-
fed and for these areas both better varieties and suitable methods of
applying rhizobial cuitures have been developed.

(c) Increasing vegetable and fruit production:

These crops have received very little scientific attention so far.
In recent years, severa] new varieties and hybrids have been developed
and released in vegetable crops. If these are grown with an integrated
schedule of pest control, the production can go up substantially.
Research on fruit tree improvement through the development of good
rootstock, new varieties and better management practices is now
receiving serious attention. The new mango varieties developed at
IARI offer great promise. A Demonstration orchard with plants
raised on dwarfing root stocks and dwarf hybrid varieties is being
developed at the IARI to show how the new plant type can facilitate
good orchard management. Though the demonstration plot has been
named ‘Orchard of the 21st Century’, it is hoped that such orchards
will become common in our country by 1980.

AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH 479

(d) Increasing animal production:

It is well known that India is the largest reservoir of under-utilised
cows in the world. The problem of improving animal productivity
has two aspects, one relating to increasing the production of fodder
and feed and the other to the genetic upgrading of the milk-yielding
potentiai of our breeds and more particularly of non-descript cows
and buffalces. With regard to the fodder problem, the main emphasis
should be on the development of high-yielding-cum-high quality
fodder crops, so that the supply of concentrates to animals, becomes
unnecessary. Maize and millets should also be increasingly used as
animal feeds.

A new approach to the rapid genetic upgrading of the milk yield-
ing potential of cows is the use of ‘tropicalised’ versions of European
breeds in our artificial insemination programmes. The value of this
approach has become apparent from the results of the cross-breeding
experiments carried out at [ARI between Sahiwals and Friesians from
Australia. India should sponsor a Collecting Team of Animal
Genetics to the tropical parts of Australia, Latin America and Africa,
for collecting European breeds introduced 2 to 3 centuries ago and
which have undergone selection for adaptation to tropical climate.
The expense involved in sending such a “Tropicalised European breed
Collecting Expedition’ will result in a big pay-off.

NEED FOR EXPLOITING SYNERGETIC INTERACTIONS

If agricultural research is to be effective in canalising the powerful
tools of modern science for eradicating hunger and poverty, the most
important need is achieving synergetic interactions among scientists
working in different disciplines on the one hand and among scientists,
extension workers and political and administrative leaders on the other.
Synergy or the mechanism which makes the whole something very
much more than the sum of the parts, has been the most potent
principle involved in evolutionary advance and is the only mechanism
which can help a poor Nation to realise its economic aspirations. To
cite one example of the use of this principle in evolution, our important
cereal, breed wheat, has three parents, Triticum monococcum, Aegilops
speltoides and Aegilops squarrosa which are individually poor plants
but collectively make the king of cereals. Harnessing and maximising
such synergetic effects should be the primary goals of our agricultural
research and development policies.

480 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 67 (4)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The data in Figures 2, 3, & 4 were constructed with the help of

Dr. S. K. Sinha, Plant Physiologist, IARI.

Data on the seasonal

influence on maize yield are from All-India Co-ordinated Trials, while
the data on amino-acid content in maize were provided by the Quality
Laboratory of IARI headed by Dr. A. Austin.

REFERENCES

AsAnaA, R. D. (1970) : A New Techno-
logy for Dry Land Farming—ZJndian
Agricultural Research Institute, New
Delhi. pp. 55-63.

DonALD, C. M. (1968): The design
of a wheat ideotype. Proc. 3rd Inter-
national Wheat Genetics Symposium,
Canberra. pp. 377-387.

Loomis, R. S., WiILLiAMs, A. W. &

DuNncAN, W. G. (1967): Community
Architecture and the productivity of
terrestrial plant communities. In
harvesting the Sun, Photosynthesis in
Plant Life. pp. 291-308.

WITWER, S. H. (1969): Agriculture
for the 21st Century. Proc. 19th Annual
National Potato Utilization Conference,
Michigan. (In Press).

Trends in intraspecific sex-limited
variations in some mycophagous
Tubulifera (Thysanoptera)

BY

T. N. ANANTHAKRISHNAN
Entomology Research Unit, Loyola College, Madras-34

(With six text-figures and three graphs)

The saprophytic fungus habitat forms an important ecological niche
inhabited by a proportionately large number of thrips species, more
predominantly the Tubulifera, which appear to have established them-
selves quite successfully in this zone. Seldom are they found alone, but
are mostly gregarious, providing an unique opportunity to study species
associations, in particular their dynamics, often revealing an unbeliev-
ably large degree of intraspecific diversity. In order to be able to recog-
nise and interpret these variations which are more often confined to only
the male sex, consistent field work coupled with years of experience are
vital, in particular to avoid the risk of adding to our already long list of
synonyms. Variations are magnified to a very large extent by the high
incidence of heterogony or allomorphosis or absolute size allometry of
adults, making the morphological definition of the species very difficult,
A finely intergraded series is more often noticeable in populations of such
species and the two extremes are often referred to as the minor or gynae-
coid males and the major or oedymerous males. Oedymerism as defined
earlier (Ananthakrishnan 1966) involves the development of bizarre
forms with strikingly enlarged parts affecting mostly the structure and
armature of the forelegs and incident changes in thoracic structure, while
gynzcoidism results in opposite traits, with weakly developed forelegs
having armature highly reduced and wanting and resembling the females
in general make up. This does not result in reproductive incompata-
bility as it has been observed in the rearing of Tiarothrips subramanii
(Ramakrishna) and Kleothrips gigans Schmutz in the laboratory, that the
gynzcoid males were freely engaged in copulation as much as the normal
and cedymerous males.

The possibility that an odd gynaecoid or an cedymerous male on
which a species is based, might only be one of the morphs of the highly
variant males cannot be ignored. Many Oriental and African species of
the genus Elaphrothrips Buffa have been described on such uniques.
The most striking heterogonic character in this genus is the nature of the

482 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

foreleg armature, in particular the sickle-like bristle, absent in the gyne-
coid males. In some species as Elaphrothrips mucronatus Priesner and
E. productus Priesner further heterogony is shown in the degree of develop-
ment of the 7th and 8th abdominal segments which may be as long as
wide in the gynzcoid males and to more than twice as long in the ceedy-
merous males. Again, examination. of large series of Dinothrips suma-
trensis Bagnall has confirmed Priesner’s earlier suggestion (1959) that
D. jacobsoni Karny, D. celebensis Bagnall and D. sumatrensis Bagnall
are only the gynecoid, intermediate and cedymerous forms of one species

Fic. 1. The gynzcoid, ceedymerous and intermediate forms of Kleothrips gigans.
A. Gynecoid male, B. Normal male, C. agama phase, D. Oedyme-
rous male, FE. Male genitalia.

D. sumatrensis (Fig. 2). Similarly Ananthakrishnan (1961) working
with large populations of Ecacanthothrips sanguineus Bagnall concluded
that several species mostly based on uniques or a few isolated specimens
are all synonymous with E£. sanguineus. Characters adopted in the erec-
tion of such species based on body colour, proportions of the head, the
structure of the forefemora and tibia, the coxal prolongations in the

VARIATIONS IN MYCOPHAGOUS TUBULIFERA 483

-males, the number and position of the foretibial tubercles and even the
number of sense cones on antennal segment 3, as well as the number of
accessory setae on the forewings, were found to be very inconsistent in
view of the enormous range of variation exhibited by individuals of a
-population. Again Ananthakrishnan (1969) on the basis of examination
of large populations of Kleothrips gigans Schmutz, has indicated that
K. simplex (Bagnall) may be the gynecoid form, while K. agama Priesner
hitherto considered to be distinct is only a phase in cdymerism of the

species (Fig. 1 & Graph 1). This is also the case observed in Elaph-

Head length including production
Nw

N. falcatus

120 : a a ag a. a se ee
130 4 #5 ;
6 7 8 9 200 | Zr 3) A Sg 7g 2) S00 Ni area yal oe

Forefemoral length

GrarPH 1. Relation between forefemoral length and head length in the males of
some species of Nesothrips.

rothrips mucronatus, E. productus, etc. where also two distinct phases
exist in edymerism, viz. one with foretarsal tooth thin and straight and
the other where it is more stout and beak-like. The fact that the males
of a species show maximum cedymerism need not imply the development
of a strong armature as in Pygothrips Hood, some species of Nesothrips
Kirkaldy as N. indicus Ananthakrishnan, & N. robustus Ananthakrishnan.
On the contrary the cdymerous males cf several species like Nesothrips
falcatus Ananthakrishnan, N. acuticornis (Hood), Ecacanthothrips san-
guineus, Hoplothrips fungosus Moulton, H. transvaalensis, etc., reveal a
wide variety of structures like coxal spines, forefemoral teeth and spines,
foretibial teeth, excessively developed foretarsal teeth, lateral or median

484. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,: Vol. 67 (3

meso- or metanotal processes and tooth-like prolongations on cheeks
below eyes totally unknown in the gynecoid forms, leaving therefore
an enormous gap between the two extremes (Fig. 3). Naturally the
patterns of development differ in the males of different species or species
groups. Two closely allied species may possess almost similar charac-
teristics among the females, but the pattern of edymerism, will vary as
in Nesothrips falcatus and N. acuticornis, N. indicus, N. robustus and
N. formosensis karnyi Priesner. Ananthakrishnan (1968) indicates that
in the assessment of allomorphosis three indices may appear significant
for species comparison in relation to growth diversity, viz. HL/FL,
HW/FW, TL/FL and only in cases lacking of specialisation of the fore-
legs there are very close similarities between the two sexes, whereas in
those mycophagous species showing sex limited diversity, not only are
the allomorphic indices substantially different in the two sexes, but also
very much different among the two extreme variants (Table 1). Inciden-

TABLE 1

ALLOMORPHIC INDICES
a te
HL/FL HW/FW TUEL

G O G O G O

Species

ON
ion)

SzosoooosoSocoooCSCOSoOSCOSCOCSOS

Azaleothrips amabilis
Hoplandrothrips indicus
Hoplandrothrips graminis
Ecacanthothrips sanguineus
Hoplothrips fungosus
Hoplothrips transvaalensis
Hoplothrips orientalis
Sophiothrips parviceps
Strepterothrips orientalis
Idiothrips ficus

Stictothrips orientalis
Neurothrips indicus
Polyphemothrips cracens
Allothripsb icolor
Nesothrips falcatus
Nesothrips acuticornis
Nesothrips indicus
Nesothrips robustus
Nesothrips formosensis karnyi
Kleothrips gigans
Tiarothrips subramanii
Priesneriana kabandha
Dinothrips sumatrensis
Pygothrips amplus
Elaphrothrips dallatorensis
Elaphrothrips mucronatus
Elaphrothrips productus

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Note : HL/FL—Head length/Forefemoral length ; HW/FW Head width/Fore-
femoral width ; TL/FL—Foretibial length/Forefemoral length ; G—Gynecoid ; O—
Oedymerous. eagA

The index refers to the ‘ Maximum’ viz. between the Gynecoid and Maximum
Oedymerous forms so far known. | Geta!

VARIATIONS IN MYCOPHAGOUS TUBULIFERA 485

@
as

N ty
i

Fic. 2. A, B Gynecoid and cedymerous male of Elaphrothrips mucronatus.

‘C,. D. Gynecoid and cedymerous male of Dinothrips sumatrensis.

486 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

tally mention may also be made of mycophagous Tubulifera wherein
such recognisable and significant variations are absent as in several
Urothripids, species of Adraneothrips Hood, Stigmothrips Anantha-
krishnan, Malacothrips Hinds, Meiothrips Priesner etc.

THRIPS FAUNA OF THE SAPROPHYTIC FUNGAL ZONE

Among the Phlaeothripini some species of Hoplandrothrips Hood,
Azaleothrips Ananthakrishnan, Phlaeothrips Haliday, Malacothrips Hinds,
Ecacanthothrips Bagnall, Pygmaeothrips Karny, etc. frequently occur, but

Head length including production

300 400 "$00 €90 700 800 900 1000 (100 (200 ‘300

Forefercoral length

GRAPH 2. Relation between the forefemoral length and the head length in the males
of Tiarothrips, Kleothrips and some species of Elaphrothrips.

species of Phlaeothrips Haliday, Malacothrips Hinds, Mystrothrips Pries-
ner, Adraneothrips Hood, Stigmothrips Ananthakrishnan and Pygmaeo-

VARIATIONS IN MYCOPHAGOUS TUBULIFERA 487

Fic. 3 A, B. Gynecoid and cedymerous male of Hoplothrips fungosus.

C, D. Gynecoid and wedymerous male of Hoplothrips transvaalensis.

488 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

thrips Karny do not present remarkable sex-limited diversities as the fore-
tarsiare usually unarmed in both sexes, Hoplandrothrips Hood, Ecacantho-
thrips Bagnall and to a limited extent Strepterothrips Hood, Neurothrips
Hood and J/diothrips Faure exhibit profound variation. The Plectro-
thripini appears exceptional in having females of the major and minor
types, differing very significantly. The Hoplothripini also include such
genera as Hoplothrips Serville, Sophiothrips Hood, frequently abounding
in the fungal niches, with extreme specialisation shown by the males of
many species of Hoplothrips Serville. The best examples of such struc-
tural diversity are met with among the Megathripinae including in it a
welter of species, showing variants of many types. Species of Elaphro-
thrips Buffa, Dinothrips Bagnall, Paxillothrips Ananthakrishnan, Tiaro-
thrips Priesner, Kleothrips Schmutz, Nesothrips frequently reveal such
remarkable diversities, while others like Allothrips Hood, Loyolaia Anan-
thakrishnan, Priesneriana Ananthakrishnan, Diceratothrip Bagnall,
Diaphorothrips Karny and Uredothrips Ananthakrishnan show this feature
to a restricted degree. Among the Diceratothripina the genus Macha-
tothrips Karny shows more diversity in the females in view of this sex
possessing the heavily armed forefemora. Bunothrips cruralis Anan-
thakrishnan, a Hoplothripine species also shows more diversity in the
females. It may be emphasised that all the species in a genus say like
Nesothrips need not necessarily develop identical patterns of diversity,
requiring therefore absolute caution before concluding on the identity
of the species. .
Coming to the nature of species associations in this zone, field studies
show that monophagous species among saprophytic fungus feeders are
rare and Tiarothrips subramanii feeding in large numbers on the dried
fungus infested leaves of Borassus flabellifer is a typical example. Kleo-
thrips gigans Schmutz may be said to be oligophagous in the restricted
sense as it abounds invariably in the decaying sheaths and leaves of
Areca catechu in the company of swarms of Stigmothrips limpidus Anan-
thakrishnan and Meiothrips menoni Ananthakrishnan as well as in the
dried leaves of Mangifera indica especially in forest areas, being found
along with Meiothrips menoni and _ Stigmothrips consimilis Anan-
thakrishnan. Frequently associated with the polyporous fungi (Poria
sp.) usually on the dry fungus infested twigs of Barleria sp. are Poly-
phemothrips cracens Ananthakrishnan, P. indicus (Ananthakrishnan) and
Hoplothrips fungosus Moulton, while similarly infested jasmine twigs yield
considerable material of Sophiothrips parviceps Hood and Hoplothrips
fungosus. Polyalthia longifolia twigs have yielded Uredothrips indicus
Ananthakrishnan, Pygothrips amplus Faure, Priesneriana kabandha(Rama-
krishna) and Hoplothrips transvaalensis (Hood) ; twigs of Lantana harbour
plenty of Nesothrips formosensis karnyi Priesner and Urothripids while
the dry twigs of Smilax offer plenty of material of Nesothrips falcatus

VARIATIONS IN MYCOPHAGOUS TUBULIFERA 489

Ananthakrishnan, laphrothrips crassiceps Bagnall, Stephanothrips
occidentalis Hood & Williams, Diceratothrips brevisetosus Anantha-
krishnan & Jagadish, etc.

KEY TO MALES OF MYCOPHAGOUS TUBULIFERA BASED ON
GYNA£COID-GEDYMEROUS TRAITS

1. Maxillary stylets slender, thinner than labial palps,
rarely moderately thickened as in Polyphemoth-
rips ; B2 of abdominal segment IX short (Phlaeo-
thripinae) Oi.
Maxillary stylets broad, band-like thicker than
labial palps ; B2 of [IX abdominal segment mostly
subequal with the rest (Megathripinae) 12

2. Forewings Stictothripine, cedymerous males with-
out profound modification. Body strongly reti-
culate 3
Wings not Stictothripine, usually parallel-sided.
Oedymerous males often showing profound diver-

sity 6
3. Antenna 7-segmented 4
Antenna 8-segmented : 5

4, Head elongate ; cedymerous males with forefemora
much elongate and stout, foretibia at apex with
a strong tooth, foretarsal tooth strong and curved
and mesonotum with distinct lateral spines. An- ;
tenna 7-segmented, segment 3, short, flat. Strepterothrips Hood

(S. orientalis Anantlia-
krishnan)

‘Head about as long as wide; edymerous males
with simple forelegs and tibial tooth and meso-
thoracic spur absent. Antennal 7 much smaller
than 6 ; 3 and 5 whitish. Idiothrips Faure

(J. fici Bhatti)

5. Abdominal segment X long and cylindrical, anal
setae several times longer than tube. Forefemora
of edymerous males, long and stout i.e. heavy,
foretarsal tooth strongly developed. Wings not
reticulate Neurothrips Hood
(N. indicus Anan.)

Tube and anal setae normal ; forelegs of cedymerous
males not long and heavy as in Neurothrips, al-
most showing slight enlargement of forefemur. ‘
Wings clearly reticulate. Stictothrips Hood
S.fimbriata (Anan.)

6. Wings comparatively narrow, with a feeble con-
striction at middle 7

Wings not narrow, uniformly parallel-sided 9

490

10.

Ji.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

Cheeks smooth, head reticulate, body setae short,
expanded. Oedymerous males with forefemora
heavy as in Neurothrips and foretarsal tooth
strong.

Cheeks with strong spines often on warts ; weakly
reticulate. Oedymerous males with strongly deve-
loped pronotum and forelegs strongly armed

Sense cones on antennal segment 3 arranged in a
ring. Forefemora of cedymerous males very
much wider than head, with a strong tooth at
base and apex ; outer margin concave, with nume-
rous long hairs. Forecoxae considerably pro-
longed in the cedymerous.

Sense cones on 3 normal. Forefemora in cedyme-
rous males with 2 or more subapical teeth, fore-
tibia with a tooth at base of inner margin and one
at apex. Foretarsal tooth strong.

Head dorsally not convex, without cheek pouches,
antenna 8-segmented

Head dorsally convex, with cheek pouches, antenna
7-segmented

Small forms, with cedymerous males having exces-
sively enlarged pronotum, head more elongate
and cheeks with concavity, forefemora very long,
foretibia short and foretarsal tooth strong.

Small and large forms showing several degrees of
cedymerism. Pronotum heavy in oedymerous
males with forefemora moderately to exceedingly
long, foretibia short, foretarsal tooth strong ;
forefemora at apex rarely and foretibia with one
or more teeth at middle or apex; sometimes
cheeks prolonged sidewards tooth-like ; evidence
of negative allometry in some species, relating to
anteroangulars.

Maxillary stylets moderately thick, cedymerous
males with forefemora carrying a posterior pro-
longation and with 2 large humps one at base and
apex of inner margin. Foretibia with a strong
tubercle at apex.

Azaleothrips Anan.
(A. amabilis Anan.)

Ecacanthothrips Bagnall
(E. sanguineus Bagnall)

Hoplandrothrips Hood

[H. indicus (Ramk. &
Marg.)

H. graminis Anan. ]

10

11

Sophiothrips Hood
S. parviceps (Hood)

Hoplothrips — Serville
H. fungosus Moulton
H. transvaalensis Hood
H. orientalis (Anan.)

Polyphemothrips
Schmutz
(P. cracens Anan.)

VARIATIONS IN MYCOPHAGOUS TUBULIFERA 491

12. Antenna 7-segmented 13
Antenna 8-segmented 14

13. Males invariably, apterous; antennal 3 without
sub-basal ring. Oedymerous males with mode-
rately enlarged forelegs. Maxillary stylets not

‘V’ like. Allothrips Hood

(A. bicolor Anan.)

Antennal 3 with a distinct subbasal ring ; maxillary
stylets V like. Forelegs in cedymerous males,
heavier. Percnothrips Anan.
(P. turbinatus Anan.)

14. Head not or very little produced 15
Head distinctly produced 19

15. Head slightly produced, cheeks incut behind eyes ;
cedymerous males with heavy, elongate forefe-

mora. Tube heavy. Loyolaia Anan.
(L. indica Anan.)
Cheeks normal. Head not produced 16

16. Head dorsally convex. Antennal 3 with a distinct
sub-basal ring. Forefemora of cedymerous
males, concave along inner margin. Priesneriana Anan.
[ P. kabandha (Ramk. &
Marg.) ]

Head normal, segment 3 of antenna without sub-
basal ring. Forefemora of cedymerous males
not concave at inner margin. 17

17. Maxillary stylets distinctly ‘V’ like, edymerous males
with diverse patterns ; with the development of
~ coxal and femoral strong chitinous spines, fore-
tibial teeth and excessively long foretarsal tooth
and metanotal process (N. falcatus) or less specia-
lised but with lateral mesothoracic spurs, and
metanotum at base with numerous teeth (N. acuti-
cornis) Or more simple, only with heavy fore-
femora, often concave at inner margin in cedyme-
rous males (N. indicus, N. robustus and N. formo-
sensis karnyi) Nesothrips Kirkaldy

Maxillary stylets not ‘V’ like and cedymerous males
more simple}. 18

18. Foretibia at apex with a strongly developed tooth
~ in normal and cedymerous males and reduced to
a hardly recognised tubercle in gynecoid males.
Tube longer than head. Diaphorothrips Karny
(D. unguipes Karny)

ci ere ene en ee a end

1The genus Machatothrips Karny has forefemora with a series of 4-5 dark
chitinous teeth, absent in the males.

492. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol: 67 (3)

19.

20.

PAE

22;

Tube shorter than head, more parallel-sided, not
heavy ; sete on abdominal segment IX normal ;
foretibia unarmed. Oedymerous males with
heavy forefemora, postocellar setae distinct.

Mesothorax at sides with a fork or peg
Mesothorax without lateral processes

Mesothorax with a distinct fork, wanting in gyne-
coid males. Oedymerous males with very
strongly developed forefemora with strong spines ;
foretibia with numerous denticles on inner mar-
gin and foretarsal tooth very strong.

Mesothorax with a strong peg in the cedymerous
males, hardly recognisable in gynzcoid males.
Otherwise cedymerous males as in Dinothrips

Head production in cedymerous males excessively
developed, 4°5-5 times as long as in gynécoid
males and as long or a little longer than head.
Antennal segment 3 very long, sides strongly and
asymmetrically sinuate, with deep concavities and
carrying strong setae at apex. Forefemora stout,
strongly armed with spines and foretarsal tooth
very long and strong ; gynecoid males with short
head production, often shorter than head ; 3rd
antennal segment weak, sides not sinuate and
without strong setae at apex. Forefemora weak
as also the foretarsal tooth.

Head production in ceedymerous males not exces-
sively developed, much shorter than head

Head production not parallel-sided, broader in
front ; antennal 3 with clubbed apex. Forefe-
mora in cedymerous males excessively enlarged
and with a forked chitinous tooth at apex of inner
margin; foretarsal tooth strongly developed ;
forefemoral and foretarsal teeth absent in gyne-
coid males.

Head production usually parallel-sided, antennal
segment 3 not clubbed at apex ; forefemora at
apex in eedymerous males with a sickle-like bristle;
genal bristles and those on forelegs very strongly

Diceratothrips Bagnall
20

21

Dinothrips Bagnall
(D. sumatrensis Bagnall)

Paxillothrips Anan.
(P. longicaudus Anan.)

Tiarothrips Priesner
T. subramanii (Ramk.)

22

Kleothrips Schmutz

( K. gigans (Schmutz) 1

VARIATIONS IN MYCOPHAGOUS TUBULIFERA 493

developed; gynzcoid males with weak forefemora,

thin foretarsal tooth and without sickle-like

bristle. - Elaphrothrips Bufta
(E. dallatorrensis Bagnall
E. mucronatus Priesner )
E. productus Priesner

[Since sending the note for publication, the megathripine genus Bactridothrips has
been discovered, with the males bearing a pair of long processes on the VI
abdominal segment and. the VIL & VIII segments with a tooth on either side. |

PATTERNS OF DIVERSITY AMONG MALES

The simplest type occurs in such species as Nesothrips indicus, N.
robustus, Priesneriana kabandha, Pygothrips amplus, Uredothrips indicus
etc. with minimal effects on the morphs where the cedymerous males

804
605

40;

30

20

Foretarsal tooctn

0 Sa re a aa) a ee
7 : a a
130 4 $36 7 8B 9 2.004 7 bee Noe} 4 S 66 7 Ss © 9 230071 2 2 4 5

Foreferncral length

GRAPH 3. Relation between forefemoral length and foretarsal tooth in the males
of some species of Nesothrips.

develop strong forelegs, with stout forefumora and a moderately stout
foretarsal tooth, without developing any other structural complexities.
This pattern has been referred to by Ananthakrishnan (1968) as simple,
monophasic or unitary. When, however, such cdymerous traits as
above are coupled with the development of additional features such as

9

494 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

Fic, 4 A, B. Gynecoid and cedymerous male of Hoplandrothrips graminis.

C, D. Gynecoid and cedymerous male of Hoplandrothrips indicus.

VARIATIONS IN MYCOPHAGOUS TUBULIFERA 495

forefemoral or tibial teeth, or horns on the head below eyes, or lateral or
median meso- or metanotal processes, the pattern of cdymerism is
referred to as multiple or polyphasic. Not all the known cedymerous
forms of species develop this complete multiple pattern, enabling a further
division of the multiple type into unidirectional and multidirectional
categories. Multiple or polyphasic patterns therefore involve not only
pronounced development of several parts and varying with species or
Species groups. it also results in the development of certain additional
structures only in the extreme cdymerous individuals not known in the
normal males. Typical examples of Indian species known to develop
the multi-directional patterns—Ecacanthothrips sanguineus, Hoplandro-
thrips graminis, H. indicus, Tiarothrips subramanii, Dinothrips sumatrensis,
Paxillothrips longicaudus, Nesothrips acuticornis and Nesothrips falcatus,
the latter species showing the maximum degree of cedymerism and its
effects in spite of its smaller size. In Hoplandrothrips as seen in H.
indicus and H. graminis (Fig. 4), the cdymerous males develop very
strong forefemora, with 2 or 3 subapical teeth. a basal or apical foretibial
teeth, longer prothoracic bristles, in particular the anteroangulars as well
as strong cheek setae. LEcacanthothrips sanguineus closely related to
Hoplandrothrips shows a profound gap between the gynecoid and edy-
merous forms, the gynecoids being exceedingly feeble in general make up,
lacking a strong pronotum, cheek setae, strong femora and teeth, weak
tarsal tooth and absence of coxal prolongation. Further they develop
tibial tubercles beyond middle of foretibia, a feature lacking in normal
and cdymerous males and present only in the females. In the cdy-
merous males the outer margin of the forefemora at base, tends to be
clearly concave and is fringed with a cluster of fine hairs. This concavity
becomes progressively reduced, along with the size and number of the
fringing hairs as we proceed down the series to the gynecoid. Striking
variations between the various forms are also confined to the distribution
of the red pigment, the number of sense cones, the size of antennal seg-
ments and in the number of double fringes. Strepterothrips orientalis
and Polyphemothrips cracens also appear to show the multidirectional
patterns to a limited extent (Fig. 5).

A further feature of importance is the degree of diversity in the
macropterous, brachypterous and apterous males co-existing in a
population and which to an untrained eye is liable to lead to misidenti-
fication of the species when recorded independently from different habitats.
In species of Hoplothrips such as H. fungosus, H. transvaalensis, H.
orientalis and others, the prothorax is smaller in the winged forms, their
ocelli and eyes enlarged and the sense cones also much longer. The
head may be variable in form in apterous males, with diversity in the
degree of development of horn-like projections below eyes. They are
wanting in the gynecoid males where the head may be a little longer than

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

496

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TABLE 2

INTRASPECIFIC DIVERSITY IN THE MALES OF SOME MYCOPHAGOUS TUBULIFERA

a

Characters Elaphrothrips E. mucro- E. procer _E. greeni(=E. Tiarothrips Kleothrips Dinothrips
productus natus dallatorensis bouvierii) subramanii gigans sumatrensis
Total body length (in mm.) 4:8-8°37 3°6-8°5 3°7-6:0 4:9-7:9 4-S7-6:98 7:04-10°5 6:05-7°60
Total head length 481-775 450-589 558-713 330-720 592-960 543-651
Total production length 86-186 55-93 62-171 176-768 176-320 176-768
Width across eyes 241-326 210-264 248-326 233-279 240-336 341-434
Width across cheeks 217-264 202-217 233-248 233-264 176-240 310-388
Width at base. 225-264 217-248 248-264 279-326 240-336 310-388
Eyes length (width) 93-155 93-124 108-140 108-124 171-202 140-155
(70-93) (62-78) (70-78) (78-93) (93-124) (108-140)
Postoculars 100-195 125-133 150-233 45-70 93-155 140-155
Production setae 73-200 100-138 150-186 Nil 108-202 =
Cheek setae 78-132 28-88 40-124 47-78 62-93 78-108
Antennal segments length
(width)
3 217-371 186-372 171-233 194-341 320-960 288-480 279-341
(35-47) (40-58) (35-38) (43-50) (35-47) (47-62) (47-62)
4 202-318 186-326 140-202 171-310 158-268 256-416 202-248
(31-35) (38-47) (38-40) (43-50) (31-47) (55-62) (55-62)
5 155-263 171-264 124-171 155-248 125-218 216-320 202-248
(31-35) (38-47) (35-38) (38-40) (31-47) (47-55) (47-55)
6 108-155 108-171 93-116 101-155 99-140 155-217 155-186
(23-25) (28-31) (28-30) (28-31) (31-39) (31-35) (47-49)
7 78-93 70-93 62-78 70-93 55-70 93-101 108-124
(20-23) (24-25) (23-25) (24-25) (24-31) (23-26) (31-34)
8 62-78 62-78 55-62 62-86 78-82 78-93 78-93
(15-16), (16-18) (15-16) (15-18) (16-18) (16-19) (15-18)
Longest seta on 3 cantennal 68-155 63-223 48-75 88-202 34-260 60-70 78-108
segment
> on 4 75-140 63-194 53-63 50-163 62-140 60-70 78-108

aay 5 cones on 3 55-65 40-45 43-63 24-31
Tenth SAessatntcone oe 171 333 171-217 171-264 186-264
Width at base (apex) 171-217 186-202 263-310
(62-93) (78-93)
Prothorax length 203-372 217-357 248-388 217-341 240-434
Width (anterior) 214-310 233-379 279-295 310-357 264-388
Width (posterior) 341-496 372-527 419-558 388-512 434-620 527-806
Anteroangulars 65-75 63-70 60-108 18-33 72-144 76-93
Midlaterals 80-85 75-90 100-113 47-78 78-108 141-124
Postangulars 63-75 88-103 88-125 47-18 93-108 186-233
Epimerals 113-135 80-120 125-163 100-113 88-176 202-233
Prothorax length 558-853 496-775 651-961 217-341 240-434 791-930
Mesothorax, width ~ 465-721 496-667 605-853 496-698 620-930 744-1100
Metathorax, width 465-713 481-713 605-853 496-698 620-930 729-1115
Forefemora length (width) . 403-698 403-667 465-791 388-713 512-1280 481-806
(108-326) (124-310) (124-310) (124-310) (140-279) (144-224) (171-419)
Foretarsal tooth length 25-124 33-108 25-70 55-116 70-155 =192 47-148
Forewings, length 1504-2279 1519-2557 1318-1442 1612-2434 1318-1860 2077-2945 2062-2634
Basal wing bristles 93-135 48-171 58-88 100-160 43-58 86-220 108-155
85-124 83-132 63-75 88-125 43-70 86-242 155-202
150-178 153-233 158-200 170-250 55-85 127-239 202-310
Double fringes 24-38 30-46 25-29 45-52 27-30 40-77 42-56
Abdomen width at base 434-574 450-682 481-651 574-698 512-677 496-698 651-960
at middle 327-481 341434 388-527 403-589 357-574 403-620 574-868
across VII 210-295 217-327 233-310 295-310 264-326 264-388 526-403
across 1X 171-233 171-279 170-233 148-264 186-233 202-326 248-310
Setae on IX Bl 388-636 388-558 341-388 465-574 233-310 465-543 775-853
B2 496-690 419-605 310-341 419-589 233-341 465-543 775-853
B3 388-590 388-558 336-388 388-465 233-310 465-543 775-853
Tube, length 388-620 403-698 357-496 419-620 388-589 510-880 589-790
Width at base 93-108 93-155 93-124 140-155 93-124 140-171 155-202
at middle 78-108 78-108 62-108 93-108 70-93 108-140 108-155
at apex 47-18 62-78 47-10 78-82 55-62 78-93 78-93
Anal setae, length 124-540 295-512 248-310 311-512 233-310 465-543 465-512

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VYAITAIAL SNOOVHdUOOKW NI SNOLLVINVA

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498 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

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C, D. Gynecoid and cedymerous male of Polyphemothrips cracens.

VARIATIONS IN MYCOPHAGOUS TUBULIFERA 499

Fic. 6 A, B. Gynecoid and edymerous male of Nesothrips falcatus

C, D. Gynzcoid and edymerous male of Nesothrips acuticornis.

500 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

its greatest width near the middle of the cheeks, while in the cdymerous
males the head may be 1°6-1°8 times as long as wide as in H. bradleyi
Hood. So also the median apodeme of the prothorax in the gynecoid
males is short and weak and long and heavy in the cdymerous forms.
It may also be stated that the shape of the pelta differs considerably both
in the apterous and macropterous males as well as in gynecoid and
oedymerous males and hence is apt to be misleading when only one of
the variants is taken into consideration.

The species of the genus Nesothrips, however, present a combination
of simple growth patterns and multiple unidirectional and multidirectional
patterns. The spectacular examples is N. falcatus where the cedymerous
males develop (1) highly elongate and broadened forefemur, forecoxa
and forefemora with very strong curved chitinous hook-like structures,
mid-coxae also with a chitinous tooth, foretibia very short and with an
apical strong tooth and foretarsal tooth excessively long as compared
with the gynecoid, (2) anteroangulars extremely long, (3) development
of a median metanotal process reaching the pelta. Next in complexity
is N. acuticornis where the forefemora is moderately enlarged but com-
paratively larger than the gynecoid, sides of mesothorax with well
developed spurs and most important of all isthe development of a
strongly dentate posterior margin of metanotum not known in
gynecoid (Fig. 6). The other species of Nesothrips like N. robustus,
N. indicus, etc. show only a simple pattern with the development of only
a heavy forefemora and stronger tarsal tooth in cdymerous males
(Graphs | & 2). Hood (1935) refers to Nesothrips anolis with the excessively
massive pronotum with downwardly pointing coxal prolongations and
stout cheek setae in the edymerous males.

Ananthakrishnan (1967-68) has indicated the multiple trends involved
in the development of the cdymerous males in Kleothrips gigans and
Tiarothrips subramanii wherein significant differences exist with regard
to the nature of the head process and 3rd antennal segment in the cedy-
merous forms. While in Kleothrips gigans the 3rd antennal segment and
the head ‘process do not keep pace with each other during the transition
from the gynecoid to the cedymerous, a remarkable change is noticed in
Tiarothrips subramanii wherein both the 3rd antennal segment and head
process grow at various rates, in most cases go hand in hand. The
3rd antennal segment is normally as long as head process passes from a
weak, straight-sided condition to an almost monstrous proportion double
the head length and strongly corrugated, asymmetrical sides strongly
armed with long bristles.

Thanks are due to the U.S. Department of Agriculture for the award
of a PL 480 grant during the tenure of which this work was done.

VARIATIONS IN MYCOPHAGOUS TUBULIFERA

501

REFERENCES

ANANTHAKRISHNAN, T. N. (1961):
Allometry and speciation in Ecacantho-
thrips Bagnall. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash.
74 : 275-280.

(1965) : Polymorphism and

the Taxonomy of Thysanoptera. Bull.
Ent. 6 : 57-61.
— (1967): Structural diversity
and variation range in Thrips popula-
tions. Bull. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 34:
371-374.

(1967) : Allomorphic growth
patterns in some Tubulifera (Thysano-
ptera). Indian J. Ent. 29 (1): 61-64.
(1967): On the multiple
effects of cedymerism in Nesothrips
falcatus Ananthakrishnan. Curr. Sci.
Bangalore 36 (22): 610-611.

——— (1968): Patterns of struc-
tural diversity in the males of some
Phlaeophilous Tubulifera (Thysanoptera).
ine Soc. Ent. Fr. (N.S.) 4(2) : 413-

18.

(1968) : Allomorphic growth
patterns in relation to sex-limited poly-
morphism in some mycophagous Tubull-

fera (Thysanoptera). OTA RY
Bangalore 37(20): 577-578.

———— (1969): Indian Thysanop-
tera CSIR Zoological Monograph—1 :
102-117.

———— : Kleothrips gigans Schmutz
—A study in intraspecific diversity. Bull.
Ent. (in press).

Hoop, J. D. (1935): Some new or
little known Thysanoptera of the family
Phlaeothripidae. Rev. de. Ent. 5(2):
175-187.

(1937) : Studies in Neotro-
pical Thysanoptera—V. Rev. de. Ent. 7:
498-506.

(1950): A new Hoplothrips

from Cuba. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 63:
139-146.

———— (1952): Brazilian Thysanop-
tera—VI. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 65:
77-80.

— (1955): A new AHoplothrips
(Thysanoptera) from Florida. Florida
Ent. XXXVUUE (1): 27-32.

PRIESNER, H. (1959): On the genus
Dinothrips Bagnall. IDEA. 12: 53.

The Flowering of the Strobilanth
(Acanthaceae)

(Strobilanthinae sensu Bremekamp)
BY

K. M. MATTHEW, S.J.
St. Joseph’s College, Tiruchirapalli

‘Strobilanthes’® popularly refers to a large group of gregarious
shrubs characterized by outbursts of profuse flowering at fairly regular
intervals of 3 to 14 years, mostly of 4 to 7 years, and the plants (with some
exceptions) dying off after dispersal of the seeds. Bremekamp (1944)
used the term ‘ plietesials ’ for such monocarpic plants that take several
years to reach maturity before flowering. This growth form is not rare
in the tropics and subtropics.

In India this group occurs on the hills and at the foothills ; more
abundantly in the south, especially on the Nilgiris and Palnis. This
noteworthy group of plants attracted the special attention of the first
explorers of the Indian flora. The plants grew so densely that the seed-
lings of the forest trees could hardly survive under them. Schemes
of organized eradication of these plants were considered imperative for
efficient forestry (Gamble 1888 ; Osmaston 1904). As to their occur-
rence in India, Clarke (1888) refers to 146 species, and Gamble (1924)
to 46. Fyson (1932) refers to only 19, but all occurring above 1500 m.
on the south Indian hills. Several of the species have been illustrated
by Wight (1838-53 ; 1840-50; 1846-51), Beddome (1869-74), Fyson
(1932) and Robinson (1935).

The present paper deals with : (1) a survey of published data regarding
the periodicity of flowering ; (2) the possible cause of the special manner
of flowering ; (3) the taxonomy of the group. An exhaustive bibliography
is given since the main purpose of this paper is to stimulate research on
this plant group.

The best known in south India is Strobilanthes kunthianus (Nees) T.
And. (=Phlebophyllum kunthianum Nees) famous for the copious,
fragrant blue flowers (ranging from pale lilac blue to deep purplish blue)
at regular intervals of 12 years. These flowerings were such a landmark
in the lives of the hill tribes in former days that they used to recall the
main events of their lives with reference to the flowerings they had wit-
nessed. The kurinjimalar (‘ flower of the hills’) of the Tamil classics
probably refers to this plant. The recent flowerings provoked more than

FLOWERING OF STROBILANTH 503

usual interest on account of publicity through newspapers and radio, and
drew crowds to the hills.

Nine consecutive flowerings at regular intervals of 12 years between
1838 and 1934 on the Nilgiris are mentioned by Robinson (1935) ; as for
the Palnis, Matthew (1959) has recorded five such flowerings betwecn. 1910
and 1958. With the general flowering of 1970, there is an impressive
record of 12 consecutive flowerings at regular intervals of 12 years for
south India.

Formerly when large tracts of land were covered by this plant, the
years of flowering attracted numerous swarms of honey bees. The rock
bee (Apis dorsata) and the common honey bee (Apis indica) used to
migrate in large numbers to regions of flowering ; Robinson (1935) has
recorded certain interesting facts and figures regarding the number of
hives of bees seen at Kodaikanal. The season of dispersal of seeds was
reported to have caused mass migration of jungle fowls from the foothills
on the Nilgiris. These, however, are a memory of the past, with the area
under the plant fast diminishing owing to denudation of virgin land for
cultivation. The flowering of 1958, and more so that of 1970, was con-
spicuous for the absence of such visitors.

In 1970, the mass flowering at Kodaikanal started about February with
the close of winter and came to a peak in April-May. Though confined
largely to isolated patches, the flowering was still impressive in the
Shembaganur, Poombarai, Vembadi and Berijam areas. Robust speci-
mens exceeded 2 m. tall (Matthew 11457) ; plants in flower as small as
9 cm. tall were recorded too (Matthew 11459 a). Stunted plants are the
rule at altitude above 2000 m. exposed to incessant wind. Matthew
11458 had completely white flowers.

Among the other species with published data are S. rufescens T. And.
(C. W. A. B. 1895) ; S. sessilis Nees (J. L. L. McG. 1895 ; Murray 1896) ;
S. wallichii Nees (A. S. 1895 : Osmaston 1904) ; S. callosus Nees (Fagan
1896 : Santapau 1944, 1950a, b, 1951; Murray 1896): S. pectinatus
T. And. and S. helictus T. And. (Osmastcon 1904) ; and S. neilgherrensis
Bedd. (Bowden 1950).

There are several questions that need to be answered as regards these
plants. Even in the case of S. kunthianus (Nees) T. And. where the evi-
dence for the 12-year cycle of flowering is fairly certain, there are dis-
cordant data that should be considered. Among many such reports,
Gamble (1888) speaks of intervals of 4-6 years ; Fyson (1932) of 7-12
years. The present author himself has noted stray flowers of S. kunthianus
(Nees) T. And. almost every year between two mass flowerings ; these
stray blossoms being more abundant in the year preceding the mass
flowering. In fact the undue publicity given to the flowering of 1969 on
the Palnis was of sucha one ! Much of the published data on the flower-
ing seem to be uncritical especially in the case of species other than S.

504. JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST.. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

kunthianus (Nees) T. And. where the correct identity of plants itself
might have been uncertain. Such data should be carefully sifted in the
light of ample and accurate field study.

Another source of error could be that such reports of mass flowerings
pertain only to small areas. The following is such a one that the present
author studied. On September 17, 1960 (1958 was the year of the
previous mass flowering), he observed a region between milestones 38-4
and 37-2 of the Goschen Road near the Astrophysical Observatory,
Kodaikanal, when many plants were in flower. There seemed to have
been plants of at least four different stages of development here : (1) those
in flower then ; (2) an equal number of plants not going into flower that
year ; (3) those that had flowered in 1958 and preserved as dry twigs ;
(4) some plants 10-15 cm. tall, uniform in size with seedlings from the
seeds of the 1958 mass flowering abundant in places where general
flowering occurred in 1958. Among those in flower, there was a notable
degree of variation in size: the biggest were up to 3 m. tall with
a maximum internodal diameter of 2 cm. (Matthew 1693); a few plants
as small as 20 cm. tal] with just 3-4 flowers each (Matthew 1691) ; the
majority of plants of intermediate size, 1-1.5 m. tall (Matthew 1692).

Cases like this, probably caused by special ecological factors, may
not be rare, and might account for reports of aberrant flowerings.

There has been little study on the possible causes of this type of
flowering. The study of the physiology over the maturing years of these
plants may throw light on the Jong intervals of flowering. Why and how
is the flowering hormone released in such abundance? Why do the
plants die after flowering ? How is their nutritional physiology affected ?
Is the report of the production of large number of tyloses generally veri-
fied, and if so, has it anything to do with the death of the plants? Do all
the viable seeds germinate simultaneously during the year following their
dispersal ? Can seeds be kept viable for several years, so that if some of
these could be germinated and planted out every year for 11 consecutive
years, flowering thereafter should occur every year ?

Careful field studies with special reference to factors like rainfall,
temperature, exposure, etc. and in the laboratory over a period of several
years on the hills are necessary to answer these questions ; may be this is
one of the problems to be studied 1 in a future botanical laboratory on the
hills.

Finally, the taxonomy of the group should be worked out in the light
of answers to these questions. Data from cytology, anatomy, histology,
embryology and biochemistry are yet to come ; pollen morphology has
proved diagnostic and has been effectively used by Bremekamp (1944),
probably after Radlkofer (1883). Whereas Indian floras treat
* Strobilanthes’ in a broad sense, Bremekamp (1944) has split the sub-

FLOWERING OF STROBILANTH 505

tribe Strobilanthinae into 54 genera. In this sense, the genus Strobilanthes
does not occur in India.

A comprehensive Indian monograph on the group is an urgent need,
especially since Bremekamp (1944) had not sufficiently studied Indian
material. Such a work will be difficult but prove to be a landmark in
Indian botany.

In conclusion it should be pointed out that this type of gregarious and
periodic flowering so much talked of inthe Strobilanthinae is after all not
so. rare in nature. Bamboos flower gregariously and on'y once in their
lifetime ; several forest trees, as certain members of Dipterocarpaceae,

do not seem to flower regularly every year.

For an observant botanist.

our forest trees may prove to be matter for fruitful study.
Whereas laboratory studies are essential in knowing our plants better,

careful field studies are equally important.

Maybe a plea for intensified

and improved field studies is truly appropriate to commemorate
Fr. Santapau whose death occurred in a year of mass flowering.
The author thanks Prof. B. G. L. Swamy for useful suggestions.

REFERENCES

ANDERSON, T. (1867) : An enumeration
of the Indian species of Acanthaceae.
J. Linn. Soc. 9: 465-475.

A. S. (1896) : Flowering of Strobilan-
thes in Jaunsar. Ind. For. 22: 182.

BEDDOME, R. H. (1868-74): Icones
Plantarum Indiae Orientalis. Madras.

BENTHAM, G. & Hooker, J.D. (1876):
Genera Plantarum 2(2): 1065.

Bowpen, E. (1950): The flowering of
Strobilanthes. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
49: 576.

BREMEKAMP, C. E. B. (1944):
Materials for a monograph of the
Strobilanthinae (Acanthaceae). Verh.
Nederl. Akad. Wet. 11 40 (1): 1-306,
tt. i-iv.

CLARKE, C. B. (1884): in Hooker, J. D.
Flora of British India 4: 429-477.

C. W. A. B. (1895): Flowering of
Strobilanthes in Burma. Ind. For. 21:
47-48.

FAGAN, R. S. (1896): Flowering of
Strobilanthes in Bombay. Ind. For.
D2 2 tS2e

Fyson, P. F. (1932): The Flora of the
South Indian Hill Stations. Madras,
pp. 443 - 453.

GAMBLE, J. S. (1888): The Nilgiri
‘ Strobilanthes’. Ind. For. 14: 153-
158.

————— (1924): Flora of the
Presidency of Madras, 6 : 720-732.

J. L. L.-McG. (1895): Flowering of
Strobilanthes. Ind. For. 21: 462.

KapapiA, G. A. (1950) : Strobilanthes
callosus Nees at Junagadh in Saurashtra.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 49 : 321-322.

LiInDAU (in Engler & Prantl 1895):
Die Naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien 4(3b) :
300.

MATTHEW, K. M. (1959): The vege-
tation of Kodaikanal grassy slopes.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 56: 387-422.

Morris, R. C. (1958): Flowering of
Strobilanthes. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
557-185:

Morray, H. (1896): Flowering of
Strobilanthes in Bombay. Ind. For. 22:
262.

Nees, C. G. von E. (1847) in Wallich,
N. Plantae Asiaticae Rariores 3 : 84-89,
1832, & in Candolle, A. P. de Prodro-
mus systematis naturalis regni vegeta-
bilis 11 : 177-196.

OsMASTON, B. B. (1904): Strobilan-
thes and natural reproduction. Jnd.
For. 30: 195-196.

R. M. (1894): Seeding of Strobilan-
thes on the Nilgiris. Ind. For. 20: 130.

RADLKOFER, L. (1883) : Ueber den sys-
tematichen werth der pollen-beschaffen-
heir bei den Acanthaceen. Sitz. K.
Bayer. Akad. Wiss. 13(2): 256-314.

RoBINson, M. E. (1935): The flower-
ing of Strobilanthes in 1934. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 38: 117-122, tt. 1-8.

SANTAPAU, H. (1944): The flowering
of Strobilanthes. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 44: 605-606.

506 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

— (1950a): The flowering of
Strobilanthes. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
49 : 320-321.

—— (1950b) : Further remarks on
the flowering of Strobilanthes. J. Bom-
bay. nat. Hist. Soc. 49 ; 575-576.

=~, (195) 3) Ther Acanthaceae
of Bombay. Bot. Mem. Univ. Bombay,
2: 36-50.

(1952): The flowering of
Strobilanthes in Khandala J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 50: 430-431.

——=— ,,(1960a) *:) Notes ion” the
flowering of Carvia callosa Bremek. ibid.
56: 676-677.

—— (1960b) : The flowering of
Strobilanthes ibid. 56 : 677, t. 1.
——— (1960c): The Carvi plant
ee igare Rev. 'Bombay 10 (11) : 38-40,
bi, 2ihh
(1962) Gregarious flower-
ing of Sirobilanthes and Bamboos.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59 : 688-695.
WiGHT, R. (1838-53): Icones Plan-
tarum Indiae Orientalis. Madras.
(1840-50) : Illustrations of
Indian Botany Madras.
——_—— (1846-51) : Spicilegium neilg-

herrense. Madras.

Aplanospore formation or outcome
of Parasitic Attack ?

BY

ELLA A. GONZALVES AND G. R. SONNAD'!

(With a plate)

The formation of ovoid, ellipsoid or irregularly-shaped aplanospores
by the protoplast of the cells of several of the larger species of Oedo-
gonium, and occasionally in Bulbochaete, has been mentioned by Tiffany
(1930) in his monograph on the Oedogoniales (p. 21). Earlier, he
(Tiffany 1926) had stated that when filaments are attacked by fungal
parasites, single aplanospore-like structures might be observable in the
cells. Handa (1928), too, noticed what he called ‘akinetes’ in Oedo-
gonium, due to withdrawal of the protoplast from the c2ll wall and
its rounding in two masses within a cell, each mass having a wall
around it. As the material was collected from the Southern Shan
States of Burma at an elevation of 4615 ft.. Handa inferred that a
high altitude, with its accompanying low temperature, might have
been conducive to the production of such akinetes in Oedogonium.
Fritsch (1935) in a footnote on p. 301 opined that Handa’s record of
such stages was questionable, owing to the possibility of the presence
of a parasite.

A phenomenon similar to the one recorded by Handa (1928) was
seen by Randhawa (1937) in the cells of a fertile species of Oedogonium.,
except that in Randhawa’s material, the protoplast aggregated in a
single obovoid mass within the cell and not in two masses. The
mass was usually surrounded by a thick wall, but in recently divided
cells the wall was thin.

According to Randhawa (1937), it is incorrect to refer to these
accumulations of protoplasm as akinetes, for the latter, as he states,
‘are usually produced by the transformation of whole cells by the
secondary thickening of the cell wall’ and not, as in these cases, within
the parent cell. He rightly maintained that as his specimens were
collected from the plains of the Punjab, the formation of such masses
could not be attributed either to high altitude or to low temperature
conditions. Moreover, as he did not find any fungus parasitizing the

1 The junior author has, unfortunately, not lived to see the publication of this paper,
his untimely death having occurred a short time ago.

508 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

alga, he held that the masses were, in all probability, zoospores, which,
for some reason, had been unable to escape from the cells and had
jost their flagella and developed thick walls around themselves. He,
therefore, regarded them as aplanospores. Islam & Sarma (1963) also
found such spore-like structures in the cells of two terrestrial species
of Oedogonium. They, too, regarded them as aplanospores, as they
did not observe any evidence of fungal attack.

During a survey of the Oedogoniales of the Karnatak, the authors
colected specimens of Oedogonium crassum [(Has.) Wittr.] Hirn,
from Narendra Tank, Dharwar. Examination showed that the alga
was growing vigorously, but in the cells of a few filaments, the proto-
plast had withdrawn from the cell wall and had assembled in the
cenire of the cell (Fig. 1, a). Some cells had, however, two, or
even three. such masses (Fig. 1, b, c). The masses were globose
or somewhat oblong, each being surrounded by a thin or a fairly
prominent membrane. They varied in size, the globose ones being
28-38 j, in diameter, the oblong ones being 28-37 uw by 40-50 x.
To observe the condition of these filaments more closely, the material
was grown in a trough in the laboratory. Lapse of a brief period
showed a large percentage of the filaments manifesting this condition,
while vegetative growth had slowed down considerably.

The manner in which two masses arose in a cell was either by
division of the original protoplast into two, followed by rounding of
the daughter protoplasts, or by the migration of the contracted proto-
plast of a cell through a central pore in the transverse wall into an
adjacent cell in which massing of the protoplast had already occurred
(Figs. 1, 2, m). The cell containing two masses would thus be flanked
by an empty cell on one side (Fig. 1, b). Occasionally, the two masses
in a cell moved into adioining cells to the right and left of them
respectively.

Occurrence of three masses was due either to a cell containing
two masses becoming the recipient of the contracted protoplast of
a neighbouring cell or to a cell with one mass receiving the contents
of ihe cells on either side of it.

Treatment with iodine revealed the presence of starch in some of
the masses, but most of them had little or no starch; instead, such
masses assumed a reddish-orange colour. The nucleus, too, was un-
detectable and in many of the masses, several scattered vacuoles or one
large central vacuole appeared.

The condition observed here appears to be similar to that recorded
by Handa (1928) and by Randhawa (1937), but it is possible that
massing of the protoplast in this instance is due to the attack of an
endophytic chytrid. Sparrow (1943) described the Olpidium type of

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 67 (3)

Ella A. Gonzalves: Oedogonium

x

Fic. 1. Aggregationof protoplasts in one (a), two (6) and three (c) masses within
a cell.

Fic. 2. Migration (m) of protoplast from one cell into an adjoining cell through
an Opening in the transverse wall.

APLANOSPORE FORMATION OR PARASITIC ATTACK? 509

thallus in the Chytridiales to be spherical or ellipsoidal and capable
of being carried away over distances as the result of cytoplasmic
movement of the host. Moreover, transparency of the vegetative part
of its thallus may render unsuspect the presence of the parasite within
the cells of the host.

The movements of the protoplasmic masses could thus be due to
the presence of a fungal thallus within the contracted protoplast.
Scherffel (1925) records that Tribonema, attacked by Chytridium
confervae, reacted by concentration of the plasma in the region of
the infection tube, while the host nucleus travelled from its original
position to the point of infection. Wall material was then secreted in
order to check the attack of the parasite. It is likely that the
occurrences here are similar. When the tube formed by the encysted
zoospore of the chytrid penetrated into the algal cell, the protoplast
probably separated from the wall and secreted a membrane around
itself to stop, perhaps, the incursion of the parasite. However, after
the parasite established itself within the protoplast, it attacked and
destroyed the nucleus. It also utilized the stored food material, viz.
starch, which, as infection proceeded, was reduced in the cell.

Thus, the adscription of the term ‘aplanospcres’ to such structures
as have been described here, and by previous investigators, will be
Open to question, unless convincing supporting evidence of the
liberation, germination and further development of these spore-like
structures is forthcoming

REFERENCES

HAnDA, M. R. (1928) : Akinetes in a
species of Oedogonium. J. Indian bot.

Phycomycetes. Waverley Press,Balti-
more M. D., 785 pp.

Soc. 7: 15-16.

RanpDHAWA, M. S. (1937): A note
on aplanospores in a species of Oedogo-
nium. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 4 : 97-107.

SCHERFFEL, A. (1925): Beitrage zur
Kenntnis der Chytridineen I. Arch.
Protistenk. 53: 1-58.

Sparrow, F. K. (1943): Aquatic

10

TIFFANY, L. H. (1926): The filamen-
tous algae of northwestern Iowa, with
special reference to the Oedogoniaceae.
Trans. Amer. micr. Soc. 45 : 69-132.
(1930) : The Oedogoniceae,
a monograph including all the known
species of the genera Bulbochaete, Oedo-
cladium and Oedogonium. Columbus
Ohio, 253 pp.

Spawning habits, eggs and early
development of Deccan Mahseer,
Tor khudree (Sykes)

BY

C. V. KULKARNI

(With five text-fieures)

LNerRO DAC TA ON

Mahseers, a group of large Indian carps, are well known as excellent
game fish in India, comparable to similar sport fish elsewhere in the
world. They had attracted the attention of angler naturalists like
Thomas (1897) Skene-Dhu (1918) Macdonald (1948) etc., who wrote
on the natural history and the special traits of the fish from the
anglers’ point of view. Hora (1939, 1941, 1942) wrote several articles
on the taxonomy, distinguishing characters of the species, races and
colour varieties of Mahseers of India and Burma. Hora & Nazir
Ahmed (1946) described the spawning habits of Katli Mahseer of
Assam and Nazir Ahmed (1948) described the early stages of the
Copper Mahseer, Lissochilus hexagonolepis. David (1953) dealt with
the bionomics and some early stages of the Mahanadi Mahseer,
Barbus (Tor) mosal mahanadicus. Recently Karamchandani ef al.
(1967) gave an account of fishery and biology of Tor tor (Hamilton)
from Narmada River, Madhya Pradesh. Several other notes on Mah-
seers are also available, nevertheless, very little is known about the breeding
habits and early development of the Deccan Mahseer, Tor khudree
(Sykes). [ had recently an opportunity to study the breeding habits
and early development of this fish (7. khudree) at lake Walwhan of
the Tata Hydro-Hlectric Power Supply Co., near Lonavla, Dist. Poona.
The lake has a water spread of about 800 ha. and a maximum depth of
17 m. Despite the usual difficulties of obtaining mature brood fish
at the righi time, eggs and early stages were obtained by stripping
ripe males and females and by fertilising the eggs artificially. A
descriptive account of this work is given.

BREEDING SEASON OF Jor khudree

It is well known that the breeding season of Indian carps is, but
for slight variations, more or less common namely during the early
part of the monsoon season. Mahseers, though belonging to the same

SPAWNING AND DEVELOPMENT OF DECCAN MAHSEER la}

family, appear to have, according to published accounts, a varied
breeding season. Day (1872), Beavan (1871) & Skene-Dhu (loc. cit.)
believed that Mahseers breed several times in a year including monsoon
inonths. Thomas (1897) recorded their breeding at intervals during
post-monsoon months. Macdonald (1948) states that ‘the Putitor
Mahseer is said to spawn three times in the year. In the Punjab, ihe
three spawning seasons are (1) January-February (2) May & June
(3) July to September.’ Nazir Ahmed (loc. cit.) observed the breeding
season of Assam Mahseer to extend from April to October with a
peak in August and September; whereas David (loc. cit.) states that the
Mahanadi Mahseer breeds after the monsoon between November and
January. He adds that ‘in Barbus (Tor) khudree and Barbus (Tor)
mussuallah spawning takes place in November in the Cauvery system’.
Karamchandani (loc, cit.) records that breeding season of Tor /0r
commences in July-August and continues up to December. From the
above records, it would be seen that there are different observations
largely indicating that the spawning season is not limited to a short
period of one or two months like in other major carps but is a pro-
longed one. However, the observations made at Lonavla (Walwhan
Lake) during July and August 1970 indicate that these two months,
or more precisely a period of a month or so in these two months
represents the spawning period. Records of fish caught from the above
lake with the help of gillnets operated in the spawning area are as
under : —

Tey GRY eas NEARS BS ECS a ee Rn A

No. of fish Condition of
Date caught od se) fish

31-vu-70 30 20 Oozing—18
spent—2
10 Oozing—nil
full—9
spent—1
3-viI-70 9 5 All ripe
4 3 ripe (loaded)
1 spent
8-vilI-70 17 11 7 ripe
4 spent
6 2 half spent
4 spent
21-vit-70 21 17 15 spent
2 half spent
4 2 spent
2 half spent
27-vitt-70 26 22 12 spent
10 half spent
4 3 spent
1 half spent

eee en ener enna eee ee

512. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

It will be seen from the above catch details that the last tew days
of July and the first week or ten days of August was the spawning
period for the year 1970. Connecting this with the meteorological
conditions such as rainfall and the resulting changes in the lake levels,
it would be seen that out of the yearly (monsoon season) rainfall of
4285 mm. (160 in.) about 1825 mm. (73 in.) fell up to July 31, 1970,
When the spawning activity appears to have set in. At this time the
lake level rose from 6-62 m. (21-7 fi.) on 3-vi-70 to 8:5 m. (27:89 ft.)
and the temperature of water fell to 24°C. This rise in the level en-
abled the mature fish to approach some of the streams which flow
into the lake. Level areas at the confluence of these streams with the lake
were inundated and provided spawning beds, though the actual spawn-
ing activity with the usual commotion could not be seen. Rainfall in
the lake area commenced from 4-vi-70. The stimulus of rainfall and
dilution of lake water can therefore be said to have commenced from
that day and to have activated the gonadotropic hormone secretions
Stage by stage. Actual flooding and low temperature of water triggered
the spawning activity. Early part of monsoon of 1970 was rather weak
at Lonavla and this might have delayed the normal onset of breeding
activity at the lake. Even then from the number of ripe fish caught
on 31-vii-70, it can be surmised that the activity had already started.
The area where netting was done receives water from three hill streams
expected to attract breeding fish. Though the number of fish caught
appears to be small, taking into consideration the depth and extent
of the main lake, the shallow small area of water fished and the length
of the net used, the catch indicates fairly enhanced activity of the
Mahseers. On 8-viii-70 large females (3 Kg.) in half spent condition
were obtained. It is probable that the half spent condition may be
due to their being caught in a gillnet where they usually strugele for
their life before they are removed and kept in a conditioning net.
During this struggle they may have shed their eggs. Half spent
condition after removal from the net is, therefore, considered as ripe
and full. However, the catches in the second fortnight of August 1970
indicate that although adult fish were caught, most of them were spent.
The spent condition indicated that spawning was over. Whether the
same fish has another spell of spawning has to be examined in future.
However, from the details gathered so far. a fortnight or two between
late July and early August seem to be the peak breeding period of
Mahseer in Walwhan and also its adjoining Shirawta Lake.

Two of the females caught on 8-viii-70 which were in ripe condition,
though actually half spent, were stripped and the eggs fertilised with
the help of milt of the males caught with them. About 10,000 eggs

SPAWNING AND DEVELOPMENT OF DECCAN MAHSEER _ 513

were thus obtained, the fertilization being about 90%. It was probably
for the first time in India that sucha large number of eggs of Mahseer
were obtained by stripping, fertilised successfully and grown to fry and
fingerling stage excepting Nazir Ahmed’s (loc. cit.) initial effort with
the Copper Mahseer of Assam on a smaller scale. For the Deccan ~
Mahseer, this is the first time that the eggs, post larvae and fry, are
obtained and described.

DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERS OF MALE AND FEMALE MAHSEERS

Sexual differentiation of Mahseers is not quite apparent to an un-
trained eye. Coloration in all fins is uniformly bluish in both sexes
and the body pale golden yellow and abdomen white. However, the
pectoral fin of the male is comparatively longer, reaching the seventh
scale below the lateral line. Its outer ray is pointed, straight and its
inner margin also almost straight. The pectoral fin of the female is
short, reaching below the fifth or sixth scale of the lateral line and its
inner margin is concave. Its fin membrane is thicker than in the male
and its outer ray is bent inwards. Apart from the bulkiness of the
abdomen giving rise te an arched ventrai profile, another distinguishing
feature of the female is that the base of the anal fin projects out of
the profile line, while the profile is comparatively straight or less
arched and the base of the anal fin does not very much project out
of the prcfile line in the male. Fine tubercles are sometimes present
on the gill cover below the eyes in the male but this character is not
always reliable. Similarly the roughness of the pectorals in the males
is only slightly felt and requires considerable experience.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE DECCAN MAHSEER. TOr khudree (SYKES)

Egg & Embryo:

The eggs of Tor khudree are distinctive in as much as they are not
colourless like those of Catla, Rohu, etc. but are bright lemon yellow
verging on golden brown. They resemble eggs of Puntius kolus but
are larger than the latter. The perivitelline space is small and they
absorb only a small quantity of water. The egg is about 2:5 mm. in
diameter when freshiy laid and increases in size to 3:2 mm. after
absorption of water. Unlike egg of other carps, they are comparatively
heavy and demersal, and they are also not soft and smooth like other
carp eges but tough and somewhat rough to touch. They resemble

514. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

trout eggs but are smaller in size and comparatively lighter in weight.

Figure ja illustrates a freshly laid egg, heavily yolked and without oil _
globules. Figure 1b indicates an egg three hours after fertilization.

Figy I:

Eggs of Mahseer, Tor khudree (Sykes)

a: Newly laidegg. b: Egg, three hour after fertilization. c: Egg, 24 hours after
fertilization.

d: Egg, 48 hours after fertilization.e: Egg, 58 hours after fertilization,

SPAWNING AND DEVELOPMENT OF DECCAN MAHSEER | 515

It shows a cap of protoplasm gathered at one pole of the egg forming
a blastodisc.

After 24 hours (Fig. Ic), the embryo develops further and becomes
comma shaped; the cephalic portion can be distinguished but the optic
lobes are not clear. The head as well as body of the embryo are
closely: attached to the yolk. There is no visible movement of the
embryo.

After 48 hours (Fig. 1d), the head as well as the tai! portion of
the embryo are prolonged and they are distinctly seen raised on the
surface of the yolk which is now comparatively reduced in size. Twiiching
movements of the embryo are seen but they are slow and occur after
an interval of two or three minutes. The movements at this stage are
not jerky as in the Rohu or Catla eggs. Outline of the eyes and the
lens are seen but no pigment in the eyes is yet visible.

After about 58 hours, there is not much apparent change in the embryo
but the body becomes more defined and clearer, and the head well-
defined. The sclerotic ring and the iens are seen but without pigment.
Movement of the embryo within the egg has now become more frequent
and vigorous than in the previous stage. This movement is so force-
ful that it makes the egg roll if kept in a flat petrie dish.

After 60 hours the eggs hatch and at the time of hatching, the
actual rupture of the egg membrane takes place by the lashing move-
ments of the tail, which bends below the abdomen and then straightens
out. Out of the three eggs watched in this way. two hatchlings came
out normaliy and without difficulty but the third had its large yolk
sac and head entangled in the ege membrane. This is due to the
relatively large yolk sac which may prove to be a handicap leading to
a sizeable mortality in natural hatching.

The second batch of 14 eggs observed hatched out between 60 and
72 hours and the third batch of 16 eggs between 72 and 80 hours. It can
be thus assumed that under laboratory .conditions where water is
aerated and changed occasionally and the ambient temperature i$
largely constant at 29°C, and water temperature 27°C. the hatching
period is 60 to 80 hours. In nature, if the conditions are more favour-
able, the period may be shorter, but in all probability this may not be
the case, with the variations in day and night temperatures, depending
on.whether the eggs are deposited in shallow or deep waters and
whether they are lumped together or spread out.

Hatchling :
The first post-larva or the earliest hatchling of the Mahseer (Fig. 2)
is about 9 mm. in total length and has a large, prominent, yellow,

516 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

yolk sac divided into two lobes. Its anterior part is larger (c. 2.8 mm.
in length) and more rounded than the posterior (c. 2:5 mm. in length)
which is elongated. The eyes are formed, the eyeball and the outer

0 eee ws

ae core at 5303

Pa
ges ge hae

Fig. 2. a: Lateral view of a newly hatched post-larva (hatchling)
of T. khudree (Sykes). b: Dorsal view of the same,

ring can be seen but there is no pigment. The otocysts can be seen
in live specimens. The heart pulsates at about 100 to 105 beats per
minute. A few colourless blood corpuscles: could be seen. The aorta
is also formed. Except for the colour of the yolk sac, ihe post-larva
is colourless. A continuous embryonic fin fold starts dorsally from
the middle of the two lobes of the yolk sac and proceeding back-
wards round the caudal portion, ends ventrally near the posterior
margin of the yolk sac. Pectoral is seen as a minute bud. No traces
of fin rays are seen at this stage in any fin area.

The pest-larva remained quiescent on its side at the bottom of
the tray and moved in jerky manner, vibrating its tail only when
slightly disturbed.

Three day old post-larva :

Total length 11 mm. Rests on its yolk sac ventrally and with
the dorsal finfold pointing upwards (Fig. 3). Towards the end of
the third day, it moved more frequently than before but remained at
the bottom, though a few occasionally swam momentarily upwards in
the usual jerky manner and again settled on the bottom.

SPAWNING AND DEVELOPMENT OF DECCAN MAHSEER _ 517

A significant development at this stage is the appearance of pigment
in the eyeball and melanophores on the dorsal side of the eye. On

7 ox WO La eves ae ey we Ae ae x
ie is ea -) -~ a reed AGEL gases Le elite i
ee os weet SE SATCU eet gee

Fig. 3. Three-day-old hatchling of T. khudree (Sykes).

both sides of the dorsal fin fold there are black chromatophores. The
pectoral fin now develops. Gill covers are well defined and gill
filaments are seen. The jaws are formed. In living specimens, the
black eyeball has a golden ring surrounded by black chromatophores
Otocysts are clearly marked. The pulsating heart can be clearly seen
and the bleod corpuscles have become distinctly red in colour. The
two portions of the yolk sac appear to be losing their distinctness by
reduction of the constriction between them and merge into a long
but anteriorly enlarged yolk sac. The dorsal finfold is extended or
produced upwards at the place of origin of the dorsal fin. Fin rays
on the lower lobe of the caudal fin make their appearance. The anal
opening develops.

Six day old post-larya :
Total length of fry 12 mm. (Fig. 4). Though there is not much
increase in total length, the structural development has gone fairly

Jia gce ee ew ee.
3 Py ea

Fig. 4. Six-day-old hatchling of 7. khudree (Sykes).

apace. In addition to the pectorals, the dorsal fin is clearly de-
marcated from the original fin fold and as many as ten rays in the
formative stage are visible. The caudal fin lobes are marked out and

518 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

full 19 fin rays could be counted. The anal fin lobe is discernible
but without fin rays. Anal opening and a part of the anal track is
visibie. A fin fold has developed on the posterior portion of the
yolk sac but anterior to the anal opening. ‘The constriction between
the anterior and posterior portions of the yolk sac had completely
disappeared and the latter becomes a continuous fusiform structure.

The eyes have become prominent and bright. Chromatophores
lave appeared on the head and slightly behind the eyes. A double
row of small pigment spots is seen on either side of the dorsal fin,
between the lateral line and dorsal profile line. Small chromatophores
occur on the body also. A distinct congregation of chromatophores
forming a black spot or a blotch is seen on the base of the caudal fin.
Anterior to and above the yolk sac and below the vertebral column,
an air bladder develops which when viewed from above, appears oval.
This is seen only in living specimens. The jaws are constantly in
motion.

The fry at this stage (12 mm.) is erect but not free swimming and
prefers to remain at the bottom when not disturbed. In a net, they
prefer to remain huddled together. This habit may lead to heavy
mortality either due to lack of oxvgen in the corners where they
congregate or to a prowling predator getting a large number of motion-
less fry settled in one place at a time.

On the &th day. the fry commenced swimming but they preferred
to move on the side walls of the net, probably simulating the adult
habit of trowsing on submerged rocks. The behaviour could also
be interpreied as disinchnation or inability to swim freely in the open
waters. The sedantary habit accompanied by occassional jerky move-
ments for about 8 days may make the fry an easy prey to predators
who may be attracted by the movements and the comparatively large
size of the fry.

Eleven dav old fry:

At eleven days. the fry becomes a free swimming individual
and feeds on Moina, small Daphnia and Cyclops. It has not progressed
much as far as its length is concerned, it being only 13.5 mm. in total
length. in addition to the concentration of chromatophores on the
head, a row of elongated or dash-like chromatophores are seen along
the lateral line and also on the caudai rays and the ventral line between
the anal opening and the caudal fin. The caudal blotch is distinct and
somewhat triradiate when viewed under.a microscope. The volk sac
is not yet fully absorbed. The air bladder continues to grow in size.
About 38 vertebrae could be counted in a living specimen.

SPAWNING AND DEVELOPMENT OF DECCAN MAHSEER _ 519

Further progress in fin formation is seen in the appearance of a
small bud representing the pelvic fin, a small finfold yet continuing
on its anterior and posterior side. A finfold at the base of the caudal
is also persistent. The caudal is now distinctly forked and anal fin
has developed seven rays. Dorsal has ten fin rays and is situated
almost midway between the base of the caudal and the top of the
snout. but slightly in advance of the pelvic fin bud. The dorsal profile
is rounded; the ventral being almost straight except at the yolk sac
portion.

Twenty day old fry:

The 20-day old fry (Fig, 5). is an actively moving individual about
26 mm. in total lengih. It continues to feed on Moina, Daphnia, etc.
The bodv is covered with small chromatophores but as they are spars:

Gavs old fry of T. kludree (Sykes).

and small, the generat colour of the fry appears yellowish. No
chromatonhores are seen on the abdomen and below the head, the
area appearing clear white. Small elongated chromatophores are formed
on the caudal and dorsal fin rays but in the case of the anal, they are
situated on the basal portion of the first two branched rays only. They
are absent on the pelvic and pectoral fins. The caudal blotch is quite
prominent and its triradiate form has changed into somewhat oblong
form with broken margin.

The yolk sac has disappeared and the ventral profile is almosi
straight The dorsal profile continues te be arched. It becomes more
pronunently arched on fixation in formalin. Along with other fins,
the pelvics are also well developed. The anal has 8 fin rays. They
are simple but branched only at the terminal portion. Dorsal has
eleven rays. The first undivided ray is just developing, the second
and third undivided rays are clearly seen. Other rays are branched

520. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

only at their terminal portion. In the pelvics also, the first ray is
rudimentary the second undivided and the rest branched terminally.

The fry is thus well developed in all respects. In an unhealthy or
ill fed fry, the chromatophores are more dense and consequently the
fry looks blackish in colour and not yellowish as in the case of healthy
ones. Similarly the rate of development may also change in un-
favourable conditions.

PISCICULTURAL POSSIBILITIES

The present observations indicate that if ripe males and females
could be cbtained at the right time. stripping and artificial fertilization
are not difficult. The eggs being tough and hard and the hatching
period being long, (60 to 80 hours), transportation of eggs over long
distances is feasible in properly designed trays or boxes ‘as in the
case of trout eggs. Compared to Catla, Rchu etc. there is less mortality
in the eggs after fertilization. Similarly the hatchlings and fry seem
to be hardy. Although the critical quiescent period is very long, nearly
7 to 8 days after hatching, mortality is fairly low if proper care is
taken and hatchlings are not allowed to lie or rest on muddy surfaces.
Further, as the quantity of yolk is fairly jarge, the hatchlings at the
time they become free swimming, are large enough to take Moina,
small Daphnia, etc. The hatchlings being more than 12 mm., when
they become free swimming, there is hardiy any spawn stage. They
can be said to emerge as fry only. After four days, thev take finely
macerated hard boiled egg albumen. Thus raising of fry is not difficult,
but the long hatching and quiescent period is not conducive to large
Output unless a lot of space and other facilities are available.

Apart from the unguestionable utility of Mahseer for lakes in
which angiing is practised, the fish being goad eating, it can be grown
in ponds and may add to the list of culturable species in tropical and
especially sub-tropicai waters where other species of Mahseer are
known to thrive. It is reported that large numbers of Mahseer fry
can be collected from rivers and streams of Himachal Pradesh. From
Narmada also fry are collected in Madhya Pradesh. David (loc. cit.)
reports occurrence of large number of fry in Mahanadi and records a
growth of 170 to 200 mm., in natural ponds in four months. However,
further observations on the food of juveniles and their rate of growth

are necessary.

SPAWNING AND DEVELOPMENT OF DECCAN MAHSEER © 521
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Shri §. Moolgackar of Tata Engineering and Loco-
motive Company and the authorities of Tata Hydro-Electric Company
for giving me opportunities to carry out the above observations at their
lakes and for other facilities. My grateful thanks are also due to
Shri Alikunhi, Director, Central Institute of Fisheries Education,
Versova, for giving very willing co-operation, laboratory facilities and
for the micro-photographs,

REFERENCES

AHMED, Nazir (1948) : On the spawn-
ing habits and early development of the
Copper Mahseer, Barbus (Lissochilus)
hexagonolapis McClelland. Proc. Nat.
Inst. Sci. India. 14: 21-28.

BEAVAN, R. (1877): Handbook of
fresh water fishes of India.
Davip, A. (1953): Notes on the

bionomics and some early states of the
Mahanadi Mahseer. Journ. Asia. Soc.
Sci. 19(2): 197-209.

Day, F. (1873) : Report of fresh water
fish and fisheries of India and Burma.

Hora, S. L. (1939) : The game fishes
of India. VIII. The Mahseers or the
large scaled barbels of India. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 41 : 272-285.

———. (1941): The game fishes of
India XIV. The black Mahseer with
notes on other colour varieties. ibid. 42:

803-815.
————. (1942): The game fishes of
India XV. On the specific identity of

Sykes’ species of Barbus from the Deccan.
ibid. 43 : 163-169
— & Misra, K. S. (1938): Fish
of Deolali, Part III, ibid. 40: 20-38.
& Nazir AHMED (1946):
Culture of Katli, Barbus (Lissochilus)
hexagonolapis McClelland in Darjeeling,
Himalayas, Fish Dev. Pamphlet No. 3,
Directorate of Fisheries, West Bengal.

KARAMCHANDANI, S. J. et al. (1967) :
Biological investigations on the fish and
fisheries of the Narbada river, Bulletin
10. Central Inland Fisheries Research
Institute, Barrackpore, West Bengal.

MacDonaLp, A. St. J. (1948) : Cir-
cumventing the Mahseer and _ other
sporting fish of India and Burma. Bom-
bay nat. Hist. Soc. Bombay.

SKENE-DHU (1918): The angler in
Northern India, Allahabad.

THomas, H. S. (1897): The Rod in
India.

Aspects of the Flora, and Ecology of
Savannas of the South Indian Hills

BY

F. BLAsco
Institut Francais, Pondicherry

Two biological criteria enable us to characterise the high plateaux of
south India above an altitude of 1700-1900 m, : the floristic peculiarities
and the different types of savannas.

These high plateaux are essentially covered with savannas, generally
shrubby or bushy, fundamentally different from those of lower elevation.
These are grassy formations, usually dense and low, often traversed by
fire. Their physiognomy, floristic composition and dynamism are deter-
mined by the biotic factors and different types of soils and climates.

Their climate may be classified amongst the tropical humid or sub-
humid types, locally sub-dry (< 1000 mm. rainfall, 3 to 4 months dry),
with a moderately cool season (mean temperature of the coldest month
between 10 and 15°C) with some days of frost per year (from December
to March). These winter months are either dry or only slightly humid.
At this altitude all the soils form part of the group of leached ferrallitic
soils.

At least four types of altitudinal savannas developing on firm ground
may be recognised. They are described.

ASPECTS OF THE FLORA

At these altitudes I have encountered 356 indigenous and spon-
taneous species which are not found at lower altitude. Most of these
are endemic because 223 species are known only in the ‘ montane stage’
of south India ; 17 are also known in northern India, particularly in the
Himalayas ; 52 are also reported in Ceylon whereas 36 extend to different
countries of Asia. Therefore, most of the typical species of the ‘ montane
stage’ have a limited geographic distribution because 275 species out of
380 are localised in the hills of south India and Ceylon.

Another peculiarity is that this typical flora is herbaceous. Out of 380
species, 201 are endemic herbs, 44 are undershrubs. Out of 223 endemic
species, 92 are herbaceous and 37 undershrubs or hemixyles. Many of
these are savanna species. In this article I have limited myself :to the
montane flora of the Nilgiris and Palni.

FLORA AND ECOLOGY ‘OF SAVANNAS §33

(a) Species probably endemic in the montane stage of the Nilgiris

Taking into account the multiplicity of the dispersal mechanisms of
the species (see Razi 1950, 1954) and the proximity of the Palni and
Anaimalai, the abundance of the endemic in the montane domain of the
Nilgiris is surprising even without counting varietics and subspecies.
82 species (66 Dicots and 16 Monocots) are exclusively confined to this
region. All of these are cited below to enable future research workers
to bring further precision.

Dicotyledons
ACANTHACEAE !. debilis Turcz.
Andrographis lawsoni Gamb. regia ts PASC
ne I, lawsoni Hk. f.
A. lobelioides W. 3
A I. neo-barnesii C. Fisch.
. Stellulata Cl. ae
nf ! I. nilgirica C. Fisch.
Leptacanthus amabilis (Cl.) Brem. ie
I. orchioides Bedd.
Phlebophyllum — lanatum (Nees) |
I. rufescens Benth.
some I. tenella Heyne
Nilgirianthus papillosus (T. And.) —
Brem.

Pleocanthus sessilis (Nees) Brem.
Mackenziea violacea (Bedd.) Brem.

LABIATAE

Nilgirianthus wightianus (Nees) “¢#¢as rosmarinifolia Benth.
Brem. Orthosiphon rubicundus Benth. var,
hohenackeri Hk. f.
pero Pogostemon nilagiricus Gamb.

P. paludosus Benth.
Sche fflera rostrata Harms Teucrium wightii Hk. f.

ASCLEPIADACEAE
BERBERIDACEAE

Brachylepis nervosa W. & A.
Berberis nilghiriensis Ahrendt.

CAPRIFOLIACEAE

Viburnum hebanthum W. & A.

CELASTRACEAE

Microtropis ovalifolia W.

GERANIACEAE

Biophytum polyphyllum Munro
Impatiens beddomei Hk. f.

COMPOSITAE

Anaphalis neelgherryana DC.
A. notoniana DC.
Helichrysum wightii Cl.
Senecio kundaicus Fisch.

S. lawsoni Gamb.

S. lessingianus Cl.

S. polycephalus Cl.

Yungia nilgirriensis Bab.

524. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

CONVOLVULACEAE

Argyreia nellygherya Choisy.

EUPHORBIACEAE

Dalechampia velutina W.

GENTIANACEAE

Swertia trichotoma Wall.

PAPILIONACEAE

Alysicarpus beddomei Schindl.
Crotalaria barbata Grah.

C. candicans W. & A.

C. formosa Grah.

Dalbergia gardneriana Benth.

PIPERACEAE

Piper pikarhense C.DC.
P. ootacamundse C.DC.

HYPERICACEAE

Hypericum japonicum Thunb.
var. major Fys.

RUTACEAE

Melicope indica W.

SYMPLOCACEAE

Symplocos microphylla W.

UMBELLIFERAE

Bupleurum plantaginifolium W.

Heracleum hookerianum W. & A.

LAURACEAE

Cinnamomum perrottetii Meissn.

ROSACEAE

Pygeum sisparense Gamb.
Rubus rugosus Sm. var. thwaitesii
Focke

RUBIACEAE

Oldenlandia hirsutissima O. Kze.

O. sisaparensis Gamb.

Ophiorrhiza pykarensis Gamb.

Pavetta breviflora DC. var. ciliolata
Gamb. mae

P. hohenackeri Brem.

LORANTHACEAE

Dendrophthoe neelgherrensis Van.
Tieghem. var. clarkei Hk. f.

Loranthus recurvus Wall.

Viscum orbiculatum W.

MELASTOMACEAE

Memecylon flavescens Gamb.

MIMOSACEAE

Acacia hohenackeri Craib.

MYRTACEAE

Syzygium montanum Gamb.

Monocotyledons
AROIDEAE

Arisaema tube: culatum C. Fisch.
A. tylophorum C. Fisch.

FLORA AND ECOLOGY OF SAVANNAS 525

CYPERACEAE Helictotrichon asperum (Munro)
~- Bor var. polyneuron C. Fisch.
Eriochrysis rangacharii C. Fisch.
Garnotia geniculata Santos
Isachne deccanensis Bor
ERIOCAULACEAE Poa gamblei Bor

Ascopholis gamblei C. Fisch.
Carex pseudo-aperta Boeck

Eriocaulon pectinatum Ruhl

FE. robustum Steud.. ORCHIDACEAE

Cirrhopetalum acutiflorum A. Rich.

EINE Coelogyne odoratissima Lindl. var.
angustifolia Lindl.
Arundinaria wightiana Nees Habenaria fimbriata W.
var. hispida Gamb. Liparis biloba W.

The Nilgiris appear as an important centre of speciation in south
India, next only to Travancore and Tirunelveli.

(b) Species probably endemic in the montane stage of the Palni

I have counted 18 species, 15 Dicots, 3 Monocots :

Two trees : Actinodaphne bourneae Gamb., Pittosporum undulatum
Vent ; seven small ligneous species: Crotalaria conferta Fys., C.
kodaiensis Deb and Biswas, Rubus fairholmianus Gardn., Vernonia
pulneyensis Gamb., V. fysonii Cald., Anaphalis beddomei Hk. f., Aniso-
chilus argenteus Gamb.; eight herbs: Acrocephalus palniensis Muk.,
Anotis longiflora Hutch., Emilia zeylanica Cl. var. paludosa Gamb.,
Pimpinella pulneyensis Gamb., Christisonia saulierei Dunn., Garnotia
palniensis Santos, Carex raphidocarpa Nees and Habenaria elliptica W. ;
and one climber : Melothria angulata Chak. .

Endemism in the montane stage of the Palni (18 species) and Anaimalai
(13 species) is therefore very low compared to that of the Nilgiris. This
leads us to the conclusion that many of the species formedin the ea
have not left this massif.

The explanation seems to be that the anemochores appearing on: the
Nilgiris have only a very slight chance of reaching the hills lying further
south as the dominant winds blow from the south-west. It is also
probable that there are among them neo-endemics which have not yet
migrated southwards. As a matter of fact there is no ecological barrier
between different localities in the montane stage of south India and Ceylon:
(Legris & Blasco 1969). A number of trees, mostly zoochore, are known
from all these hijls and high altitude of Ceylon; examples are Jlex
wightiana Wall., I. denticulata Wall., ‘Microtropis ramiflora Wt., Casearia
coriacea Thw., Syzygium calophyllifolium Walp., Viburnum erubescens
Wall., Vaccinium leschenaultii Wt., Rapanea wightiana Mez.,. Olea poly-

11

526. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

gama Wt., Symplocos obtusa Wt., Excoecaria crenulata Wt., Pittosporum
tetraspermum W. & A., Meliosma wightii Planch., Michelia nilagirica
Zenk: ete. Lh

None of these extend up to the Himalayas.

(c) Asiatic and Himalayan species known only in the montane domain
(or stage) of south India.

The classical example is that of Rhododendron, the ea Sie: races of
which, sub-species or species of south India and Ceylon (R. nilagiricum
Zenk. and R. zeylanicum Hort. ex Loud.) differ slightly from the
Himalayan type (R. arboreum Sm.).

The other ligneous species Berberis tinctoria Lesch. and Cotoneaster
buxifolia Wall., have ecology and distribution similar to that of Rhodo-
dendron. For the herbaceous species, the distribution is yet wider.
Fragaria indica Andr., Potentilla kleiniana W. & A. Viola patrinii DC.,
V. serpens Wall., Thalictrum javanicum Bl. are the Asian orophytes occur-
ring beyond the limits of Indian territory.

Origin of species in south India

I shall only mention those species like Eurya japonica Thunb., Evodia
lunu-ankenda Merr., Ternstroemia japonica L. encountered in different
countries of Asia which have a sufficiently vast ecological amplitude to
reach the montane stage in south India. As they also occur at lower
altitude, they are not characteristic of montane stage.

On the other hand, some Asiatic trees and shrubs not large in number
(Glochidion fagifolium Hk. f., Daphniphyllum neilgherrense Ros., Penta-
panax leschenaultii Seem., Rhodomyrtus tomentosa Wt.) are typical of the
montane stage.

The theories proposed till now to explain the presence of these species
requiring cool climate in south India envisage large topographic or cli-
matic changes which to this author do not appear indispensable for the
explanation.

It is tempting to think that the Pleistocene glaciation, probably felt
in the Himalayan region, favoured the North-South migration of a part
of the subtropical flora. It has also been pointed out that ‘the various
stations at which a particular species is found at present, once formed
part of a continuous range of distribution of the species.... In the
regions in between the stations it has died out due to topographical
changes leading to climatological variations’ (Hora in Croizat
1968, p. 544).

These two hypotheses do not easily apply to the species considered
here. Firstly because the continuity of the Eastern Ghats if at all it
existed, dates from the Tertiary. Beyond a few million years many
species of Angiosperms would have evolved or disappeared. In this

FLORA AND ECOLOGY OF SAVANNAS 527

hypothesis (Zeuner 1958, p. 392; Kremp 1969) the theory of physical
continuity cannot be retained for the species presently common to south
India and Himalayas.

As for the recent large thermic fluctuations (Jess than 100,000 years)
if they took place, why should the southward migration of Rhododendron
and Berberis have been permitted and not of Fagacee and Conifers ?
This remark is as much valid for Quercus incana Roxb., and Pinus rox-
burghii Sargent, for example, which occur side by side in the same zone in
Western Himalayas. One may add other important instances, particularly
the genus Pieris (Ericaceae) totally absent inthe south. Ifthe Himalayan
Fagaceae, Betulaceae and Conifers do not occur spontaneously on the
south Indian hills it is because they never came there. Their recent
introduction by man shows that the habitat is well suited to these species.

In the regions where the physical continuity of the mountains really
existed, the Conifers, Fagaceae, Betulaceae, Ericaceae etc... are very
abundant at equal latitude. This is the case of the southern extremity of
the Annamitic Range in South Viet Nam.

Finally, concerning the land connections between India and Ceylon
it is the belief to-day that the last separation is recent (about 10,000 years)
but the real disappearance of the Gulf of Mannar would date from the
commencement of the Pleistocene and there is nothing to prove that there
was in its place a high mountain. Anyway neither the paleoclimatology
nor the present ecological conditions explain the presence of the Ceylonese
species in the Nilgiris having jumped over all the other hills of south India
including the Palnis ; such is the case of Oldenlandia verticillaris O. Kze.,
Vernonia pectiniformis DC., Crepis fuscipappa Benth., Olea polygama
Wt., Tylophora iphisia Dene., Ceropegia decaisneana Wt., Scutellaria
wightiana Benth., Sarcococca brevifolia Stapf etc. (I shall not raise the
question of polytopism here. In spite of appearance, the Himalayan
milieu beyond 27°N is very different from that of the Ceylon mountains
near the equator so that the genesis of identical species in the two cases
should be an uncommon phenomenon).

The argument that cites the mammals presently common to Nilgiris
southern Hills and Himalayas does not seem conclusive. Martes
gwatkinsi Horsfield, the Nilgiri marten, is a species capable of moving
down to 900 m. and even lower elevations. The same is the case with
Hemitragus hylocrius Ogilby, the Nilgiri Tahr.

Under such conditions it seems logical to explain the presence of species
common to Ceylon, south India and Himalayas by their actual means of
dispersal rather than by palaeogeographic hypotheses. A more likely
explanation may be given by examining the means of dispersal of south
Indian species having definite Himalayan affinities.

Seeds of Rhododendron arboreum Sm. are remarkably adapted to vast
displacements. Extremely numerous, minute, flattened, oblong, provided

§28 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

with a tuft of hairs at each extremity, they are susceptible to long transport
thanks to wind and birds.

In Berberis tinctoria Lesch. much appreciated by the hill thrushes
(Zoothera) and in Cotoneaster buxifolia Wall. the dispersal of the seeds is
usually of endozoic type as in most of the species of Fragaria, Potentilla,
Viola,. Thalictrum, Eurya, Osyris, Passiflora, Gaultheria etc. \n. Crepis
and. Dicrocephala the means is essentially epizoic.

All these species and almost all the plant species common to south
India and Himalayas behave as vigorous pioneers, particularly apt to colonise
the deforested lands of the montane domain. This characteristic behaviour
of the species recently naturalised in a habitat quite different from that
of their origin weakens the hypothesis of vestigeal species.

(d) Conclusion

The typical species of the montane stage of south India are essentially
herbaceous endemics or are known in Ceylon also. A less important group
comprises species extending up to the Himalayas. As a matter of fact
these are the herbaceous orophytes known in different countries of S.E.
Asia. In spite of vast discontinuities in areas, this group probably does
not represent a vestige of an ancient epoch having completed their migra-
tion step by step. An examination of the possible mechanisms of dis-
persal of these species shows the floristic exchanges between the Himalayas
and the Nilgiris as recent or. sub-contemporary. Unfortunately, we yet
know very little about the seasonal movements of some 350 species of
migratory birds actually knownin India. The migration study project
undertaken in March 1970 at Srinagar by the Bombay Natural History
Society may help to bring to light new explanations towards the modern
flora of the mountains. of Peninsular India.

MAIN SAVANNA TYPES AND THEIR ECOLOGY

These hill plateaux may be characterised by their vegetation types,
both ligneous and herbaceous. I shall deal with principal herbaceous
types which by far occupy the largest area.

(1) Chrysopogon zeylanicus—Arundinella spp. type

This formation is characterised and easily recognised by the domi-
nance of Chrysopogon zeylanicus Thw. It is a voluminous Graminee,
with narrow, rigid leaves left ungrazed by the cattle. Its development
in south India and Ceylon is. linked to the working of the soil by man.
Presently, these savannas essentially cover all the areas of old planta-
tions of Eucalyptus, Acacia or other vegetable crops.

1 Ridley (1930) and Olson (1968) give data on this type of dispersal.

FLORA» AND ECOLOGY OF SAVANNAS ~\’ 529

In the Nilgiris, they are well represented on the Wenlock Downs.
Vast stretches are encountered in the Mukurti region. ESN
fuscata Nees of low size is often abundant.

In the Palnis, the valleys around Kodaikanal (Gites! Koniar,
Kumbar etc.) include good examples of this savanna. Here Arundinella
vaginata Bor is co-dominant with Chrysopogon zeylanicus Thw.

In Ceylon, particularly on the Horton Plains, the type grows under
a climate more humid than that of south India notably from December
to April. Principal grasses are C. zeylanicus Thw. and. A. villosa Arn.

Grasses generally common to all these savannas but rarely dominant
are Eulalia phaeothrix (Hack.) O. Ktze., Themeda triandra Forsk., Andro-
pogon lividus Thw., Ischaemum aristatum L. etc. In depressions, with
increasing hydromorphy of the soils, Helictotrichon asperum (Munro)
Bor becomes very common, especially in the Palnis ; in Ceylon it is
Garnotia mutica Fanowsky.

Marked floristic differences are noted according to the regions. For
the Nilgiris I have enumerated 60 endemic Dicots and 13 endemic Mono-
cots above 1800 m. The floristic wealth of this hill reflects also in the
flora of the savanna. Pleocanthus sessilis (Nees) Brem., Leucas rosmarini-
folia Benth., Heracleum hookerianum W. & A., Senecio polycephalus Cl.,
Anaphalis neelgherryana DC. etc. impart a floristic character unknown in
the Palnis. Besides, many of the savanna species of the Nilgiris tolerate
hydromorphic soils. Examples are Anemone rivularis Ham., Impatiens
chinensis L., Serpicula hirsuta W. & A., Dipsacus leschenaultii Coult.
frequent in the savannas of Avalanche in the Nilgiris but practically
unknown, in the same savanna type of the Palnis.

The abundance of hygrophytic species is yet more marked in Ceylon
where one notes numerous Carex, Fimbristylis, Ranunculus sagittifolius
Hk., Osbeckia cupularis Don, Oldenlandia yerticillaris O. Kze. etc.

Bioclimate : The temperature conditions vary little from one place
to the other in aJl savannas of high plateaux. Therefore it is not the
temperature factor that plays the role determining the main formations.

Low temperatures, varying between —1 to —9°C, were registered under
savannas for some days during the period December to March at sun-
rise. The diurnal thermic amplitude between 6 a.m. and 2 p.m. is very
high in winter, often above 35°C.

The high annual rainfall of Ceylon (> 2000 mm.) and Nilgiris
(> 1800 mm.) permits the development of hygrophytes even on the
slopes. On the other hand, in the Palnis where rainfall in these savannas
is of the order of 1400 mm., hygrophytes are rare or absent.

Soils : Table 1 gives the results of chemical analysis of a soil col-
lected under Chrysopogon zeylanicus Thw. from the Palnis.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

530

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FLORA AND ECOLOGY OF SAVANNAS 331

(2) Eulalia phaeothrix—Arundinella fuscata low savanna type

Dense and continuous grassy formation without trees or shrubs
particularly well represented in the Pulavachiar valley in the Palnis.
Eulalia phaeothrix (Hack.) O. Ktze. and Arundinella fuscata Nees are
the dominating species of this type which differs from the preceding type
essentially by the absence of working of the soil by man (which explains
why Chrysopogon zeylanicus Thw. has not been able to penetrate) and
by higher number of foggy days (probably 180 per year at least).

Moreover, soil profiles usually show under Al horizon a A12 layer
of bulky structure in a wet state.

The absence of plantations till recent years is an indication that
fire runs through these savannas almost every year. Shrubs have dis-
appeared except Rhododendron nilagiricum Zenk. and Gaultheria frag-
rantissima Wall. in the hollows. Hypericum mysorense Heyne, Vacci-
nium leschenaultii W. so common in the Cfhrysopogon savannas are
totally absent. L

The atmospheric humidity and the presence of Al2 soil horizon
with high water retentive capacity may explain the presence of species
usually seen in humid depressions: Ranunculus reniformis Wall.,
Impatiens tomentosa Heyne., Heracleum rigens Wall. Gard., Carex lindle-
yana Nees etc....

These savannas are among the most stable types of the plateaux.
No distinct trace of dynamism has been noted in the sense that no lig-
neous element has been observed,

(3) Heteropogon contortus—Arundinella mesophylla type

These are the formations on highly eroded soils well developed under
a sub-dry climate of the interior depressions of the Palnis. Good
examples are those of Mannavanur.

Characterised by a high density of the tufts of Heteropogon contor-
tus (L.) Beauv. and Arundinella mesophylla Nees closely mixed together,
these savannas are rich in species having a large range of distribution :‘
Coleus forskohlii (Poir.) Briq., Polygonum chinense L., Micromeria biflora
Benth., Sopubia trifida Ham., Striga lutea Lour., Polycarpaea spicata
W. & A., Borreria ocymoides DC. etc.

In spite of its awns, H. contortus (L.) Beauv. is easily browsed by
cattle. Ifthe grazing rotation is very short and if the cutting is followed
by sheep grazing then there is considerable deterioration of the pasture
marked by a rapid development of wooly Composite like Anaphalis
lawii Gamb. and Laggera alata Sch. Bip. which are not grazed by cattle.
It is necessary to maintain a strict check on the rational use of the pas-
tures of this region where cattle-breeding is gaining importance.

The bioclimates of these regions may be characterised by annual

532. JOURNAL; ‘BOMBAY NATURAL. AIST. ‘SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

rainfall of 1000 mm. with 2 to 3 months dry (December to February or
January to March.)

The soils unlike those previously described have a thin surface horizon,
littered with fragments of altered rock. The following Table 2 gives
its essential characteristics. |

(4) High rainfall savannas

These are encountered only in the southern and western parts of
the Nilgiris which are extremely windy and rainy during the S.W.
monsoon. The Western Catchment for example at 2400 m. alti-
tude is one of the most rainy regions of S.E. Asia and probably also
of the tropical mountains. Mean annual rainfall usually exceeds
5000 mm. ; figures of 2000 to 4000 mm. in one single month—July or
August—are not rare. In the Upper Bhavani and Arikayampuzha,
fall of 6056 mm. was recorded between June Ist and July 31st 1959
and 5200 mm. during the same period in 1961. Fundamental trait of
this climate is the extreme violence of winds and summer rains, the
erosive power of which are considerable.

Soils of the regions are often reduced to lithosols in which the finer
fraction is that which remains imprisoned within the network of the
roots of grasses. These soils become very dry after the cessation of
rains.

The vegetation is characterised by a herbaceous cover, more or
less discontinuous because of rocky outcrops. Three woody species
are met with in a stunted form: Rhododendron nilagiricum Zenk..,
Ligustrum perrottetii A.DC. and Syzygium calophyllifolium Walp.
A number of small shrubs or chamaephytes are encountered which are
absent in the Palnis : Strobilanthes wightianus Nees, S. lawsonii Gamb.,
Teucrium wightii Hk.f., Leucas suffruticosa Benth., Anaphalis ° neel-
gherryana DC., A. wightiana DC., Andrographis lawsoni Gamb. etc....

The, grasses well adapted to maintain themselves in these regions
are Themeda triandra Forsk. and Isachne kunthiana Miq. During the
rainy season a number of Jmpatiens spp. may be collected : J. tomen-
tosa Heyne, I. crenata Bedd., J. acaulis Arn., J. clavicorny Turcz.,
I. pusilla Heyne, I. scapiflora Heyne, etc.....

The ecology of this type of savanna is not conducive to the growth
of trees. Low winter temperatures, violence of winds and rains result-
ing in soils poor.in.fine materials render the working and afforestation
of this part of the Nilgiris a:difficult task.

Under similar ecological conditions I have located at Lispara in the
Nilgiris, another savanna type where Andropogon lividus Thw. is very
abundant. However this type occupies a small area.

Such are the general characteristics cf the main savanna types of
these hills. Every study concerning the dynamism of the indigenous

FLORA. AND. ECOLOGY OF SAVANNAS.

533

TABLE 2

| merely
ie | N/o) & pt es
=v
loo eae H
8 : apart
o) | Co ae a ;
| eo | 8 30 Ql
EKG 9 : 2
‘OW O)S. eos = =
‘ws QO] /"9 “UI oe = Te
Ayloe des asueyoxy =
ee ea © Le ae 2
‘W3 QOT/'9 WI 3g - he
suones sjqvosuryoxe jwioy,, | ms >
| ales lnGlent
2 UN o | o oS
Oo. am Se ee ae
8 = = sf oe
vo A igh bake ° °
Shir eety cae fie eS
oO | loa) fon) lo“)
= BN | A ~ S
cS &
we H |
y '
| 7 = oo
HH “| + | Q S
seas TOK a DR
ION Hd] + | <t <t
Bs Secon tren
c‘7/10°H Hd| | va va
UIUL Z Ss | sr ‘SS
2 ONCHROG ely 2 2
7) ~~
e7k8 ge) Whee OEE the
3 27 Sales
foe)
© AOS 0} OT HIS Bs1v0D oa S of
= :
c \O CN
a 70T OFT HIS OUT | oS BS
Vv
2 ae a a ©
| MZ OVO ALT | co i. us
fae) \O —
Jouleherry SSG ds) ots | ae +
suozoH | & ee 2)
ra aes
wd yydaq | 7 1 “7 z 5

534

trees and shrubs,

distribution of flora, land-use etc.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

must take into

account the sub-divisions of the savannas of the high plateaux into four

groups, described above.

REFERENCES

AGRAWAL, S. C., & MADAN, U. S,
et al. (1961): Ecological studies in the
Nilgiris. Indian Forester 87(6) : 376-389.

Biasco, F. (1970): L’étage montag-
nard tropical dans le Sud de I’Inde.
C.R. Acad. Sc. Paris. t. 270, 496-497.

Bor, N. L. (1938): The vegetation of
the Nilgiris. Jndian Forester 64: 600-
609.

Cowan, J. M. (1936): The Rhodo-
dendrons of Ceylon, South India and
Manipur. Notes of the R. Bot. Garden
Edinburgh, 19 : 157.

CroizaT, L. (1968): The biogeo-
graphy of India: a note of some of its
fundamentals. Proc. Symp. Recent Adv.
Trop. Ecology. Varanasi, India. Part IT,
pp. 544-590.

Domros, M. (1970): Frost in Ceylon.
Arch. Met. Geoph. Biokl.; Ser B, 18:
43-52.

GupTa, R. K. (1960): Ecological
notes on the vegetation of Kodaikanal.
J. Indian Bot. Soc. 39 : 601-607.

Houtmes, C. H. (1951): The grass,
fern and savanna of Ceylon. Jmp. For.
Inst. Oxford. Paper 28, N° 95.

Lecris, P. (1963): La vegétation de
Inde: Ecologie et Flore. Trav. Sect.
Sci. et Tech. Inst. fr. Pondichéry. 6:

590 pages.
(1969) :

Inst.
Tech.

& Brasco, F.
Variabilité des facteurs du climat.
fr. Pondichéry. Trav. Sect. Sci.
7 > fasc. 1, 940p. is figures:
MATHEW, K. M. (1969): The exotic

flora of Kodaikanal, Palni Hills. Records
of the Botanical Survey of India 20:
nih. 2417p.

MEHER-Homyl, V. M. (1965): Ecolo-
gical status of the montane grasslands
of South Indian Hills. A phytogeo-
graphical reassessment. Indian Forester
91(4) : 210-215.

(1967) : Phytogeography of
South Indian Hill stations. Bull. Torrey
Bot. Club 94(4) : 230-242.

OLSON, S. & BLum, K. E. (1968):
Avial dispersal of plants in Panama.
Ecology, 49, n° (3): 565-566.

RANGANATHAN, C.R. (1938): Studies
in the ecology of the shola grassland
vegetation of the Nilgiri Plateau. Indian
Forester, vol. 64: 523-541.

Razi, B. A. (1950): A contribution
towards the study of the dispersal
mechanisms in flowering plants of
Mysore. Ecology, 31 n° (2): 282-286.
(1954) ; Some observations
on the plants of the south Indian hill
tops and their distribution. Proc. Nat.
Inst. Sci. India 21 : 79-89,

RIDLEY, H. N. (1930): The dispersal
of plants throughout the world. 744 p.
Ashford, Kent.

Wurte, R. O. (1964): Grassland and
fodder resources of India. 553 p.
ICAR, New Delhi.

ZEUNER, F. E. (1958): Dating the
past. 516 p. 4th edition. Methuen and
Co. London.

The Nilgiri Tahr, Hemitragus
hylocrius Ogilby, in the High Range,
Kerala and the southern hills of the

Western Ghats

RY

J. C. DANIEL

INTRODUCTION

Reports in the press that the Kerala Government was considering
the possibility of nationalising the tea industry in the State, and
the fact that amendments to the Kerala Land Reforms Act of 1963,
permitted the State Government to take over all privately owned, un-
cultivated land, for distribution to settlers caused considerable anxiety
about the future of the Nilgiri Tahr in the Eravikulam area of the
Kanan Devan Hills Produce Co. Ltd’s concession in the High Range
of Kerala.

The World Wildlite Fund, indian National Appeal, and Bombay
Natural History Society, deputed me to visit the High Range to discuss the
situation with the Tea interests and others concerned in the manage-
ment of the area and to submit a report on the latest position
Accordingly, I visited the High Range in tie 2nd week of April, 1970,
and also took the opportunity of doing a rapid spot survey of the
position of the snecies in the hills in the extreme south of the Western
Ghats.

THE NILGIRI TAHR IN THE HIGH RANGE, KERALA

The road from Cochin to Munnar in the High Range of Kerala
gives an instructive ilustraton to what happens to fertile primary
forests in densely populated areas. One can hold no illusion that
any forested area will survive up to the 4,000 ft. contour or perhaps
even higher elevations. The major traffic is timber trucks taking the
spoils to the lowlands. The denuded hills are planted over with
tapioca by the new settlers and the ground deprived of its cover is
so burned by the scorching stun that to travel through is to experience

536 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

furnace heat till one gets well up on to the hills. We reached Munnar
on the evening of the 12th.

On 13th morning, Mr. M. R. P. Lappin, .a embet of the High
Range Game Preservation Association teok me ‘to the Eravikulam
Sanctuary On MHamilton’s Plateau. The road to the Sanctuary
becomes a track when it leaves the highest level of tea, and climbs
up by numerous hairpin bends till it reaches the plateau. It has to
be negotiated either on foot or more excitingly on motor-cycle as we
did. Once on the plateau the track runs over gently rolling hills
covered with grass and with sholas of varying size in their folds. En
route Mr. Lappin fished for trout at a newly made impoundment.
Introduced trout which thrive at these elevations is one of the successes
of the High Range Game Preservation Association, and trout fishing
is an attractive feature of the Sanctuary. Our first sighting of Tahr
was unexpected, a herd of 80+ grazing into view over a hill as we
reclined on the grass waiting for the oike to cool down. Later by
careful stalking Mr. Lappin was able to get a part of the herd to
graze to within about 40 ft. of us. A female then saw us, stamped
and whistled an alarm which took the herd to the Ee of the hill
before it stopped to look back.

The Eravikulam hut of the Association is foe in ‘a valley
almost near the centre of the sanctuary and overlooks. a sluggish
stream plentifully stocked with trout. The hut had been damaged
some time earlier by elephants and the repaired hut is now surrounded
by an elephant moat. Accompanied by a Muduvan watcher I walked
to the western boundary of the Sanctuary which overlooks a deep
valley, densely clothed with forest, silent except for the booming
call of the Nilgiri Langur. On our way to the boundary we saw three
more herds of Tahr 50+, 30+ ‘and 30+ in strength. On the way
back to the hut, we saw two elephants feeding near a poo! in a
narrow valley of the Sanctuary. Almost all the dropping of jackals
seen contained tightly packed, shiny, elytra of a beetle. A casual
search in the shola behind the hut while Mr. Lappin angled, yielded
a small specimen of Xylophis perrotett, Perrotet’s Dwarf Snake. The
genus is endemic to the hills of south India and the species is said
to be common above 5,000 ft. Birds were not much in evidence in
the shola. though many Paini Hills Laughing Thrush [Garrulax jerdoni
fairbanki (Blanford)] were heard. We drove back in the evening. and
the last and the most impressive sighting I had of the tahr, was of a
phalanx of them seen through swirling mist as they lined Le skyline
on the ‘crest‘of a hill. |

On 14th morning we visited the Rayjamallay Sanctuary » area and
within a quarter of a mile from the Sanctuary gate saw a fairly large

THE NILGIRI TAHR IN THE HIGH RANGE, KERALA 537

herd of females and young on the hill side. The herd ignored our
vehicle and while some rested, others continued ‘to graze desultorily
until a dog accompanying its master to town, chased them over the
hill. At Rajamallay as in other parts of the tahr habitat excellent
views of the valleys are obtained from certain points on the escarp-
ment and with luck one may be able to see gaur or elephant feeding in
the. valleys. One forest plantation practice of the Kanan Devan Hills
Produce Co. Ltd., which can be useiully copied elsewhere (at
least in forests which. still hold wildlife) is the planting of eucalyptus
with adequate spacing between trees to permit undergrowth. All
plantations of eucalyptus that I saw in the Company’s land in the
High Range had fairly dense undergrowth of lantana which I under-
stand provides good cover for sambar and other animals. If this
planting policy is adopted one would not have the sterile plantations
of eucalyptus seen in Government forests.

The status and habits of the species in the Eravikulam area of the
High Range in Kerala have been excellently described by George Schailer
(see pp. 365-389 of this Journal). This report is limited to consideration
of the present position, and the future of the Eravikulam area which
holds in a well protected and administered setting not less than one-
third but probably aaif the total world population of the Nilgiri Tahr.
In view of the difficulty of protecting the tahr in other areas of its
distribution this is the only population which can be expected to survive
if continuity of the protection it now receives is assured.

Eravikulam where the majority of the tahr live is approximately
32 sq. ml. in area forming about 1/7th of the total! concession area
of 215 sq. ml. of the Kanan Devan Hills Produce Co. Ltd. It is
largely a plateau above 6,500 ft. elevation and has within its boundaries
Anaimudi (8841 ft.) the highest point in the subcontinent south of
the Himalayas. The area is largely isolated from the surrounding
country on all sides by precipices. ‘The rainfall is extremely heavy
during the south-west monsoon averaging about 300 inches. During
this season the whole area is swathed in dense fog and gale force
winds are usual. Some sections of the plateau receive rains from
the north-west monsoon also. From November to February heavy
frost occurs and most areas of the plateau experience drought from
February tc May. The soil is poor and the plateau is predominantly
under a coarse variety of grass with a few sholas in well protected
folds of the hills. There is no evidence of human colonisation at
any time. |

From the time the concession was obtained over 70 years ago
the area has been retained as a game preserve by the Company and
is a unique example of the geography of the High Range before it

538 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

was commercially exploited. The Company pays an annual tax of
about Rs. 40,000 on this land which is of commercially no interest
to it and the Company deserves the highest commendation for
practising a policy of conservation and being prepared to pay for
it. |

The administration of the area is in the hands of the High Range
Game Preservation Association whose membership is restricted to the
managerial cadre of the Company but includes some senior Govern-
ment officials of the district as honorary members. The Association
appoints and pays the game watchers at Eravikulam and other areas
within the company’s concession. The members of the Association
police the sanctuary and other game areas. The funds for the Associa-
tion are from membership subscriptions and donations, mainly from the
Company. Shooting is very strictly cortrolled and has been negligible
over the past few years. Since 1936 the Rajamaliay part of Eravikulam
which includes Anaimudi Peak has been a sanctuary.

The advantages of the present arrangement is that the executive
functions and the whole organisation are controlled by a single
authority, the Company. For the past 70 years this arrangement has
worked successfully and the 500 odd tahr which live at Eravikulam
and the untouched sholas are sufficient evidence of its success.

The major flaw in the arrangement which could be fatal as far as
the tahr is concerned, is that the organisation depends entirely on
the existence of the Company. If there is a radical change in the
management and its policies or if the industry is nationalised, the
whole organisation would collapse. The executive authority, the High
Range Game Preservation Association is so much an arm of the
Company from which it obtains its members and its funds that it
would immediately become impotent if company support is withdrawn.

The Company is quite aware of this position and at the meeting
of the High Range Preservation Association at Munnar on 14th April
which I attended, the Senior Manager of the Company expressed the
Opinion that the Company may agree to the suggestion mooted at
the meeting that the Company present the Eravikulam area to the
Indian Nation in the form of a trust for the preservation of the Tahr
and its habitat. The Indian Board for Wild Life, the State Board for
Wild Life, the World Wildlife Fund—Indian National Appeal, and
the Bombay Natural History Society to be represented on the Board
of Trustees in addition to the nominees of the Company. The High
Range Game Preservation Association to continue as Executive
authority. Such an arrangement was considered as the best long term
solution. Every effort should be made to process this arrangement as

THE NILGIRi TAHR IN THE HIGH RANGE, KERALA 539

early as possible to ensure abiding permanency to the area and the
tahr.

The most urgent need is publicity. Once the Sanctuary area
becomes well known and is visited by people it will be difficult if not
impossible for the area to be used for any other purpose. A film
of the Sanctuary and its animals should therefore have the highest
priority.

As conditions are at the moment, the Eravikulam area should
be considered as a strict wildlife Reserve and maintained as such.
However it may be necessary in the future to open the area to the
genuinely interested tourist.

The available and necessary facilities are:

Access: The Sanctuary is open from December to April which is
also fortunately the main tourist season. Munnar is about 90 miles
from Cochin Airport or approximately 34 hrs. drive from Cochin and
a tourist planning to visit Periyar can easily visit the High Range
en route to Periyar a 60 mile drive through the Cardamom Hills. Those
who have limited time can visit the Rajamallay area of the Sanctuary
where sighting of the tahr is more or less certain.

The Eravikulam area needs to be seen more leisurely and requires
a minimum of two days. The track from Upper Vagavurai Tea
Estate is not wide enough for 4-wheeled vehicles and must be kept as
it is to preserve the primeval wildness of the Sanctuary. I would
stress that it would not be to the advantage of the Sanctuary to widen
this path. The alternative to walking the eight miles to the hut is to
ride a horse or a motor-cycle. From all aspects three-wheeler motor-
cycles prepared out of fairly powerful machines and capable of taking
two persons in addition to the driver would be the most economical.

One of the points which would need careful consideration if a
trust is formed is permanent access facilities to the Sanctuary through
Upper Vagavurai Estate.

Accommodation: At Eravikuiam, the beautifully situated hut can
accommodate six people. A glassed-in sun porch would be a wel-
come addition. Other items which could make life more pleasant
are windmills to run a pump for filling the overhead tank for existing
and to be built toilet facilities and to run a dynamo for charging
batteries for the lighting.

Wildlife Viewing: While there is little or no difficulty in seeing
tahr when with the expert local guides, the other animals which live
in the Sanctuary such as the gaur, elephant, sambar, barking deer,
wild boar and the occasionai tiger or panther shelter in the sholas
and are not easily seen. It may be possible to entice the ungulates

540 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

to the edge of the shola with properly situated saltlicks and to watch
from hides.

Staff: The Eravikulam Sanctuary has the unique advantage over
other Indian Sanctuaries in that it has available for employment, the
Muduvans who are expert woodsmen. As the original inhabitants of
the High Range and on account of their reliability and honesty they
deserve every opportunity for employment that the Sanctuary offers.

The Sanctuary has so far had the dedicated services of the members
of the High Range Game Preservation Association but if the proposals
that have been made in this note are to be successfully implemented
a full time warden and a small permanent establishment would be
necessary.

On 16 April, I attended by invitation, the meeting of the State
Board for Wild Life which was held at Periyar Wild Life Sanctuary,
with the State Minister for Forests, Shri Ravindran in the Chair. Mr.
J. C. Gouldsbury, Chairman, High Range Game Association, very
ably presented the case for retaining the Eravikulam area for its
present objectives, and he was unanimously supported. The
Minister and C.C.F. were also extremely co-operative and the former
stated that he would immediatejiy take up the matter with the depart-
ments concerned.

I met His Excellency the Governor of Kerala on the 18th and
conveyed the Society’s and the World Wildlife Fund’s (Indian
National Appeal) thanks for his interest and assistance.

THE NILGiIRi TAHR IN THE SOUTHERN HILLS OF THE
WESTERN GHATS

The first part of my objectives in the south was completed on
the 18th. From the 19th to 25th, I travelled north through the towns
at the foot of the hills along the eastern face of the Ghats from the
Aramboly Gap to Srivilliputur arid; omitting the Palni Hills, to Pollachi
east of the Anaimalais. I collected information on the occurrence of
the tahr and wherever possible visited the hills for a personal check.

The status of the tahr in the extreme south of its range, unlike
its position in the Nilgiris (Tamil Nadu), and the High Range
(Kerala), is little known. There are no Wild Life Associations and
hardly any organised hunting. Earlier reports (Webb-Peploe 1947;
JBNAS 46: 642) mention the animal as common on the grassy slopes
of the higher hills in the extreme south of the Peninsula. I had
planned to enquire at villages at the foots of the hills, starting from
the southern tip of the Ghat and moving north along the eastern face

THE NILGIRI TAHR IN THE HIGH RANGE, KERALA 541

of the hills, checking wherever possible the correctness of the data.
I was however unable in most cases to verify the information obtained
owing to the limited time of six days available to me. Almost all
the tahr grounds are (fortunately for them), away from roads and
require at least a three-day stay for a 24-hour visit.

Rising precipitously from the plains and reaching heights of over
3,000 ft. within 3 to 4 miles of the plains, the eastern face of the
Ghats with its escarpments with nearly vertical drops of 1000 to
2000 ft. and grass-covered tops make ideal tahr country. The
watershed ridge rarely falls below 4000 ft. The information received
covers the area of hills lying between c. 8° 20’ and 9° 35’ latitude.
The number of localities of the hill forest divisions within this area
where tahr are definitely said to occur are: Mahendragiri Hills
(c. 8° 20’ to 8° 25’ N., highest elevation 5427 ft.) 3; Kalakkadu Hills
(c. 8° 25’ to 8° 32’ N., highest elevation 6002 ft.) 2; Singamapatti and
Papanasam Hills (c. 8° 32’ to 8° 50’, highest elevation 6132 ft.) 3;
Kuttalam Hills (c. 8° 50’ to 8° 57’, highest elevation 5237 ft.) 2;
Kadayanellur Hills (c. 9° 5’ to 9° 15’, highest elevation 5876 ft.) 2;
Sivagiri Hills (c, 9° 15’ to 9° 25’, highest elevation 5385 ft.) ?; Sri-
villiputur Hills (c. 9° 25’ to 9° 35’, highest elevation 6624 ft.) 2.

For reasons mentioned earlier, I was able to check personally only
two out of the 14 localities. However I believe the information is
correct and also that the tahr occurs in many more areas than are
listed. For a thorough survey, a stay of at least a fortnight in each
area is necessary. From the information I obtained and from personal
observation it was evident that as long as the tahr areas remained
isolated and inaccessible, the tahr survived but once roads were laid
they were exterminated. The Kalakkad Hills are an excellent example
of an undisturbed area and have the potential of becoming a fine
sanctuary. In addition to the tahr, all the larger mammals are fairly
common. It is also the area in. which the Lion-tailed Macaque
(Macaca silenus) is still found in some numbers. J would strongly
recommend that this area be converted into a Sanctuary. However,
if it is to retain its present wealth of wildlife, roads should not be
laid and the sanctuary named and retained as a primary wilderness.

I feel that immediate efforts should be made to protect the tahr
of Varaiaddu Mottai above the Upper Kodayar Dam in Tirunelveli
Dt., Tamil Nadu. The area holds the remnant of the herds which
had lived in the locality. The facilities now available if utilised
properly will make the area famous for the viewing of tahr, an animal
usually very unlikely to be seen by visitors owing to the precipitous
nature of its habitat. At Kodavar, the road overlooks the tahr
habitat and if the animals are left undisturbed, seeing them from the

12

542 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

road can be more certain. If full protection can be assured they can
be habituated to stay in easily seen areas by baiting them with salt
‘licks. At the moment ihe road is used for poaching and the animals
are also poached by people coming up from the base of the hill. The
twelve animals, (10 9 and 2 kids) that we saw were very nervous and
fled as soon as they saw us. Development activities on all sides have
more or less isolated the tahr on the hiil and unless steps are taken
without any delay they wili be exterminated.

For obvious reasons T have not given specific details of tahr
localities. I would be glad to give them to anyone who can find
the time, and the money to do a thorough Survey of the tahr in the
Kanyakumari and Tirunelveli and other districts of Tamil Nadu. The
High wavys, Painis, and other hills to the north should also be
immediately surveyed. It may be that about half the tahr population
is found outside the Nilgiris and the High Range.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am very grateful to His Excellency the Governor of Kerala for
giving me a patient hearing; to the Minister of Forests, and the Chief
Conservator of Forests, Keraia, for the invitation to attend the meet-
ing of the State Wild Life Board; to Mr. M. R. P. Lappin and Mr.
J. C. Gouldsbury for their generous assistance during my visit to the
high range; and to the State Wild Life Officer, Tami! Nadu, for
various assistance.

I am indebted to Mr. J. J. Bland who very generously helped me
during my visit to Manjolai. Finally I would thank Mr. S. A. Hussain,
Research Assistant at the Society, who drove the vehicle under most
trying conditions and was always willing and helpful.

The financial assistance of the WWF, Indian National Appeal
which made this visit possible is gratefully acknowledged.

Reviews

1. ENJOYING ORNITHOLOGY. By David Lack. pp. 264

(2113.5 cm.). London, 1965. Methuen & Co. Ltd. Price in U.K.
SOs net:

This is a collection of radio talks and articles written from time
to time for the author’s own enjoyment and for those with a general
interest in natural history but without the leisure or facilities for keep-
ing abreast with significant trends and developments in the field of
scientific ornithology. Of the four parts comprising the book the
first, dealing with Migration is perhaps the most fascinating. It
describes in a way that a layman can understand, Dr. Lack’s pioneering
studies of bird migration by means of high power radar. While it
is not yet possible to identify with absolute certainty the species of
bird moving across a radar screen, its identity can be determined with
tolerable accuracy by an integrated analysis of the size of the image,
its speed of travel, the composition of a flock (whether densely packed
or straggly) and so on, co-ordinated with weather reports from
different points along the direction of travel and visual observations
from the ground. Radar studies of migrating birds have helped to
reveal a number of facts hitherto unknown and unsuspected, which
would be impossible to learn bv any of the orthodox methods of
migration study. Even at a height of 2000-4000 ft. birds are often
out of sight of an observer on the shore or on a ship, and thus a
major part of the movement is missed when relying solely on vision.
On the other hand when, due to abnormal weather conditions, the
birds are forced te fly low a misleading picture of their abundance
or of what is really taking place is apt to be projected. Radar
confirms that in fine weather migrants head in a constant direction
over the sea (without any landmarks as guide) supporting the experi-
mentally established finding that they navigate by the sun and stars.
In bad weather, with strong cross winds, the migrants often get drifted
off course, but here again radar has shown that such drifted birds
somehow manage to re-orientate themselves; recoveries of ringed birds
prove that they eventually succeed in reaching their goals. How this
is achieved is not known at present, but radar lends support to the
experimentally deduced hypothesis that migrants possess an innate
sense of direction; the mechanism of this sense is as yet not under-
stood. True, ring-recovery evidence is so far lacking that drifted
juvenile birds on their first autumn migration can re-determine their

544. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

course towards the normal winter quarters of the population, and it is
perhaps too much to assume that they are able to locate an area
where they have never been before purely by this innate sense of
direction. Nevertheless, as the author points out, “One must beware
of rejecting a hypothesis because it seems to ask too much of a
biological mechanism’. The chapters concerned with migration study
by radar indicate the vast advances made and the almost limitless
possibilities of this technique for probing ever deeper into the mysteries
of bird migration aided by the increasing refinements and sophistication
in the design of radar equipments. Radar data properly analysed
and co-ordinated with weather reports, visual records, ring recoveries
and laboratory experiments promise to unravel a number of the
pervading mysteries, or at least to bring the solutions considerably
nearer.

The chapter ‘Swifts at Home’ is a broadcast résumé of the intensive
Studies of the author and his wife on swifts nesting in the tower of
Oxford University Museum, earlier published in The /bis and else-
Where. It reveals many aspects of swift biology not known, suspected
or described before, e.g. that in bad weather when the parents cannot
procure a sufficiency of aerial insects, the nestlings are capable of
surviving for several days without food. This they can do hecause
of a number of special adaptations— ability to store up fat when food
is plentiful, and to lie cold and torpid in an unattended nest (virtually
hibernate) for severai days without dying. Lack also deduces that
When on their long migrational journeys-—up to 6600 miles between
N. Europe and Africa—swifts must roost on the wing, especially over
the sea. This would seem a unique achievement for any bird,
particularly for one with the swift’s long narrow wings totally un-
suited for motionless soaring. One cannot help wishing for some
direct confirmation of this seemingly impossible feat.

There is a chapter on Darwin’s Finches of the Galapagos, the
birds which provide the classical example of the way in which Natural
Selection works to evolve new species and subspecies in isolation.
Included among this differentially adapted group is the unique tool-
using finch which skewers out grubs from within holes and crannies
in trees by means of a cactus spine or twig held in the bill.

Other topics include illuminating accounts of British Pioneers in
Ornithological Research, Bird Artists and The Edward Grey Institute,
Oxford. The last part of the book has an amusing Ornithological
Examination Paper (with answers in an Appendix) and a clever and
amusing skit on the intrepid and all-too-ready tribe of species-makers
entitled An Undiscovered Species of Swift—a bird which the inspired
reader may recognize as clearly belonging to the Hoodwink family!

REVIEWS 545

All the chapters are highly readable and informative as one has learnt
to associate with the writings of this versatile author.

Though becoming somewhat of a hotch potch in the latter part, the
book fulfils its purpose admirably—-making ornithology more enjoyable.

S.A.

2. THE LIVES OF WASPS AND BEES. By Christopher
Andrewes. pp. 204 (225x135 cm.). 16 half-tone plates. London,
1969. Chatto & Windus Ltd. Price 35s.

This book is intended to interest the general reader in the study
and observation of wasps and bees as an alternative to that of the
lepidoptera. A conscious effort has therefore been made to avoid
technical language and to keep the narrative as simple as possible.
In the main, species which occur in Europe and North America are
dealt with. There are references, however, to tropical species, e.g.
Sphex egyptica parasite of the migratory locust. The females of this
Species accompany the migrating hosts, during periods of halt hurriedly
make, store, and complete as many burrows as thev can and then,
leaving their work as it stands at the moment, move on with the
locusts to carry on their work elsewhere. Strange to say, the males
of this species have not yet been found, giving rise to speculation
whether the species is parthenogenetic.

In a series of short chapters a brief account is given of the life
of these insects, with special emphasis on differences in behaviour and
habits between different species and even between populations of the
same species in different regions. The literature on the subject is freely
drawn upon and a large number of interesting observations and
deductions are brought together in the book. For instance, one
usually thinks of the male wasp’s duty as completed when he has
mated, but we read here of an American species in which the male
does household chores and guards the home in the absence of his
mate—it must be admitted, however, not very efficiently! And it is
intriguing to read about the Amméphila which has learnt the use of
tools. She uses a stone as a hammer to make a secure closure of
her burrow, unlike the Sphex who pounds with her head to seal the
entrance and Bembix sayi who uses the tip of her abdomen for the
purpose. The accompanying photograph shows a stone several times
bigger than the wasp’s head and, evidently, much more effective as a
hammer. Or, take the spider-hunting wasps. One drags her victim
long distances and takes the risk of having it stolen while she is

546 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

engaged in making the burrow to receive it. Another avoids the
danger by first finding a burrow it can rifle and then making her own
burrow to put the stolen victim into. A third enters the spider’s hole,
overcomes and paralyses the spider, places her egg on it, and walks
out to search for her next victim. And a fourth places her egg on
a temporarily paralysed spider and leaves it to develop on the body
of the spider, which recovers from its temporary paralysis and lives
long enough to see the development through. As an instance of
insect industriousness when the urge is on may be cited the Crabro
stirpicola which is said to have been observed digging continuously at
its burrow for forty-two hours on end with only one ten-minute break.
A short bibliography and an index complete the book.

D.E.R.

3. SUPPLEMENT TO THE GLOSSARY OF INDIAN
MEDICINAL PLANTS. By R. N. Chopra, I. C. Chopra and
B. S. Varma. pp. xii+119 (25:55X16 cm.). New Delhi, 1969.
Publications and Information Directorate. Price Rs. 14.00; 28s.;
$ 4.50.

The authors must be complimented for bringing out this volume,
which, though small in size, is replete with a great deal of useful
information and references on Indian Medicinal Plants. The plants
have been arranged in an alphabetical order according to their generic
names for ease of reference. Most of the plants mentioned here have
been already included in the Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants
published in 1956, but the present volume deals with all the work
done on them from that time till 1964. The reviewer feels that
references upto 1968 at least could have been included particularly
because this volume has been published in 1969. It would have served
to make the work more up-to-date.

The supplement enumerates, in addition to those in the older
Glossary, a number of plant species which were not described before.
These are marked with an asterisk and can therefore be easily spotted.
An index of Regional, Trade and Language Names and an index of
Chemical Constituents at the end of the book further enhances its
usefulness. Zé

It is seen from page iv that the 1932 edition of THE MEDICINAL AND
POISONOUS PLANTS OF SOUTH AFRICA by Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk was
consulted by the authors, whereas a new, revised and enlarged edition
of the same has been in circulation since 1962.

REVIEWS 547

The price of the volume, which is available in hard cover, is en-
couragingly low at Rs. 14 per copy and no one interested in the
subject of Indian Medicinal Plants should be without one.

S. R. AMLADI

4. THE WILD MAMMALS OF MALAYA AND OFFSHORE
ISLANDS INCLUDING SINGAPORE. By Lord Medway. pp. xix+
127 (19X 26:5 cm.). With fifteen coloured plates by Mazli Matsom
and Hamidah Suhaimi. London, 1969. Oxford University Press.
Price M. $ 30.

Ever since Wallace’s classic THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO (1883) the
mention of Malaya immediately arouses interest among zoologists and
naturalists. Though this book covers only the Malay Peninsula and
the islands immediately offshore, excluding those further east, it is an
extremely useful book for anybody interested in the mammals of
South Eastern Asia.

117 of the 200 species recorded from Malaya are illustrated on
15 plates. The pictures are not particularly attractive, but are clear
and diagnostic enough to identify most, except perhaps the bats and
rats. Out of 78 species of bats, only 38 have been illustrated.

The naturalist in India, while noting the absence of some of our
common forms like the antelope and the jackal will be struck by the
fact that in contrast to single forms in Penisular India, Malaya with
its much smaller area has in several instances more than one species
in the same genus or family, e.g. two pig, two bison, two porcupines,
two moonrats, two mousedeer, two rhinoceros, etc.

Each species is separately referred to and, in addition to details
for identification, a summary of whatever other information is available
regarding habits, breeding season, food, etc. is given.

I think this a very useful book addressed to the layman and at
the same time containing most of the information that is available
for the scientific worker. It is evident that as in India, the animal
life has been little studied and it is hoped that this book by a very
versatile naturalist will arouse more interest and help to fill in the
many gaps in our knowledge,

H.A.

548 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

5. WARNE’S NATURAL HISTORY ATLAS OF GREAT
BRITAIN. By Arnold Darlington. pp. 112 (25x19 cm.). With
many illustrations by Charles King. London, 1969. Frederick Warne
& Co. Lid. (Price 355. chat eye met:

This is another superb natural history book which is aimed at
intelligent children but would be equally rewarding for adults. The
book describes in order the main habitats of Great Britain, namely,
sand dunes, sandy heathlands, acid moorlands, chalklands, limestones,
and clays. In each section there is first.a simple but informative
write-up which covers, at a simple level, and helped out by diagrams
the entire ecology of the habitat, i:e. the relationship between the
soil, the creation of the soil, the plants, the insects and finally the
birds. Reading these sections will give any child a close and vivid
understanding of the interrelation between all natural forms. The
next also describes changes in environment over a historical time—
what did the Romans find in these areas? The book, therefore, un-
assumingly promotes ecological understanding rather than just ‘love of
nature’, and this is why it would be a good idea for Indian children
though it deals with Britain. The written pages are followed by
attractive colour illustrations on the common plants, insects and birds
of the particular habitat, to aid identification on picnics.

At the end of the book are a series of coloured maps of England
denoting habitat. There is a bibliography and a final section which
aims to make a conservationist of the young reader, by giving advice
on field study and experiments.

S.F.

6. INDIAN FOSSIL PTERIDOPHYTES. By K. R. Surange.
pp. viiit209 (24-5X15:5 cm.), with 1 coloured plate and 101 figures.
New Delhi, 1966. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research.
Price Rs. 23; 46s.; $8.

This is the fourth botanical monograph published by the CSIR,
New Delhi. In this highly useful publication, Dr. K. R. Surange,
Director, Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany, Lucknow, has collated
information on Indian Pteridophyte fossils known since 1828. The
monograph has indeed many points of excellence which are worthy of
emulation by authors of botanical papers. The language is precise
and free from unnecessary verbosity and the facts are presented in a
very lucid and unbiased manner,

REVIEWS 549

The last chapter gives a valuable comparative account of the
Indian fossil pteridophytes with those of the southern hemisphere, and
adds to the utility of the publication. The quite extensive bibliography
will prove useful to research workers in Palaeobotany. The photo-
graphs and illustrations are excellent for which the technicians concerned
deserve compliments. There can be little doubt that this handy
monograph with its very high production values will be a great boon
to palaeobotanists in India and elsewhere. It is sincerely hoped that
many similar monographs will emerge from the CSIR in the service
of Indian Botany. |

P.V.B,

7. A DICTIONARY OF BOTANY. By George Usher. pp.
v+404 (21-514 cm.). London, i966. Constable and Company Ltd.
Price 50s,

Mr. George Usher, who is the senior Biology Master at Bedstone
School, Bucknell, Shropshire, U.K., has compiled this dictionary. to
meet the needs of University students and Grammar School pupils in
Botany. He has taken a broad view of the subject and has in-
corporated terms used in soil sciences. biochemistry and statistics.

This work should certainly fulfil the needs of students for whom
it is meant and is indeed useful for all those who are interested in
the study of Botany. Considerable amount of modern as well as the
classical data are incorporated.

The problems of Plant-taxonomy as the author has pointed out
in the preface, are so immense that in a work of this type the informa-
tion cannot be completely given. Even so, the author has given
the views of important authorities.

As the author had anticipated, quite a few slips have crept in
this great undertaking but it would be futile to mention them in a
review as they are not of great consequence. These slips are
of the nature of repetitions, missing the correct sequence, mis-spellings
during composition etc. In a dictionary, these slips may appear un-
pardonable to some, but they do not really impair the value of the
work. It is hoped that the next edition will be more carefully proof-
read.

But for its high price, the dictionary is a commendable reference
work for the Indian students of Botany. There is no doubt that it will
find a place in all college libraries teaching courses in Biology and
general liberal education.

P.V.B.

Miscellaneous Notes

1. ABNORMALITY IN THE BREEDING BEHAVIOUR
OF THE INDIAN FRUIT BAT, PTEROPUS
GIGANTEUS GIGANTEUS (BRUNNICH)

Earlier authors (Marshall 1947; Moghe 1951), who studied the
reproductive activities of the Indian fruit bat, Pteropus giganteus
giganteus tecorded that this species has a sharply defined breeding
season. In Ceylon this species conceives from early December until
early January, and the young ones are delivered in May or early in
June (Marshall op. cit.). In Central India copulation occurs some
time in September, and pregnancies in progressively advanced stages
occur up to about the end of January or early February (Moghe op. cit.).
Evidently there seems to be a slight variation in the breeding habits
of this species in different geographical localities.

While making collections of the specimens of this species for
embryological studies I noted the following peculiarities so far not
recorded for this bat. Among the four pregnant females collected on
January 31, 1968 one was in very late pregnancy, one in mid-pregnancy
and two in very early pregnancy carrying just implanted embryos.
Among the five females collected on January 22, 1970 four were in
late stages of pregnancy, and one was in very early pregnancy with
an unimplanted blastocyst in the uterus. These facts indicate that
the different females in the same colony copulate at different times
in the year, and hence, they carry different stages of pregnancy on
a given date. One pertinent fact needs mentioning. In the specimens
of this species reared in captivity in the T.ondon Zoo, births were
recorded on the following dates—January 14. January 31, February 6,
February 14, March 18, March 24, May 8, June !4, December 4,
and December 19, (Baker & Baker 1936). The present observations
show that even in nature Pte*opus giganteus giganteus may not have
as sharply defined a breeding season as mentioned by earlier authors.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, J. D. SAHASRABUDHE
‘INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE,

NAGPUR,

June 14, 1970.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 551

REFERENCES

BAKER, J. R. & BAKER, Z. (1936):
The seasons in a tropical rain forest (New
Hebrides). Part I[I—Fruit bats (Ptero-
pidae). J. Linn. Soc. London 40:
123-141.

MarSHALL, A. J. (1947): The breed-

giganteus) of Ceylon, Proe. Linn. Soc.
London 159 : 103-111.

Moacue, M. A. (1951) : Development
and placentation of the Indian fruit bat,
Pteropus giganteus giganteus (Brunnich).
Proc. Zool. Soc. London 121: 703-721,

ing cycle of an equatorial bat (Pteropus

2. THE WHITE TIGER

Mohan, the grand patriach of white tigers died on the night of
18 December, 1969, at the age of 19 years.

First seen by the Maharaja of Rewa in May, 195! in Rewa forests
as one of four cubs. He was captured on 27 May 1951 when he was
about 9 months old.

When Mohan attained maturity he was mated to an ordinary
coloured tigress ‘Begum’ of the same age captured on 28 November
1952 from the same forests. The first litter produced on 10 April
1955, had normal coloured cubs. One of these cubs ‘Radha’ was
mated with Mohan and gave birth to four white cubs on 30 October
1958, initiating the race of white tigers. Today there are 33 white
tigers in the world—11 cf which are in Delhi Zoo alone and six
at Govindgarh Palace, Rewa.

DIRECTOR, J. H. DESAT
‘DELHI ZOOLOGICAL PARK,
New Deut,

December 22, 1969.

3. THE BREEDING OF THE INDIAN GIANT SQUIRREL
(RATUFA INDICA) IN CAPTIVITY

In 1966, His Highness the Chhatrapati Maharajasaheb acquired
from the North Kanara jungles for his private Zoo a pair of
young Indian Giant Squirrel [Raltufa indica (Erxleben)] commonly
known in these parts as Malabar Squirrel and in Marathi ‘Shekra’.
The squirrels have thrived in captivity since then and after three
years they bred for the first time on the Ist of August 1969
and gave birth to one young (male). The squirrels are kept in
a semi-circular cage with a radius of 21 ft. and root height 10 ft.
They made a nest of dried grass (hay) in a wooden box 1°6” x1’ 6"

552. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

x 1’8”), which had been installed in the cage. The young one is
alive and has grown up well.

The same pair has again given birth to another young (male) in
the same cage and box this year on 22-iv-1970. ‘This time mating
was also observed between 7th to 10th February 1970. This young
is also growing up satisfactorily.

The breeding of these squirrels in captivity is we think an unusual
occurrence.

OFFICER-IN-CHARGE, V. G, SURVE
New PALACE Zoo,

KOLHAPUR,

September 11, 1979.

4. BREEDING BEHAVIOUR AND DEVELOPMENT OF
RATTUS RATTUS WROUGHATON! HINTON, 1919
(RODENTIA: MURIDAEB) IN THE LABORATORY

(With. « text-figure)

Rattus rattus wroughtoni was the commonest species of rat found in
trapping operations in the moist deciduous forests of Sagar and Sorab
Taiuks of Shimoga District, Mysore State (Boshell & Rajagopalan
1968'). A colony of these rats was maintained in the laboratory
in connection with the studies on the natural cycle of Kyasanur
Forest Disease virus and the observations made, during these
studies, on the breeding behaviour and development of this rat, are
recorded in this communication.

MATERIAI. AND METHOD

Rodents were trapved in the forest using ‘Sherman’ traps (aluminium
folding traps, 9” x 34” x3”) and ‘pakoda’ (a mixture of gram flour and
onion fried in oil), as bait and brought to the field laboratory. Adult
female rats were kept in individual cages made of thick GI wire mesh
(12” x18” X24”) with straw bedding. The standard laboratory mouse
boxes (10”°X7”X5”) with paddy husk bedding were also found
satisfactory. Wild caught males with scrotal testes were provided one

a 5

1 BOSHELL, M. J. & RAJAGOPALAN, P. K. (1968) : Small rodents and shrews in the
Sagar-Sorab area, Mysore State, India. Population studies: 1961-1964. Ind. J.
Med. Res. 56 (4): 527-540.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 553

for each female. Whenever fighting was noticed, the male partner was
changed for another male. Apparently pregnant females were
separated in individual boxes for daily observation. The female and
the babies when born were weighed once a week. The rats were
fed on a commercial animal diet and water was provided from a
dripping bottle with a nozzle. The cages (or boxes) were changed
every three or four days and provided with fresh bedding.

OBSERVATIONS

A great variation in the behaviour of the individual rats was
observed. In all cases, the male partner was not readily accepted by
the female and fighting ensued, the female being the aggressive one.
Out of 44 females kept under observation, only 17 littered. Laboratory
breeding was more successful when the same female and male, which
had copulated once, were used. Only in two instances, the female
accepted a fresh male. It seems probable that there is a selection of
individuals among the wild population which can readily breed in
captivity. Actual process of copulation or littering was not observed,
though the pairs were seen in a huddled posture inside the cage.

Breeding performance «nd litter size:

As stated above, only 17 females cf the 44, littered in captivity.
The others did not, even though the males were changed periodically.
Eight females littered orly once, twa females twice, three females thrice,
two females five times, one female seven times and another female
eight times (Table 1). There appeared to be no seasonal variation in
the breeding of these rats in the laboratory, as litters were born in all
months of the year. The number of babies in a litter varied from one
to five, though three or four babies in a litter are most common. (Of
the 46 litters observed, 22 had three babies and 14 had four babies).
There were more males than females among the babies born in the
laboratory. In nine cases, all the babies in the litter were males and
only in three cases all were females. Of the 145 babies born, 23 were
either eaten up by the mother or died and hence could not be weighed
or sexed. Of the remaining 122 babies, 56 were males and 56 were
females. During the first week after littering, the babies were in-
variably protected by the mother. The mother became agitated when
disturbed and in some cases ate up the babies.

Oestrus cycle und gestation period:

From Table 1, which gives the data on the littering of 17 rats,
it was possible to calculate the gestation period. The normal procedure

554. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)
followed was to isolate the feniale after pregnancy was observed. In

one case (Rat no. 26} the male partner was removed only on the day

TABLE 1

BREEDING OF Rattus rattus wroughtoni INLABORATORY—LITTER SIZE, SEX
COMPOSITION AND BIRTH WEIGHT OF BABIES BORN

Litter Date Litter | Sex of babies | Average birth

Sl. Rat SSS
No. | No. delivered size M | F ! weight in gm.
1. 2 1 28-v-1965 3 3 0 95
2: 3 1 3-11-1965 3 1 2 4°5
34 =; 2 14-1x-1965 4 2 2 4°3
4. is 3 19-1-1966 3 1 2 a2
wt ee 4 15-1v-1966 4 3 1 52
6. es 5 23-vill-1966 4 2 Da 5:1
ais 9 1 27-1x-1965 3 2, 1 7°6
8. 12 1 21-1-1965 3 1 2 4°4
9. sh 2 6-v-1965 3 2 1 295)
10. 16 1 8-1v-1965 3 3 1 S73
i a D 29-1x-1965 4 2, 2) 4:9
12, 17 1 25-vit-1965 3 2 1 9°9
13. 18 1 29-1v-1965 5 3 2D, 4:4
14. c 2 9-vin1-1965 1 1 1 6:0
1S. ss 3 24-x-1965 4 1 3 5:0
16. a 4 3-1-1966 4 2 2 6:0
ve ie 5 1-11-1966 3 2 1 5:0
18. ae 6 30-v-1966 1 1 — 6:0
19. A a 3-vul-1966 4 1 3 6:2
20. 21 1 25-1-1965 3 2 1 6°8
21k be 2 21-1x-1965 3 1 2, 4°8
D2: ie 3 13-xu1-1965 4 2 2 5:0
25. 26 1 28-vil-1965 4 2 D 4°6
24. ¥ 2 16-x11-1966 2 2 — 5:0
2% - 3 17-1-1966 5 3 2 4°6
26. te 4 24-11-1966 4* — — 4°6
Dike a 5 26-11-1966 ily — — 10°6
28. 3 6 20-1v-1966 Bh — — 4°6
29. 8 I 8-vI-1966 3* — — 6'°6
30. ae 8 21-vu1-1966 4* — — Bes
31. Zi 1 22-vill-1965 3* — — 4°9
32. - DB 17-x1-1965 3* — 5:0
33. a 3) 27-1-1966 3 1 2) 3°4
34. * 4 29-11-1966 3 1 2, 6°5
35. ne 5 9-1x-1966 2 D — Les
36. 34 1 22-x1I-1965 3 — 3 6°6
37: Sif, 1 10-vu1-1965 5 23 3 5:0
38. > 2 31-1-1966 3 2 1 a2
39. cs 3 6-v1I-1966 3 3 — 6°8
40. 38 1 17-vi-1965 2 — 2 4°5
41. 40 1 24-11-1966 4 yy 2 5°8
42. a y 28-11-1966 2% — — 6:0
43. . 3 25-1v-1965 3 3 — 5°6
44. 41 1 1-11-1966 4 — 4 6:0
45. 42 1 15-1v-1966 1 1 — 6:0
46. 43 1 7-vi-1966 3 2 1 4:3

* Babies eaten up by mother 1-3 days afterwards ; hence not sexed. Mean weight
of a new-born baby=5'1 gm., Median=5°4 gm., Standard deviation=1°46,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 555

the female had littered (on 26 March 1966). On 20 April 1966, the
same rat littered again, though no male was provided in between this
period. It appears that copuiation must have taken piace on 26 March
immediately postpartum and almost at the same time with parturition.
The gestation period is therefore calculated as 25 days.

Early growth and development:

The information on growth and development was based on the
observations made on 136 rats born in the laboratory. At birth, the
babies weighed between 4:3 and 10:6 grams. The’ mean weight of
the new-born baby was 5.1 gm. + 1:46. Only one baby weighed
10°6 gms., and was the only individual in the litter. The babies were
naked at birth with eyes closed and sexing was possible after weaning
only. The weaning time varied from 4 to 10 weeks though the majority
were weaned when they were 6-7 weeks old (Table 2). The majority
of the rats were weaned when they attained a weight of 30-50 gms.

TABLE 2

AGE AND THE WEIGHT AT THE TIME OF WEANING OF Rattus rattus wroughtoni
YOUNG ONES

————

Age in weeks at the No. of rats
time. of weaning

4 2

>) 3

6 24

i 34

8 16

9 3

10 4

86

Weight range in gm.
at the time of
weaning

20-25 9
25°1-30 4
30°1-35 DT,
35°1-40 15
40°1-45 19
45°1-50 10
50°1-55 0
55°1-60 4
60°1-65 0
65:1-70 3
86

Maximum weight at weaning—65°6 gm.
Minimum weight at weaning=20'2 gm.

TRAL HIST. SOC . 67 (3
556 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES S57]

Nine babies weaned when they weighed between 20-25 gms. and three
of them when they weighed over 65 gms.

Table 3 presents the data on weight and survival of rats at different
age intervals. It is possible that under laboratory conditions, though
no malformations were noticed the rate of growth may not approxi-
mate what actually happens in nature. In the laboratory, the birth
weight of the newborn baby nearly doubled within a week. Until
the rats were 35 weeks of age, the weight gradually increased and
became stationary after that (Figure 1). After the 50th week the

FIG. 1

WEIGHTS (ARITHIMETIC MEANS) OF LABORATORY REARED
160 RATTUS RATTUS WROUGHTONI

150

100

WEIGHT IN GMS.
@
°

0 10 20 30 40° 50 60 70
AGE IN WEEKS

rats started losing weight and only one rat was alive at the end of 53rd
week and this survived for another 18 weeks. While no _ precise
information is available on the life span of these rats in nature, in
another field study, two wild caught females (whose ages were not
known at the time of capture) were kept alive for 710 days and 562
days in the laboratory. Even though factors like predators and

£3

558 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

competition are eliminated in the case of a iaboratory reared rat, other
artificial conditions like restriction of their movements inside a cage
and a probable physiological fatigue resulting from captivity conditions
and an artificial diet have to be considered.

VIRUS RESEARCH CENTRE, P. K. RAJAGOPALAN
Poona-l,
April 24, 1970.

5S. AN ATTEMPT TO DETERMINE THE FOOD
HABITS OF THE INDIAN RHINOCEROS

The great Indian one-horned rhinoceros, Rhinoceros unicornis has
been noted to feed chiefly on grass but no exact record is available.
It was therefore attempted to actually observe the grass species
nibbled by rhino at Jaldapara National Park, North Bengal and to
identify the remains of vegetable material in the dung with the help
of microscope slides, a technique proposed by Drs. Skoog and
Gogan' at Serengeti for studying zebra.

Our study was carried out during a fortnight in the pre-monsoon
season (last part of May) in 1970.

It was very difficult to approach the rhino and observe exactly
what it was eating. The small number of animals and the nature
of the vegetation at Jaldapara render direct observation difficult.
Much of the forest area even in this season was covered by 10-20 feet
tall grass. However, it was at last possible to observe two rhinos at
different places while actually feeding on Polytoca digitata, locally
known as Bhutta (maize) grass. Both tender (thin stemmed) and
bigger, thick stemmed (diameter 6-7 mm. when dried) plants were
eaten. Moreover, following the regular tracks of rhinos, spots were
found where the animals had extensively grazed. On one or two
occasions we reached spots apparently immediately after the rhino had
passed by, for the cropped grasses lying about were very fresh. The
absence of Other grazers such as deer, gaur, buffalo etc. in the vicinity
renders it almost certain that these feedings were by the rhino. it
was also likewise evident that the rhino does not feed on fern.
Twelve undigested stems from 4 different dung heaps of rhino were
collected. The length of these was in the range 2°5-4-8 cm. When
brought to the laboratory, 8 of these were in a stage permitting
sectioning after a 24 hour treatment with NaOH. These sections
stained with saffranin were compared with similar sections of grass
samples collected. ‘The most important result of the whole study is

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 0

the discovery that this method is quite workable and as such it should
be extremely useful to collect a large number of such undigested stems.
This is indeed a simple matter in the field because dung heaps are
easily reached and hundreds of samples may be collected from a
single heap.

Of the 8 stems studied microscopically, two were Polyioca and
5 were identical, (a dicotyledonous species) while one was not very
clearly recognizable. It is most interesting that a substantial part of
the remains point at a non-grass species. In the Calcutta Zoo, how-
ever, the rhinos are frequently given Ficus religtosa and F. bengalensis
and other leaves which the animals consume. Some of the local people
at Jaldapara maintain that occasionally the rhinos eat non-grass
species. The following table sums up the findings.

Foop PLANTS OF THE INDIAN RHINOCEROS

Microscopic

examination

of remains
of dung

Alleged
by local
| people

| Observed
Observed traces of

|
feeding

Sample actual feeding

\

Polytoca

digitata + -f-
Digitaria

granularis
Imperata

cylindrica oe ate
Setaria

pallide-fusca
Fimbristylis

junciformis i;
Unidentified aie
Unidentified

Dicot species “|.
Mychenia +
Dalbergia sissoo “7

Polytoca digitata and Imperata cylindrica are found in extensive
areas of the Jaldapara. The former has been recorded as a fodder
grass’, while Imperata cylindrica (Locally known as ‘Ulw’ or ‘ilu’)
is very well known as thatch grass and also as a common fodder
grass and very extensive, though indirect. evidence for feeding on
this by rhino were available. Digitaria granularis is a very short grass
which generally does not grow in dense forest or in taller grasses”.
Within this limited growth area (as we also verified) it was extensively
consumed. (A related species D. criantha imported from S. Africa
contains HCN when drying up and mav form a source of danger

560 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

for the browser). The other species mentioned were also of minor
importance because of their limited distribution. Of these Setaria
pallide-fusca is known to make good pastures near Bombay”. F. junci-
formis (Bindi Muthi in Santali language") is a non-grass (Cyperacede)
though monocot sample.

The most interesting finding is the occurrence of a dicot or non-
grass species in the dung. This might be identified by sectioning the
common flora samples of the area such as Dalbergia which were not
collected in this study.

In conclusion, it has been proved that our attempt, especially the
microscopic identification of faecal remains, was in the right direction
and a second, more comprehensive attempt covering Kaziranga, the
great stronghold of the Indian Rhino is likely to enable us to learn
the food habits of this endangered species.

Another phase of work will be the estimation of protein contents
and certain other chemical tests of the important food sample.

Now that the Baradabari area of the former National Park has been
taken over by the Military, the sanctuary should be compensated by
acquiring another block of equivalent area to be chosen after a survey
of the ecological needs. such as the requisite vegetation for food and
shelter. The effect of fire on vegetation should be carefully studied.
Stringent measures should be taken to check poaching.

There also arises the question of competition with other species
for food. The tame elephants were observed to feed on Polytoca and
Setaria but there is no sizeable resident herd of wild elephant. /mperata
or thatch grass is likely to be a coveted item for the various her-
bivores including domestic buffalo in adjacent villages. Mychenia
was observed to be eaten by local deer species. The number of
domestic buffalo and deer in the area observed by us did not seem
to us to be a potential source of danger as competitors for a limited
food supply.

We thank the Forestry Department, West Bengal for co-operation
at all levels and the staff of Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta for
identifying the grass.

INDIAN STATISTICAL. INSTITUTE, R. L. BRAHMACHARY
CALCUTTA, (Miss) B. MALLIK
August 11, 1970. B. RAKSHIT
REFERENCES
1S$xooc, R. O. & GOGAN, P. JR. 3 Bor, N. L. (1960) : The Grasses of
(1969): Annual Report of Serengeti Burma, Ceylon, India and Pakistan.
Research Institute, E. Africa. Pergamon Press.

2 Nrropi, NALINI (1955): Studies on * PRAIN, D. (1963) : Bengal Plants II.
Asiatic Relatives of Maize. Ann. of Botanical Survey of India.
Missouri Bot. Gard. 42: 103.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 56]

6. REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOUR OF BROW-
ANTLERED DEER

INTRODUCTION

Thamin deer or Browantiered deer, Cervus eldi eldi (McClleland),
is found only in a small area of Manipur in eastern India. It is
estimated that only about one hundred of these deer now exist in
nature in Keibul Lamjao Wild Life Sanctuary of Manipur (Gee 1960)
It is one of the threatened species of the sub-continent (Talbot 1960).

Published records on breeding pattern of this deer in nature are
almost non-existent. The secretive nature of the deer and the fact
that the animal lives in floating islands in swamps in nature makes it
very difficult to collect information on its breeding behaviour in the
wild. It may be mentioned that Browantlered deer have done well
in captivity in various parts of the world. Gee (1960) states that
several fawns were born at Woburn, Abbey, U.K.; four fawns were
born during 1922-25 in the Regents Park Zoological Garden, U.K..,
nine fawns were born in Vincennes Zoological Garden of Paris and
many fawns were born in Alipore Zoological Garden, Calcutta.

According to Asdell (1946), Cervidae are seasonally monestrous.
Cheatum & Morton (1942) state that the length of estrous cycle is
about 28 days. The same authors conclude that the estrous period
lasts a maximum of thirty-six hours and the period, a female will
receive a Stag, lasts only about a day. Prater (1965) indicates that
the stags shed their antlers in mid-August and are clear of velvet by
the end of December, the rut develops between March-April and after
a gestation period of 239 to 256 days, usually one fawn is born in
October. Gee (1960) mentions that the stags shed their antlers in
late June, the rutting season is between February and March and
the fawns are born in October and November.

The paper presents the results of the study of breeding pattern
of the Browantlered deer conducted in Delhi Zoo from 1962 to 1969.
It is hoped that the reproductive data will enhance the biological
knowledge about the species and help in its preservation.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The Delhi Zoological Park received a pair of Browantlered deer
in August, 1962 as a present from Manipur State, India. The deer
were kept in an open moated and grassed enclosure of about 1-5
acres. The deer were given one kilogram of concentrates daily and

562 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

five kilograms of green fodder. In addition, they had an access to
the green grass in the enclosure. The stag had complete access to
the doe for mating all the year round. The deer were watched
regularly. A total of eight fawns were born during 1963 and 1968.

The stags drop their antlers in iate June and beginning of new
antlers in velvet take place within three to four days (Table 1). The
stags are in full velvet during the month of July. The antlers
become clear of velvet in late November. The antlers are very
handsome and characteristic of the species. In profile, they seem
almost circular. The antlers sweep in one continuous graceful curve
from the tip of the browtine to the point of the beam. The number
of terminal tines. varies from two or three to as many as eight or
ten (Prater 1965). The antlers at the maximum measure 102 cm.
(42 inches) (Gee 1960). In the Dethi Zoological Park. the shed antlers
were measured each year and recorded. The number of tines varied
from three to five on each antler (Table 1).

TABLE |

ANTLER SEQUENCE OF BROWANTLERED DEER

it yee

Date of | | | Antlers | Chasing
S.No | dropping | NTs No. of | Beginning: cane | cleared | female
of aati tines | of velvet of velvet’ or

antlers | velvet | mating
| | |
i : | {

|

1 26-vi-65 91 cm. 343 30-vi-65 3-vii-65 23-xi-65 3-iii-65

2 25-vi-66 Oe 3+3 28-vi-66 I1-vii-66 21-xi-66 2-iii-66

3 28-vi-67 Pisa: 4+4 2-vil-67 3-vii-67 22-xi-67 — 1-iii-67

4 28-vi-67 96.4% Sion I-vii-68 4-vil-68 23-xi-68 —.2-i1i-67/*
10-iv-68

5 29-vi-68 935, 33 2-vii-68 6-vii-68 = 24-xi-68

6 26-vi-69 2 as 5+5 29-viil-69 1-vii-69

A peculiar behaviour of the stag which came to the Zoo in 1962
is during rut, it chases the females and even injures them (two females
on 1.3.1967 and 2.3.1967).

Due to the secretive nature of the deer, out of eight successful mat-
ings that took place during 1963 and 1968, only one mating on
10.4.1968 was actually observed. Four other mating dates were esti-
mated from the behaviour of the dominant male and the females.
On two occasions the females were injured by the male during chase
and on other two Gecasions the male was observed chasing the female
throughout the day and it was ascertained that the mating would
take place on that day. The gestation period were calculated from

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 563

the estimated date of breeding and the date of parturition. The
average gestation period was found to be 240-4 days with a minimum
of 236 days and a maximum of 244 days.

TABLE 2

BREEDING, FAWNING AND GESTATION PERIOD OF BROWANTLERED DEER
IN DELHI ZOOLOGICAL PARK

Estimated — See EN 4 shee
stimated | : o.of| sition |
S. No date of | Date of u08 lrawns | of herd | Remarks.
: parturition | period
mating | in days born a os: |
| | M | F
| |
1 18-x-63 ie I I 1D
2, ae 12-xi-64 ae 1 1 3
3 3-11-65 29-x-65 240 | | i3 One male died
on 2-xii-65 due
to injuries,
4 2-i11-66 26-x-66 238 i Z 3
5 oe 27-x-66 As | 2 4
6 1-i11-67 23-x-67 236 1! 3 4
i 2-ii1-67 1-xi-67 244 | 3 5
8 10-iv-68 10-xii-68 244 i 3 5 One female died
(Actual on 13-i-1968.
mating
observed)
Average 240°4 Present 2 3.5 One female died
herd on 2-vi-1969.
com-
position

In all the eight cases. the does dropped single fawn. Eight fawn-
ing dates were recorded with the earliest fawn dropping on 18.x.1963
and the latest on 10.x11.1968.

On an average the fawn of the browantlered deer were observed
to be slightly larger than those of the Axis deer (Axis axis), Sika
deer (Cervus nippon) and smaller than those of nilgai (Boselaphus
tragocamelus) (Tables 3 & 4.)

DELHI ZOOLOGICAL PARK, K S. SANKHALA
New DELHI. J. H. DESAT
November 3, 1969.

564. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 565
REFERENCES

ASDELL, S. A. (1946): Patterns of status of the Browantlered deer of
mammalian reproduction. Comstock Manipur. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
Publishing Company. Ithaca: 314, 338. 57: 597-617.

CHEATUM, E. L. & GLENT MORTON PRATER, S.H. (1965): The book of
(1942) : Technique used in determining Indian Animals. Bombay Natural
the period of rut among white-tailed deer | History Society, pp. 316.
of New York State. Trans. Seventh N. TALBOT, L. M. (1960): A !ook at
Amer. Wildlife Conf. 334-342. threatened species. Oryx 5 (4 & 5);

GEE, E. P. (1960): Report on the 147-326.

7. “WHITE BISON’ OF MANJAMPATTI

The ‘White bison’ of Manjampatti have intrigued me right from
the time I first heard of them. But first hand news eluded me, until
I met early this year when he visited India, Mr. J, L. H. Williams
who was the first to report on the occurrence of this ash coloured
gaur in the Manjampatti Valley in the journal (vide JBNHS 66: 605).

He had seen a fair number of them in his day and my talks with him
rekindled my interest in them to the extent of making a trip to the
‘White bison’ country in an effort to obtain coloured photographs
of the animal.

My talks with Mr. J. Wilson, the District Forest Officer, Coimbatore
South within whose jurisdiction Manjampatti falls was not very en-
couraging and gave me a hint of what to expect. He said he had
toured the area extensively as forest working plan Officer between
1962 and 1964 and never came across a single abnormal coloured
gaur. He also told me that even after assuming charge of the district
earlier this year he had not seen one. Sco much so he said that he even
contemplated writing a note titled ““White bison’, fact or fiction?’.

But by then my plans had been made and I decided to go ahead
with my trip. When I reached Amaravathi Nagar just over 5 Km.,
off the Udumalpet-Munnar road | met Mr. Arumugham, the forester
in charge of the Manjampatti and adjoining forest beats with a note
from the D.F.O. and explained to him my mission. During his 2
years or so in the area, he said he had never seen an off coloured
gaur and confessed that he had not heard of the existence of one
within his jurisdiction. He lined up his guards and watchers and
questioned then closely. They were positive that they had not come
across a gaur Other than a normal coloured one and much less a
white one.

The non-officials in the area proved to be more observant.
Mr. M. A. S. M. Muthuswamy, a leading agriculturist and well known
sportsman of Udumalpet. who has a small holding off the Udumal-

566 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

pet-Munnar Road on the Kerala side of the border and who uses
the Ghat road frequently told me that he had seen a herd of 4 ‘White
bison’, which he described as greenish grey in colour, on several
occasions some years previously. He also told me that he saw a
fine, greenish grey bull in a herd of normal coloured gaur at
Kamanuthu. just off the Munnar ghat road in the Kombu beat on
the Tamil Nadu side of the border last winter. His brother,
Mr, Padmanabhan whom I questioned separately said he had also
seen a herd of 5. Even without my asking him he pointed at a very
pale green window in his house and said ‘That colour mixed with
a bit of grey’. At Amaravathi Nagar, a dhoby who goes to the
Kamanuthu area to collect firewood said that he had also seen an
ash coloured bull there, the previous winter, confirming Mr, Muthu-
swamy’s story. Mi. A. J. Packianathan a senior master of the Sainik
Schoo] at Amaravathi Nagar said he saw in the same area four ash
coloured gaur by themselves some distance away from the road in
1965. He has been taking his school boys on Jong treks through the
jungles, twice a year, annually from 1962 onwards and had never seen
an ash co!toured gaur before or since. Koolayan (Shorty) a cattle-
man of the Malasar tribe who keeps cattle at Kumulam Patti over-
looking the northern slopes of Manjamalai and part of the northern
slopes of Mudian Malai and who has a grandstand view of all gaur
movement in the area said he saw only one strange. coloured gaur in
January last year among the thousands he had seen. When I questioned
him about the colour of the animal he jerked his thumb at my grey-
ing G.I. provision tin and said ‘Like that’. H.H. The Raja of Pudu-
kottai who is familiar with the Madurai or Kodaikanal side of the
Palni bills wrote to say that he saw one ‘White’ bull gaur beyond Kukal
in a place called Koilan Alai this year and that in the past 30 years
he had seen about half a dozen of them. in normal coloured gaur
herds. From these descriptions I guess that the colour of the animal
may be best described as ‘wet ash’. Enquiries on the Kerala side
showed that the forest staff and others there had not even heard of
such an animal.

As the jungle around Kamanuthu being more open in June (when
I paid my visit) and do not hold gaur then, we decided to concentrate
on the more thickly wooded Mudian Malai Manjamalai-—-Varavandi
area.

Local guides and porters to transport our stuff were recruited
from Talinji (locally, Dhalinji). They met us at the Pambar settle-
ment on the Kerala side of the border, a distance of a little over
2 Km. from the Chinnar check post. up the Munnar ghat road. We
crossed the Pambar at this point and were in the ‘white bison’ country

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 567

of Williams. We found out that two of the guides were in Williams’
party and had guided other Europeans to see the ‘White bison’. They
told us that they had not seen a ‘White bison’ in the last 15 or 20
years. They admitted quite frankly that this was partly due to the
fact that there was no occasion for them te go looking for gaur.

The place. has changed considerable since Williams set foot there.
Administratively the whole valley, generally referred to as the Man-
jampatti valley, has been brought under the jurisdiction of the
Coimbatore South forest division with the transfer ot Kukkal and
Kudiraiyar blocks from the Madurai forest division. The Pulayar
of Talinji, of whom there are about 80 families, with a head count
of about 400, or at least the bulk of them are no longer living in
thatched huts but have been settled by the tribal ‘Welfare’ department
of Government in horrid lines with cracked bulging walls, topped with
undulating illfitting tiled roofs.

The hand of the Tamil Nadu Electricity Board is in evidence
everywhere. They are blasting and drilling all around Talinji to
determine the best locations for the several. tunnels, dams and power
houses which are expected to be built under the upper Amaravathi
Hydroelectric Scheme. Some parts of the jungle are said to hold
Naxalites and others, rice smugglers. Except for some deer and
elephants during the agricultura! season there is nothing there.

Manjampatti is only a place name today, the Pulayars there having
abandoned their homes because of malaria and trouble from elephants
and have moved to Talinji and other places. Instead, there is a small
2 man station of the hydrometric survey. The area between Man-
jampatti and Talinji is disturbed and it is only beyond Manjampatti
that wild life occur. The senior laskar at Manjampatti told me that
he has been there for nearly 4 years except for short breaks and that
although he has seen quite a few gaur during his stay there he is
yet to see one which could be described as odd.

I had taken with me from the Nilgiris an experienced shikari
(guide) well versed in the use of field glasses. At every camp we
split, and each taking a local guide combed every bit of the area
around. There was a fine drizzle almost throughout our stay which
encouraged animal movement throughout the day. Manjampatti was
a dismal failure. Although we searched the slopes of the hig’
mountains which ringed the valley and the lesser valleys and gullies
thoroughly we failed to locate a single gaur.

The Mudian Malai slopes were more productive. In two days we
saw 111 gaur in 7 herds and | was a young solitary bull. In a large
herd I had a glimpse of a young reddish brown cow and two more
light coloured young animals as they stampeded after getting my scent.

568 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

The locals call these ‘sevelais’ or reds. My attempts to make furthet
contact with this herd proved futile.

At our last camp at Mukuttu we had three parties out searching
the northern slopes of Manjamalai and Mudian Malai and the thick
jungles below. We saw altogether 67 gaur—3 solitaries and 5 herds
and signs of many more in the jungle. While we were there
Koolayan took me to a popular salt lick where we spent an evening.
As dusk fell a small herd of 5 gaur, a young bull and 4 cows visited
the salt lick. One young cow was a ‘sevelai’. It was rich chestnut,
the colour of a barking deer, on the sides and the rest of the exposed
parts of the body were slightly darker. Koolayan said that ‘sevelais’
are not as rare as the ash coloured ones and several are seen in
those parts.

One possible reason for the depletion of the ‘White bison’ stock
is the foot and mouth disease which, | believe, makes regular rounds
of these jungles and proves fata! in the case of the gaur. Apparently
the incidence of the disease was greater on the smaller number of
‘White bison’. The occurrence of the ‘sevelais’ (Reds) would go to
show that there is definitely a tendency for colour variation among
the gaur of the Manjampatti valley. Therefore the appearance of an
ash coloured bison now and then should not be a cause for surprise.
But whether they would continue to patronise the vallev once the
upper Amaravathi Project gets gomg is doubtful.

All camping in this elephant infested area is appropriately done in
caves. There are half a dozen of them situated at convenient intervals.

At Mudian Malai we camped at Puli Alai (tiger cave), the cave
Williams refers to in his note. It is so placed half way up a deep
gully that to reach it an elephant would have to be an acrobat. The
approaches to the alai or cave at Mukuttu is barred by precipitous
rocks on two sides and smocthly worn slippery slide rocks guard the
other two. The ones at Duvanam, where the Amaravathi tumbles into
the reservoir in an impressive fall and at Manjampatti are so low and
deep that even if an elephant lay on its side it cannot reach the
occupants.

As regards other forms of wild tife. spotted deer seem to favour
the light jungle around Talinji and Manjampatti, unmindful of the
disturbance. Sambar occur in fair numbers on the slopes. Pigs are
plentiful. Barking deer could be heard now and then. After a lapse
of some years there is news of tigers—-some were seen crossing the
Munnar Ghat road recently. Panthers and bears are not so scarce, but
they are by no means common. Strangely, there are no wild dogs.

It is understood that the Tamil Nadu forest department is planning
to build an expensive rest house at Manjampatti to enable visitors to

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 569

see the “White bison’. They would be well advised to locate the
bungalow on the Mudian Malai slopes we!l away from the din and
bustle of the hydroelectric project area, where people could go and
relax and see at least some of the other forms of wild life of the
Valley.

At least in the matter of opening up of roads and the building of
rest houses beiter co-ordination between the Forest Department and
the Electricity Board is essential. It is but proper that the Electricity
Board should submit the immediate as well as long range plans of
their projects to the concerned Ferest authorities in whose areas they
operate.

It is ironical that 1 who went to the Manjampatti Valley to be
enlightened about the ‘White bison’ had the unenviable task of trying
to convince the incredulous locals that such an animal shares their
valley with them. My object in going there was to make survey and
if possible, obtain photographic record of the ‘White bison’. And
I had to return without positive proof. My only consolation is that
in a survey of this nature a negative report is better than none.

I am indebted to the Bombay Natural History Society and the
Dorabji Tata Trust for sponsoring the trip. I acknowledge with
gratitude the assistance rendered by Mr. J. Wilson, the district forest
Officer and his helpful staff.

‘CANOWIE , E. R. C. DAVIDAR
Coonoor-1.

NILGIRIS,

July 18, 1970.

8. OCCURRENCE OF LEAST FRIGATE BIRD (FREGATA
ARIEL IREDALEI MATHEWS) IN BOMBAY

On 4 June, 1970, a Least Frigate Bird, Fregata ariel, in juvenile
plumage was found exhausted on a beach north of Bombay. 18° 55/N.,
72° 50’E. On its wings were two plastic wing-tags bearing the serial
number A-04.

Information now received from the British Trust for Ornithology
indicates that this bird was tagged as a nestling on Aldabra Island,
Indian Ocean (09° 22’S., 46° 28’E.) on the 18th April 1969. It was
present there up to 29th August 1969.

This is the third record of this species from India, the first being
of Ferguson from Trivandrum, 1904, and the second of Humayun
Abdulali from Bombay 1960 (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57: 668) though

570 JOURNAL, BOMBAY, NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , WV ol.367 (G3)

at least six examples have been taken on the west coast of Ceylon,
also during the monsoon months (INDIAN HANDBOOK 1:49).

The map distance between the points of ringing and recovery in
this case is c. 4400 km.

The bird is at present in the private aviaries of the Maharaja of
Jamnagar. It is still rather weak, and it is proposed to release it out
at sea when it recovers, after marking it with the Society’s ring.

Patt HitL, BANDRA, RAUF ALI
Bomsay 50-AS,
August 25, 1970:

9. THE OCCURRENCE OF THE SANDERLING
(CALIDRIS ALBUS) IN KERALA

The Sanderiing does not so far seem to have been recorded from
anywhere in Kerala State (see SAlim Ali BIRDS OF KERALA, 1969: 126).

I am sending you one wing of a sanderling shot on Dharmadam
beach (11°45’N., 75°30’E.) on 24th November, 1968. Unfortunately,
the specimen could not be skinned or sexed.

This bird was with two others of the same species in the midst
of a large flock of Sandplovers (most probably Charadrius mongolus).
paddling in the receding waves and feeding busily. Even from a
distance the little group of Sanderlings stood out, because of their
strikingly pale coloration, in that large gathering of Sandplovers. In
their feeding movements they were more active than the Sandplovers.

On our next visit to the beach (21-xii-68), we saw four Sanderlings,
again in the midst of a very large flock of Sandplovers.

I found that the black shoulder-paich, mentioned in some books
as an important field mark, did not show up at all when the birds
ran about feeding. Only when they stretched their wings did the
black patch become evident.

I am grateful to my friend and colleague, Sri N. P. Vijayaraghavan
for shooting the Sanderling for closer scrutiny.

PRINCIPAL, K. K. NEELAKANTAN
Govt. BRENNEN COLLEGE,

DIHARMADAM,
KERALA,
May 25, 1969.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Sid

10. OCCURRENCE OF THE INDIAN SKIMMER OR
SCISSORBILL (RYNCHOPS ALBICOLLIS
SWAINSON) IN SALSETTE ISiLAND

At just on sunrise on 29th August 1970, I was watching egrets
and herons on an open expanse of water of the Chedda Salt Pans
along the Bombay Eastern Expressway when I saw two Skimmers
(Rynchops albicollis Swainson) flying low and ploughing their lower
mandibles through the placid water. 1 watched these birds for over
ten minutes before they departed over the Expressway in the direction
of Trombay. I again watched two Skimmers on the evening of 30th
August over the same stretch of water and next morning, just at day-
break and for about twenty minutes thereafter, there were three
Skimmers there.

On the evening of 3lst August I was accompanied by Mr. Humayun
Abdulali and we watched two Skimmers in precisely the same area
keeping together and working up and down, quite ciose to the road. On
the evening of 6th September I noted three Skimmers at the same place.

IND. HANDBOOK Vol. 3 indicates that this bird is usually found on
large rivers but has also been recorded on ‘estuaries and inshore coastal
waters (Bombay once)’. I understand that ‘Bombay’ in this instance
refers to Alibag, Kolaba District, where one was obtained in March
1890. From Mr. Abdulali I learn that on 16th November 1940
he observed several flocks ranging from 10/50 birds flighting up
Dharamtar Creek, Kolaba District, across the harbour, in the manner
of gulls, and on the following day saw several flocks working up one
of the smaller creeks. He was also informed by Mr. A. R. Haselet,
then a member of the Society and a keen fisherman. that he had
seen some in Dharamtar Creek in November 1950.

My records appear to be the first from Salsette Island and the
few observations confirmed that the birds are most active, at least
visible in this particular place, at dawn and dusk.

CaRE MERCANTILE BANK LTD.., D. A. STAIRMAND
52/60 M. G. Rob,

Bomsay-!,

September 8, 1970.

11. THE BLACKBIRD TURDUS MERULA MAXIMUS
IN NEPAL

While searching the literature on Himalayan birds, it came as a
surprise to me to find out that the Blackbird Turdus merula maximus
had never been recorded in Nepal. Its nearest occurrence to this
country is Chini in the Sutlej Valley (Waite, H.W., 1962, JBNHS

572. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

59 : 962) and Garhwal (Whymper, S. L.. 1911, ibid, 20: 1158), thus leaving
a gap of about 1000 km. between the latter locality and Sikkim whence
reported by Meinertzhagen (/bis 1927:578). The species has also
been recorded at Karia (Tibet), 40 km. east of Mt. Everest (Kinnear,
N.B., Ibis 1922:507 and Hingston, R.W. 1927, JBNHS 32:322). As
early as 1911 Whymper (oc. cit.) remarked: ‘It is curious that the
existence of this bird should have been overlooked in these parts, as
it is fairly common and much in evidence, both from its frequenting
the open and from its rattling alarm call.’

In central Nepal I observed this unmistakable species on two
occasions in 1964: on 14 June at the headwaters of the Tadi Khola
River at c. 4200 m. before reaching the Gosainkund Pass, and on 16 June
near one of the Gosainkund lakes at c. 4300 m. in boulder-strewn
alpine meadows. In both instances the birds (two males) were feed-
ing on mud and sand by a stream. They were quite shy, the flight
distance bemg some 40 or 50 metres, and disappeared by flying low
and fast over the ground and plunging behind a cliff. The species
was mentioned incidentally by me in the /bis 1965:400. The scarcity
of the Blackbird in the central Himalayas seems to be attributable to
its preference for a drier biotope; it is common both in Kashmir and in
south western Tibet.

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. MICHEL DESFAYES
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20560,
U.S.A..,

August 19, 1970.

12. BIRDS AND MAMMALS EATING THE FRUITS OF
YELLOW OLEANDER (THEVETIA PERUVIANA)

Previous records of birds and mammals eating the fruits of Yellow
Oleander (Thevetia peruviana), published in this Journal are, Koel
(50: 943-944), Grey Hornbill (51:738), Common Myna (52:207),
Brahminy Myna, Redwhiskered Buibul (60:457), Bat (38:808) and
Rat (59: 947).

In this paper we record that goats and domestic fowls also eat the
fleshy mesocarp of the unripe and the ripe fruits of Yellow Oleander
(Thevetia peruviana) fallen on the ground. More than half a dozen
goats daily feed on the leaves and the fruits of the Yellow Oleander
in the compound of our house without showing any ill effect. The
goats usually spit the seeds, but occasionally a few seeds are swallowed
but these seeds are spat out during regurgitation (It is an effective

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(¢) L9 ‘90S “ISIH “LVN AVAWOg ‘f

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Gah

method of dispersal of seeds). Only a few individuals and not all
domestic fowls in this area have the habit of eating this fruit. The
unripe fruits with latex do not poison them.

Koel (Eudynamys scolopacea) is the only bird which is add-cted
to this fruit. In all other cases the occasional individuals observed to
eat this fruit shows that they had developed this habit accidentally.
Many more stray instances of birds and mammals eating this fruit
are likely to come to our notice in future.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, SIMON G. RAJASINGH
MADRAS CHRISTIAN COLI EGE,
TAMBARAM, MADRAS-59.

‘LALGUDI COTTAGE’, IRENE V. RAJASINGH
S/8, STAFF COLONY,

‘TAMBARAM. Mapras-39,

July 20, 1970.

(Dr. S.R. Amladi, M.D. of the Topiwalla National Medical College, comments—

‘The note by Mr. Simon Rajasingh and Irene V. Rajasingh is very interesting
since it reveals that there may be a species difference in withstanding the effects of the
glycosides of the plant.

The references available to me certainly assert that the plant is poisonous especi-
ally to human beings. Mody in his TEXTBOOK OF MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE AND
TOXICOLOGY (1969) states ‘ The plant is highly poisonous & contains as active princi-
ples two glycosides: thevetin and cerberin. Both these glycosides reside in the milky
juice which exudes from all parts of the plant.’

In large doses they are heart poisons, but in minute amounts they are heart
tonics; in fact, thevetin has been used successfully in the treatment of heart disease in
man. Species difference in the actions of these glycosides is not surprising as the
Rat (Rattus norvegicus), which is a common animal used in our laboratories, is
highly resistant to their actions, and requires nearly fifty times the fatal dosage for
man.—Eds. |

13. THE ESTUARINE CROCODILE. CROCODILUS POROSUS
SCHNEIDER OFF THE ORISSA COAST

(With a_ plate)

Vhitarkanika is an island in the Bay of Bengal, off the Chandbali
coast in Orissa and originally belonged to the Raja of Kanika, who
introduced sambar, chital and other wild animals into the island long
ago. I understand that steps are being taken to proclaim this a
sanctuary. If this is done, it will be the only estuarine sanctuary. of
its kind in the country, for I understarid that it is distinct in flora.
fauna and terrain from the mangrove forests of the Sunderbans.

14 nae ae |

574. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

I had, in the course of two trips in a motor-boat (a huge vessel
—no slim launch) mere glimpses of two crocs basking on the bank
and a longer look at the largest of them, of which I took 2 photo-
graphs. I thought the big one was at least 16 feet long. Having no
authority on reptiles with me, I looked up Crocodilus porosus in
Methuen’s REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS OF THE WORLD by Hans Hvass.
In it I find this note on the creature: ‘12-14 ft., exceptionally to
20 ft. Found from the east coast of India and Ceylon, through
Indonesia and Northern Australia to the Fiji Islands . . . more marine
than any of the other crocodiles . . . one of the most dangerous of all
the crocodilians.’ The s!lustration by Wilhelm Eigener shows a cro-
codile that is less broad-snouted than the one in my picture in a top
view~—as in my picture but otherwise very similar. This means nothing
as the artist prebably had never seen the animal.

I stick to my estimate of 16 feet. I have, long ago, seen some
crocodiles (Crocodilus palustris) in the Cauvery around Srirangapatna
in Mysore which were provably as leng or even may be a few inches
longer, but they were slimi by comparison. What impressed me greatly
about this animal in my pictures was its tremendous bulk, rather than
its length. Even one of the smaller crocs seen (may be about 10 ft.
long) was bulky. I could not see the third one clearly enough to esti-
mate size, as it was in the water.

The pictures, taken from a boat going fast and vibrating fearfully,
are not sharp. To get a good picture of the estuarine crocodile at
Vhitarkanika, one needs a well camouflaged and seaworthy sail-boat
and a week of patrolling the narrow canals between the islands.

Vhitarkanika should certainly be a valuable sanctuary for cro-
codiles and water monitors if their hunting here can be effectively
stopped---both are getting steadily rarer.

PERUNKULAM HOusg, M. KRISHNAN
EDwWarpD ELLIOT Roap,

MYLAPORE, MADRAS-4,

October 14, 1970.

14. THE OCCURRENCE OF THE DOG-FACED WATER-
SNAKE, CERBERUS RHYNCHOPS (SCHNEIDER)
(SERPENTES : COLUBRIDAE) AROUND MADRAS

Further to the localities recorded by Whitaker (1969) for this snake
around Bombay, it may be noted that this species is equally abundant
on the Madras coast and in estuaries around the city.

1 WHITAKER, R. (1969): The Dog-Faced watersnake (C. rhynchops) in the
Bombay area & Notes on its habits. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 66 (2) : 386.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES $75

In the course of local collection trips about 10 examples of this
species were collected from various localities as Adayar and Ennore
estuaries, Cooum River and Kovelong beach.

The records of this species around Bombay and Madras indicate
its wide distribution along the Indian coast.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am thankful to Dr. A. P. Kapur, Director and Dr. K. Reddiah,
Supdg. Zoologist of Zoological Survey of India for providing the
necessary facilities for this work.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, T. S. N. MURTHY
SOUTHERN REGIONAL STATION,

Mapras-4, Tami, Napu,

August 31, 1970.

15. THE OCCURRENCE OF PENNAHIA MACROCEPHALUS
(TANG) (PISCES:SCTAENIDAE) IN INDIAN SEAS

During our studies on the taxonomy of Sciaenids of the Hooghly
estuary, two specimens of Pennahiu macrocephalus (Tang), hitherto un-
reported from Indian Seas, were determined. This species has been
previously reported only from South and East China Sea (Chu, Lo
& Wu i963). Subsequently, we came across five more examples of
this species from ithe Orissa and Madras coast in ihe collections of
Zoological Survey of India.

Tang (1937) described the species under Pseudosciaena Bleeker.
Subsequent workers (Lin 1940; Chu, Lo & Wu 1963) assigned it to
Argyrosomus de la Pylaie. The assignment of this species to either
of these genera is considered inappropriate sinct Pseuwdosciaena 1s a
junior synonym of Argyrosomus (Trewaves 1965) and the air bladder
appendages in this species are not divided into a dorsal and a ventral
limb as in the type species of Argyrosomus. Tht species is, therefore,
treated under the gents Pennahia Fowler, 1926. As the present report
is the first record of occurrence of Penrahia macrocephalus (Tang) in
Indian waters, a description of the species is given below:

Pennahia macrecephalus (Tang)

Johnius aneus Fowler, 1933, p. 376.

Pseudosciaena macrocephalus Tang, 1937, p. 70, pl. 1, fig. 2.

Argyrosomus macrocephalus Lin, 1940, p. 250, fig. 4; Chu, Lo & Wu, 1963, p. 59
fig. 34. .

Dy 24-25; A. Tl--7 2 Po. 15-173 Le 8, 50-52 5 Ws tr 7-8/1 1-12 > G.R® 6-712.

$76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

In percentage of standard length: depth of body 33-3-41-1; head
length 33-6-37:5; snowt length 7-7-11-:3; eye diameter 10-5-12:2; inter-
orbital distance 9-5-11-3; postorbital distance 16-3-19-7; length of lower
jaw 13-3-15-6; length of maxilla 16-1-19-2; pectoral fin length 25-2-30-2;
pelvic fin length 20:0-22:0 and length of second anal spine 10-3-12:2.

Body oblong, ccmpressed. Mouth terminal, oblique; maxilla
extends to hind edge of pupi!. Pores: snout with 3 pores; lower jaw
with 3 pairs of pores at symphysis, anterior and posterior pairs incon-
spicuous. Teeth: Villiform in both jaws: outer row of upper jaw and
inner row of lower jaw of distantly placed enlarged teeth. Scales: on
head and anterior part of body cycloid; on posterior part of body weakly
ctenoid. Fins: Dorsal shallowly incised, 3rd spine the longest. Second anal
spine stout, 2/3rd of first anal ray. Caudal cuneate. Air bladder:
Carrot shaped Otolitbini type with 18 pairs of arborescent diverticula.
Sonific muscles absent in the two mate specimens examined.

Colour in alcohol:

Grayish on back and upper half of body, lower half silvery. Tips
of spinous dorsal, upper half of soft dorsal and caudal dusky. Opercle
with a bluish blotch; pectoral axil dark.

MATERIAL

No. 11371, 1°88 mm.S.L. ; Hooghly ; 18.12.1885 ; J. Barnett.
No. 6061/2. 1, 126mm. S.L. ; Hooghly ; 5.11.27 ; Capt. Park.
No. 12107. No. 12108, No. 12110, No. 12128- 4, 90-115 mm. S. L. ; Orissa ; Marine

Survey.
No. F 1136/2, 1, 182mm. S.L.; Portonovo; 22.1.57; A. G. K. Menon. (Madras).

Remarks:
Our specimens agree well with Lin’s (1940) and Chu, Lo & Wu’s
(1963) description of this species except in having a lower dorsal count

(X.124 wvs. “Xal-27),
The authors are thankful to Dr. A. P. Kapur, Director, for his

encouragement and to Dr. A. G. K. Menon, Superintending Zoologist.
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta for helpful suggestions in the
preparation of this note.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, ASHA JOGLEKAR
27, JAWAHARLAL NEHRU ROAD, P. K. TALWAR |
CaALcuTTaA-13,
July 23, 1969,

~MISCELLANEOUS NOTES os

REFERENCES

Gi; CYS. LO ey. cowie be
(1963): A study on the classification
of Sciaenoid fishes of China, with des-
Cription of new genera and species.
Shanghai Fisheries Institute China : 59-60.

Fow er, H. W. (1933): Contribution
to the biology of Philippine Archipelago
and adjacent regions. Bull. U.S. Nat.
Mus. (100) 12: 376.

South China Sea.
Res. Sta. 1 (2) : 250.
*TANG, D. S. (1937): A study of
Sciaenoid fishes of China. Amoy Mar.
biol Bulls Zi 270; plots hg 32.
TREWAVAS, E. (1965): Review of the
article by Chu, Lo & Wu (1963). ‘A
study on the Sciaenoid fishes of China,
with description of new genera and

J. Hong Kong Fish.

LIN, S. Y. (1940): Croakers of the species.’ Copeia’2: 253-254.

* Not consulted in original.

16. OBSERVATIONS ON THE BREEDING GROUND AND
DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHILKA MULLET LIZA
MACROLEPIS (SMITH)

Liza macrolépis, known Socally as ‘Dangla’, forms a commercial
fishery in Chilka Lake. In growth and size the fish can be grouped
among the larger muilets. The present observations on the breeding
ground of ‘Dangla’ would therefore be of interest from the point of
view of both conservation and development of the fishery of this species.

The occurrence of “‘Dangla’ eggs was first noted in the tow net
collections made on 27th November 1964 at about 10.30 hrs. on the
right bank of the outer channel near lakemouth. An examination of
the eggs revealed the characteristic large oil globule and unsegmented
yolk. Since these are important features cf mullet eggs and as mature
specimens of L. macroiepis and M. cephaltts occurred predominantly
in the catches of outer channel during this period an attempt was made
to collect the running ovary of these species.

On 28.x1.64 at about 94.00 hours it was possible to collect the
oozing Ova from a specimen of L. macrolepis captured at lakemouth.
The oil globule was already formed in the oozing ova and _ they
resembled in appearance and other details the eggs in tow net collec-
tions made on 27.xi.64. The eggs appeared to swell very little after
fertilisation. There is, thus, little doubt that the “tow net eggs’ belonged
to L. macrolepis. As eggs in the early and late stages of development
occurred at lakemouth as well as up to 2 miles interior of outer channel
it may be assumed that lakemouth and inshore areas of sea proximal
of lakemouth form the breeding zone of this species. The findings
of Jhingran (1958) and Jhingran ef al. (1963) on the seaward migration
of ‘Dangla’ and its likely breeding ground near lakemouth were thus
confirmed.

The present findings indicate that ‘Dangia’ spawn at about midnight.
The total period of embrvonic development may be around 26 or 27

578 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

hours. The hatching, like spawning, appears to be from a couple of
hours before midnight to two or three hours after midnight. The
developing eggs collected from plankton were straw coloured and
unsculptured, with the characteristic single, large oil globule. The
egg measured 0°677 to 0-732 mm. and the oi! globule 0-292 to 0:347 mm.
The newly hatched Jarva measures 1:519 to 1:556 mm. The myo-
tomes are 24, the irunk myotomes forming 11 and taii myotomes 13
including the unsegmented terminal mesoderm. The larvae survived
up to six days in the laboratory and the six-day old larva measured
2:342 mm.

The ‘Dangla’ fishery of Chilka !.ake showed considerable fluctuations
in the range 27-299 m. tonnes (Jhingran & Natarajan 1965) during
1957-1965 period and this is, in no small measure, due to vagaries in
recruitment. As recruitment and egg production are related and as
the breeding of ‘Dangla’ is around the lakemouth and inshore areas
of sea proximal to lakemouth, it is to be emphasized that breeders
should not be unduly exploited, as dene now, particularly in the outer
channel during November-January.

We are grateful to Dr. B. S. Bhimachar for evincing keen interest
in these investigations and Dr. V. G. Jhingran for his valuable
suggestions.

CENTRAL INLAND FISHERIES A. V. NATARAJAN
RESEARCH SUB-STATION’, S. PATNAIK
HAZARIBAGH,

January 4, 1969.
REFERENCES

JHINGRAN, V. G. (1958) : Observations Bull. No. 1, Central Inl. Fish. Res. Inst.,
on the seaward migration of Mugil Barrackpore (India).
cephalus Linnaeus from Chilka lake for & NATARAJAN, A. V. (1965) :
breeding. Curr. Science 27: 181-182. Final Report on the fisheries of the Chilka
—— (1963): Report on the Lake (1957-1965). Bull. No. 8 Central.
fisheries of Chilka Lake (1957-1960). Inl. Fish. Res. Inst., Barrackpore (India).

17. OBSERVATIONS ON THE FOOD OF YOUNG AILSA
ILISHA (HAM.) OF THE HOOGHLY ESTUARINE SYSTEM
(With a text-figure)

INTRODUCTION

The ‘Indian Shad’ Ailsa ilisha (Hamilton), forms a rich commercial
fishery in the Hooghly estuary. Althongh considerable knowledge has
been gained by various workers on the different aspects of the biology

—— ——————$

1The investigations were carried out under the auspices of the Chilka Investi-
gation Unit of Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Balugaon, Puri (Dist.),
Orissa, ime?

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Loe

and fishery of the species (Pillay & Rosa 1963). Little work has been
done on the food and feeding habits of juveniles of the species.
Chacko and Ganapati (1949) have listed the different organisms that
occurred in the stomach of the adult specimens of Hilsa from the
coastal waters of East Godavari District (Andhra Pradesh). They
found the stomach of !50 specimens, examined from the Godavari
River, to be empty. Hora & Nair (1940 a, b), Pillay & Rao (1962)
and Halder (1968) have worked on the food of young Hilsa tlisha.
This study was undertaken with a view to aScertain the variations in
the intensity of feeding as well as in the composition of food among
the different size groups in different zones and in different seasons,

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The material for the present investigations was obtained from the
River Hooghly and its wibutary, the Rupnarayan. Regular fortnightly
random samples were collected from 22 sampling centres (Text-fig. 1)
for a period of three years, 1962-64. A total of 1640 specimens of
Hilsa ilisha, in the size range of, 20 to 200 mm. total length were
analysed. Total length was taken from the tip of the snout to the end
of the lower lobe of the caudal fin. The fish. in fresh condition, were
either directly obtained from Shore-seines (Chatberjal) and bag nets
(Behundijal) or from local fish market. The specimens were preserved
in 5%, formaldehyde, and the stomach contents were analysed by the
numerical method, ie. the total number of each food items was
expressed as percentage of the total number of organisms present in
the stomach (Hynes 1950 and Pillay 1952) for different years, zones
and lengths. This method is considered as an improvement over other
numerical method. In order to improve the accuracy of the analysis.
a Sedgwick—Rafters’ plankton counting cell was also used. From the
gut contents, | cc. of random sample was uniformly taken in a sed-
ewick—Rafters’ plankton counting cell, and individual species were
identified and counted. When sand, debris and other unidentifiable
materials (digested and semidigested) occurred in the guts, their
respective percentages were recorded by eye-estimation method. The
quantities of debris and unidentifiable matter were grouped in one as
miscellaneous items.

rooD HABITS

_ As will be seen from Table 1, the young hilsa measuring 20-120.mm.
in total length were observed to feed actively on zooplankton
maximum 68% followed by average 50% phytoplankton in: addition

580 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

to appreciable quantitics of decaying organic matter and sand particles.
Whereas, in fishes measuring 120-160 mm. in length, the food was

® Manirampur

Rashmanigh of.
Konnagar ®

B/rampur
a Barkunteper {

e Gokbiacdapy’

(Fuleshtiar @
Kotak /at@

of Bengal

bnEXd_cIGe ty
MAP OF THE HOOGHLY ESTUARINE SYSTEM ALONG WITH ITS TRIBUTARY
THE RUPNARAYAN , SHOWING AREA OF INVESTIGATION AND COLLECTION CENTRES

mainly constituted ty phytoplankton followed by zooplankton, decaying
matter and sand particles. In specimens measuring 160-180 mm..
neither zooplankton nor phytoplankton were encountered. But, since

581

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

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582 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

in both the bordering classes (14-i6 cm. and 18-20 cm.) zooplankton
and phytoplankton were noticed in the guts, it is likely that their non-
occurrence in this middle class (16-18 cm.) may be due to inadequate
sampling. In the length range 180-200 mm., zooplankton formed the
main food followed by debris and phytoplankton.

The zooplanktons encountered in the gut contents, in the order
of their dominance, were copepods (Calanus and Cyclops), cladocerans
(Bosmina, Daphnia and other Cladoceran eggs) rotifer (Keratella, Mono-
styla and Keratella eggs) and ostraccds.

The following phytcplankters were encountered, mentioned in the
order of their dominance: diatoms (Coscinodiscus, Synedra, Cyclotella,
Melosira, Pleunosigma, Gyrosigma, Surirell), bluegreen algae (Micro-
cystis, Aphanocapsa, Oscillatoria) and green algae {Spirogyra, Pedi-
astrum and Eudorina).

The fluctuation in the intensity of feeding of the fishes (expressed
as %, of fullness of the gut) during the different years and different
zones is shown in Table 2.

The peak intensity of feeding was noticed during the year 1962 in
all the zones and the same pattern was observed to a certain extent
in 1963 also. However, feeding was very poor during the year 1964,
as the stomach was found empty in 77:82% and food materials in
traces in 4:30% cases.

DISCUSSION

Hora & Nair (1940 a, b), concluded that young Hi/sa feed at the
bottom as sand grains were encountered in the stomachs. Pillay &
Rao (1962), inferred from their studies on Hilsa from Godavari estuary
that the species is a bottom feeder during the entire period of its iife,
especially from 43 mm. stage onwards and they have also assumed that
Hilsa feeds at all depths. Halder (1968), concluded from his studies
on the food habits of young Hilsa ilisha in the freshwater zone (around
Nabadwip) of the Hooghly estuary that the young ones of the species
feed at all depths. The present study further confirms this observation
not only in the freshwater zone but also in the tidal zone (up to
Diamond Harbour) of the estuary where the young Hilsa feed at all
depths.

It is evident from the above studies that the young of Allsa is
dominantly a zooplankton feeder up to 120 mm. in length followed by
a dominance of phytoplankton in the next two size groups ie. (120-
160 mm.) and vice versa in size groups (180-200 mm.),

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 583
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am greatly indebted to Dr. V. G. Jhingran, Director, Central
Inland Fisheries Research Institute, and Dr. V. R. Pantulu for their
guidance and encouragement during the course of this investigation.
My grateful thanks are also due to Shri P. Datta for valuable suggestions
and Dr. V. Gopalakrishnan for critically going through the manuscript

and Shrimati Surya Kumari Raju for analysing the gut contents.

CENTRAL INLAND FISHERIES
RESEARCH INSTITUTE,

BARRACKPORE,

August 2, 1969.

D. D. HALDER

REFERENCES

CuHacko, P. I. & GANAPATI, S. V.
(1949): On the bionomics of Ailsa
ilisha (Ham.) in the Godavari. Madras
Univ. J. 18: 16-22.

HA.LperR, D. D. (1968) : Observations
on the food of young Hilsa ilisha (Ham.)
around Nabadwiv, in the Hooghly
estuary. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65
(3) : 796-798.

Hynes, H. B. N. (1950) : The food of
the freshwater sticklebacks (Gasteros-
teus aculestus and Pygosteus pungitius),
with a review of methods used in the stu-
dies of thefood of fishes. J. anim.
Ecol. 19 (1): 36-58.

Hora, 8S. L. & Narr, K. K. (1940a) :
Further observations on the bionomics
and fishery of Indian Shad, Hilsa ilisha

(Ham.) in Bengal Waters. Rec. Indian
Mus. 42 (1): 35-50.

———— (1940b): The jatka fish of
Eastern Bengal and its significance in
the Fishery of the so-called Indian Shad,
Hilsa ilisha (Ham.) Rec. Indian Mus. 42
(4) : 553-555.

PILLAY, T. V. R. (1952): A critique
of the methods of study of food of fishes.
J. Zool. Soc. India, 1 (2) : 185-200.

PILLAY, S. R. & Rosa, JR. (1953):

Synopsis for biological data on the hilsa,
Hilsa ilisha (Ham.) 1822. Fao. Fish.
Bio. Synops. 25: 64.
& Rao, K. V. (1962):
Observations on the biology and fishery
of the Hilsa, Hilsa ilisha (Ham.) of River
Godavari. Proc. Indo-Pacific. Fish.
Coun. 10 (2): 37-61.

18. THE FECUNDITY OF HETEROPNUESTES FOSSILIS
(BLOCH)

(With three text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

Fecundity or the repreductive potential can be defined as the number
of ova shed during a particular spawning season (Pillay 1954). The
study of fecundity is important in the fishery exploitation, especially
in freshwater fishes which are now bred artificially in impounded waters
by injecting pituitary hormone. Since fecundity bears a definite
relationship with total length, body-weight and ovary-weight of fishes,

584 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

its knowledge can be utilized for the selection of female breeders and
thereafter for the estimation of survival of eggs also.

Heteropnuestes fossilis (Bloch) is a common freshwater fish. The
mature specimens for investigation were collected from Killa Fish Farm
at Cuttack (Orissa) during the years 1962-63. In all 35 mature ovaries .
were studied. The ovary of H. fossilis is brown in colour and the
Ova are green and round. ‘The diameter of ova varies from 0:4545 mm.
to 1:3635 mm. In a mature fish the ovary occupies about three-
fourth of the body cavity. The ovaries from freshly killed specimens
were preserved in 5% formalin for a few days. The formalin hardened
ovaries were weighed afier wiping them with a filter paper and from
each ovary three samples of 1 gm. each from different regions were
taken. teased on a slide and the mature ova thus liberated were
counted. A mean of the three sampics was iaken foi estimating the
number of ova which was then computed for the whole ovary. In
one fish the total number of ova of a complete cvary was counted
for testing the accuracy of ithe method employed and gave a close
approximation. The observed fecundity varied from 2,843 to 44,724
in fishes ranging from 164 mm. to 307 mm. in length examined during
the present study. In Clarius batrachus. another catfish, the average
number of ova is 11,012 approximately for a fish of average length
31-5 cm. and weight 251-6 gm. (Mookerjee & Mazumdar 1950).

The fecundity was studied in relation to three parameters viz.
(1) Total length of fish (2) Body weight of fish and (3) Ovary weight.
The method of least squares was followed for all the calculations.

RESULT 4NE DISCUSSION

A. Fecundity—Total length relationship:

Fig. 1 shows the relationship between fecundity and total length
of fish. The fish were grouped in the range of 10 mm. and the
equation followed was F =CL" wihere F, C and L represent the
fecundity, a constant and the length respectively while n is an ex-
ponent showing the relation between the two variables. In H. fossilis
the equation comes to be— F = 10-® K 96472-65681
This relationship seems to be of a cubic nature as indicated by the
parabolic curve (Fig. 1) which means that the fecundity increases at
the rate less than the third power of the total length (2:65681) as
suggested by Simpson (1951). —

The correlation-coefficient ‘r’ between the two parameters was 0:9569,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 585

B. Fecundity—Body weight relationship:

The relationship between these two variables is linear as observed
from the graph in Fig. 2. To consider this relationship the fishes
were grouped in the rauge of 10 gm. and the equation followed was
F=a+bW where F is the fecundity and W is the mean body weight

OSG Gee
| |CAL.VALUES x*x
Beek DeevnGies a
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e 5
~ |
2 30]
tf
Z 55|
nS”
5 20
O
La
Oo 15
Oo
£ 10}

S35. 17 9 Oy ellos ne OD 2 Oo, (25-2 Oa PSS
TOTAL LENGTH OF FISH (iN mm.)

FIG. 1,

of fish in gm. A similar method was followed by Varghese (1961)
while calculating the fecundity of Raconda russeliana (Gray). By
substituting the values of the constants a and b the equation can be
written as-—

F= 1040-49149 + 207-27833 W.

The value of ‘r’ was found to be 0:96536.

C. Fecundity-~Ovary weight relationship:

In this case the ovary weights were grouped at an interval of

586. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67° @)

5 gm. The equation F=a--bW’ was used and after substituting the
values of the constants the equation obtained was—
F= 4117-7915 + 1298-1000 W’.

The graph in Fig. 3 indicates a linear relationship similar to that
obtained by Qasim & Qayyum (1963) in some freshwater fishes.

CAL.VALUES x*~x
OBS-VALUES --

NO.OF OVA CIN THOUSAND)
W
O

OL |
26 46 66 86 106 126 146 166 !86 206
BODY WEIGHT (CIN gms)

FIG. 2.

The value of ‘r’ was 9°9925.

In H. fossilis, therefore, the relationship of fecundity was found to
be curvilinear with total length and linear with body weight and ovary
weight for which the values of correlation coefficient ‘r’ were 0-9569,
0-:96536 and 0:9925 respectively. It seems that ovary weight of fish
is more accurate in estimating the fecundity ihan the other two para-
meters discussed above. However, it is not practicable to consider the
ovary weight in live specimens, therefore, the body weight (rt —0:96530)}

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 587

could be taken as the next best index. Qasim & Qayyum (op. cit.)
also drew the same conclusion.

50

45

IN
O

CAL VAEUVES, “x x
OBS-VALUES -« -

NO.OF OVA(IN THOUSAND)
N
WN

re) A ee tS ul6n. SON 2a Oi a2uso6. 40
WEIGHT OF OVARY (IN &ms.)

FIG. 3.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to express his gratitude to Shri K. H. Aliknnhi,
now Director, Central institute of Fisheries Education, Bombay for
his guidance and to Dr. §. Z. Qasim, Scientist, National Institute of
Oceanography, Ernakulam, Cochin for critically going through the
manuscript.

CENTRAL INLAND FISHERIES, R. M. S. BHARGAVA'
RESEARCH SUB-STATION,

CUTTACK,

Aucust 5, 1970.

pa ees

* Present address : National Institute of Oceanography, Panjim (Goa).

588 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

iIREFERENCES

MOooKERJEE, H. K. & MAZUMDAR,
S. R. (1950): Some aspects of the life
history of Clarius batrachus (Linn.)
Proc. Zool. Soc. Bengal 3 (1) 71-84:

Pituay, T. V. R. (1954): The biology

Qasim, S. Z. & Qayyum, A. (1963) :
Fecundities of some freshwater fishes.
Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 29 : 373-382 .

Smupson, A. C. (1951): The fecundity
of Plaice Fish. Invest. Series II. 17 (5).

VARGHESE, T. J. (1961) : Observations
on the biology of Raconda russelliana
(Gray). Ind. J. Fish. 8 (1): 96-106.

of the Grey Mullet, Mugil tade (Forskal)
with notes on its fishery. Proc. Nat.
Inst. Sci. India 20: 187-217.

19. OCCURRENCE OF THE SNAIL LYMNAEA (GALBA)
TRUNCATULA (MULLER) (MOLLUSCA : PULMONATA)
AT MALAD, BOMBAY CITY—A NEW RECORD
FOR PENINSULAR INDIA

The pulmonate snail Lymnaea (Galba) truncatula (Miller) is a
palaearctic species, distributed all over Europe including Iceland and
extending through Asia to Kamchatka. Except Kashmir, it has not
been reported from any other part ot India.

The material studied consists of two examples of LZ. truncatula
collected from S. K. P. A. Talaw at Malad, North Bombay (19° 12’N;
72> SO).

Although according to Huhendick (1951)! the distribution of this
species in Africa seems to be the result of transportation by migrating
birds, regarding the present record, further studies will be necessary to
dletermine what factors are responsible for its occurrence at Malad,
North-West Bombay. The present find is of interest as a new locality
record for the species, beins reported for the first time from Peninsular
India, extending the southern limit of the range of the species in Asia
tO dat. 197 120N;

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

{ am thanktul to the Director, Zoologica! Survey of India, for
affording facilities. My thanks are also due to Dr. K. K. Tiwari,
Deputy Director, and Dr. A. Daniel, Superintending Zoologist, Zoo-
Jogical Survey of India, for many useful suggestions and to Dr.
K. Manohar, Mulund, Bcmbay, for sending the specimens for identifica-
tion, with the necessary collection data.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, A: S:
CALCUTTA, ©
June 2, 1969.

RAJAGOPAL >

' HUBENDICK, B. (1951): Recent Lymnaeidae. Their variation, taxmonoy, nomen-
oats and distribution. Kung]. Svenska Vetens. Akad. Handl., Stockholm. 3:
-225.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 589

20. THE SPIDFR LYCOSA CARMICHAELI GRAVELEY
AS A PREDATOR OF SMALL FROGS

During my field trips in connection with studies on Amphibian
Fauna of Dehra Dun District, I have observed on several occasions
the interesting case of predation of small frogs, Micrehyla ornata Dum.
& Bibr., and juvenile Rana cyanophivyctis Schn. by the spider Lycosa
carmuchaeli Graveley. Spiders have not so far been recorded as
predators of amphibians rather the reverse. |

Both the frogs and the spider are common around stony banks of
rivers, road side ditches and pools. The spider is fairly large and is
quite capable of hunting small frogs. Rana cyanophlyctis Schn. when
mature starts eating its previous predator, but Microhyla ornaia Dum.
& Bibr. adults have not so far been observed feeding on the spider.

I am grateful to Dr. B. K. Tikader of Zoological Survey of India,
for identifying the spider and to Dr. Asket Singh for providing ihe
facilities etc.

NorTHERN REGIONAL STATION, ; R. K. BHATNAGAR

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. Assistant Zoologist
13 SUBHASH Roapb,
DEHRA DUN,

September 1, 1970.

21. DIAMETRICALLY OPPOSITE RESULT OF HUMAN
ACTIVITY ON BARNACLE POPULATIONS

(With a text-figure)

There are quite a few instances in environmental research studies,
of barnacle populations in intertidal region being affected due
to human activity or pollution (Mileikovsky 1968; Naylor 1965;
Persoone & de Pauw 1968; Rzhepishevsky 1963; and Smyth 1968).
This note communicates one more instance of similar type. The
pecuiiarity of this record, however, is that the ecological factor altered
as a result of dredging activity, has different, almost diametrically
opposite, effect on two populations of sessile balanomorphs.

During the survey of the west coast of India (Maharashtra region)
made in the period 1962-1965, Station Vijaydurg (16° 34’N., 73° 20:5’E.)
could be visited on two oecasions. During the first survey in 1962,
locality ‘A’ (Fig. 1) had populations of Chthamalus malayensis Pilsbry

5)

$90 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

and Balanus tintinnabulum L. whereas locality ‘B’ had a population of
moderate-sized B. amphitrite Darwin forms.

fy: LOCALITY “A”

BATTERY RUINS

VIJAY DURG OR VAGHOTAN RIVER
vod
QW La

SS
mS

~~
fis
=
S
=
=
—
=
=
S
oa
Se
=
CE
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=
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<=
=>
=F
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IEE

In 1963, as a part of the port development project of the Govern-
ment, work was initiated to construct a landing jetty at locality “B’ and
to dredge the bottom between localities ‘A’ and “B’. The dredged
material was being deposited in the area that was lying opposite to
locality ‘A’. As a result, at least apparently, of this double activity
the balanid fauna of both these localities presented an aitogether
different picture when they were visited again in 1964. The locality
which had fairly good population of large shelled B. tintinnabulum

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 39}

was completely devoid of it. There were only a few empty shells.
Similarly, the population of Ch. malayensis had shifted position from
sea-facing to land-facing surfaces of the rocks. The density of the
population had also become poor.

As compared to this, the piers of the landing jetty that was under
construction had abundant population of B. amphitrite with the basal
diameter of their shells admeasuring more than 15 mm, (average
diameter at other iccalities being 6-10 mm.).

The probable explanation that can be offered to explain this
phenomenon under the situation when ail physico-chemical factors
except the suspended matter in the water, are apparently unchanged,
is that it must have resulted due to dredging of the harbour and
subsequent abrupt increase in the suspended matter in water. Locality
‘A’, that falls under the category of highly-exposed, so far as wave-
action is concerned, must have had the maximum effect, especially
the shearing effect of waves. As a result, entire population of B.
tintinnabulum must have been eradicated and displacement of Ch.
malayensis population must have taken place.

Paradoxically, as it may appear, the population of B. amphitrite
situated at site ‘B’ that falls under the category of sheltered tocality
due to its disposition, had this ecological change to its advantage.
The increased amount of suspended matter has provided abundant
food material for these forms without any harmful effect of wave
action, unlike those of locality ‘A’. The resultant effect was the
abundance of B. amphitrite forms with large-sized shells.

This explanation, though tentative, appears to be the only plausible
one, that can explain the variation in the abundance of barnacle
populations. It will certainly be interesting to pursue similar faunstic
studies and the variation in their populations. It should prove: heipful
in better understanding of the population dynamics of the respective
biotic region and the ecology of near-shore waters as a whole.

We are grateful to Dr. N. K. Panikkar, Director, Indian Programme
of the International Indian Ocean Expedition (presently Director.
National Institute of Oceanography, Panaji-Goa) for his keen interest
and constant encouragement in the investigations. One of us (ABW)
gratefully acknowledges the award of fellowship by the Indian National
Committee on Oceanic Research, C.S.IL.R., New Delhi.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF OCEANOGRAPHY, ARUN B. WAGH
PANIIM,

GOA,

KirTr COLLEGE, D. V. BAL

BoMBAY-28,
February 13, 1970.

ao2

JOURNAL W BOMBAY) NALTORAL 'AISP SOCIETY .y Viol S07 (3)

REFERENCES

MILEIKOVSKy, S. A. (1968): The in-
fluence of human activities on breeding
and spawning of littoral marine bottom
invertebrates. Helgolander wiss. Meere-
sunters. 17 : 200-208.

NAYLor, E. (1965): Effects of heated
effluents upon marine and estuarine
organisms. Adv. Mar. Biol. 3: 63-104.

PERSOONE, G. & DE Pauw, N. (1968) :
Pollution in the harbour of Ostend

consequences. Helgolander
Meeresunters. 17: 302-320.

*“RZHEPISHEVSKY, I. K. (1963): Pro-
pagation of barnacles-balanides on the
east Murman Coast. (Russ.). Diss.
Dalnie Zelentzi, Murman, Institute of
Marine Biology Academy of Sciences of
the USSR, Murmansk.

SMYTH, J. C. (1968): The fauna of a
polluted shore in the Firth of Forth.

WISS.

Helgolander wiss. Meeresunters. 17:
216-223.

(Belgium) Biological and hydrographical

22. STUDIES ON THE LARVAE OF DECAPODA
BRACHYURA 1. XENOPHTHALMUS GARTHI]I
SANKARANKUTTY

(With two 1ext-figures)

INTRODUCTION

ihe Indo-Pacific region is known for its faunistic richness and a
recent assessment by Serene (1968) has put the total number of species
of Brachyura at 2500, of which, according to him, more than 1000,
may be found within the Indo-Malayan region. However, the larval
stages of a great majority of these have not been studied and with the
available information, one may not be able to proceed very far in
the identification of brachyuran larvae from plankton samples. This
was very evident when I made a preliminary examination of the
brachyuran larvae from the International Indian Ocean Expedition
which contains a large number of zoeae and megalopae collected from
different parts of the Indian Qcean. As has already been advocated
by Provenzano (1967), only a long term rearing programme of larvae
from known parents, as is currently being pursued in the laboratories of
the United States, can assist in the identification of larvae from. the
plankton samples. It was with this objective that the present work
was initiated and further studies along similar lines is contemplated
as and when ovigerous specimens become available. This paper
describes the first zoeal stage of Xenophthalmus garthit Sankarankutty
obtained through laboratory rearing. For the iirst time, the description
of the first zoeal stage of an interesting and rare genus, Yenophthalmus
White, is given here.

a cr en rer ne ee Rae Ne a ot NR halal ea et het th ei at

* Not referred in original.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 593
MATERIAL AND METHODS

An ovigerous female of Y. garthii was collected on 23 October
1968 from Cochin backwater and kent alive in an aerated sea water
aquarium. The eggs when examined soon after collection revealed
advanced stage of development of larvae within the egg case. The
larvae were released on 28th October and a sample of larvae was
preserved in 5% neutralised formalin. Description of first zoeal stage
is given below.

DESCRIPTION OF ZOEA |
(Figs. | & 2)

Larvae measure about 0-9 mm. in length and 0-7 mm. between
tips of dorsal and rostral spines. Carapace (Fig. 1, A) with dorsal,

0.2 mm

Fic. 1. Zoea 1 of Xenophthalmus garthii :—A. Zoea in lateral view, B. Abdo-
men in dorsal view. C, Maxilliped 1. D. Maxilliped I,

594. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

rosiral and lateral spines; rostral and dorsal spines subequal and
longer than lateral; dorsal only slightly curved; lateral projecting
laterally and slightly downwards, its base broad and compressed dorso-
laterally. Eyes not free from carapace. Carapace with a pair of hairs,
one on either side slightly behind dorsal spine. Abdomen (Fig. 1, B)
of five segments and telson; second and third segments with a pair
of triangular lateral projections in the middle; second, third and fourth
segments of same length and width: fifth segment as long as preceding
ones but widening towards the distal end and its lateral distal end in
the form of incurved lobe with pointed tip. Telson very long (more
than twice the basal width), bicornate, its basal part broad, middle
part constricted and distal end wide formed by the long tapering fork
enclosing three pairs of setae between the fork, innermost pair of setae
being smooth and slightly shorter than outer subequal pairs. Antennule

Fic. 2. Zoea I of Xenophthalmus garthii:—A. Maxilla. B. Maxillule.
C. Antenna. D. Antennule.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 525

and antenna shorter than rostral spine. Antennule (Fig. 2, D) having
a narrow fairly long basal lobe bearing a short spinule and two long
subequal aesthetes. Protopodite of antenna (Fig. 2, C) prickly and
shorter than pointed exopodite. LEndopodite of maxillule (Fig. 2. B)
bearing four subequal terminal setae, its basal segment unarmed; basal
endite having five setae of varying size and coxal endite carrying four
dissimilar setae. Scaphocerite of maxilla (Fig. 2, A) having four
feathery setae; endopodite bearing three dissimilar setae on its distal
part and two dissimilar setae on its basal part: coxal endite with four
and basal endite with eight setae. First and second maaillipeds
biramous and functional, each carrying four swimming setae on its
exepodite. Endopodite of first maxilliped (Fig. 1, C) five-segmented,
second segment longest, first longer than rest, third shortest and
terminal longer than fourth; first segment bearing two setae, second
and third with one long seta and terminal segment with two distal
setae and another in the middle. Endopodite of second maxilliped
(Fig 1, D) three-segmented; first and second segments subequal, latter
bearing a seta, third segment almost three times as long as first two
and having four setae. Third maxilliped and _ pereiopods not
represented.

As the larvae described here were examined after preservation. the
pattern of distribution of chromatophores is not given.

DISCUSSION

The description shows that the larva of X. garthii is of a generalised
brachyuran type having all the spines of carapace, a well developed
antenna, abdominal armature and forked telson. Larvae of the family
Pinnotheridae so far described are known to have either all the spines
of carapace or the lateral spines may be absent or all the spines
of carapace may be absent (Costlow & Bookhout 1966). The shape
of telson is also a variable character, for example, telson may be
forked or trilobed (Gurney 1942). Although the larvae of X. garthii
can be included among those in the family Pinnotheridae on account
of the different types of larvae encountered within the family, the
better developed antenna, the characteristic shape of fifth abdominal
segment and telson are sufficiently diagnostic of the larva described
here?

596 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

7

INDIAN OCEAN BIOLOGICAL CENTRE,

+ am grateful to Dr. N. K. Panikkar for the guidance and en-
couragement I received from him.

C. SANKARANKUTTY

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF OCEANOGRAPHY,

| ERNAKULAM,
COCHIN,
March 14, 1969,

REFERENCES

CostLow, J.D. Jr. & BooKkHouT, C.G.
(1966) : Larval stages of the crab, Pinno-
theres maculatus under laboratory condi-
tions. Chesapeake Sci. 7: 157-163.

GuRNEY, R. (1942): Larvae of deca-
pod Crustacea. Ray Soc. London.,

pp. 306.

advances in the laboratory culture of
decapod larvae. Symposium on Crusta-
cea, Pt. Ul, Marine Bio. Ass. India.,
pp. 940-945.

SERENE, R. (1968): The Brachyura of
the Indo-West Pacific region. UNESCO—
Singapore (Mimeograph).

PROVENZANO, A. J. JR. (1967): Recent

23. STERILITY AND ABNORMAL COPULATION
BEHAVIOUR IN AGROTIS INFUSA (BOISD) (AGROTIDAE:
LEPIDOPTERA) IN RELATION TO HIGH TEMPERATURE

While studying the biology of Agrotis infusa (Boisd), the famous
‘Bogong moth’ (an important cutworm pest in South-eastern Australia)
to determine the effect of temperature on fecundity and fertility of
moths, many pairs were found unable to mate successfully and to lay
fertile eggs when they were reared or were kept (with 20% sucrose
solution as food) at temperatures of 29-8°C and above. The high
temperature during imaginal life had more influence than that during
rearing in producing sterility and abnormal copulation. In _ the
former case, most of the males were sterile, being unable to complete
spermatogenesis. In many cases copulation failed to occur. In some
cases copulation started but the male was unable to transfer the
spermatophore fully into the bursa copulatrix of the female and
usually remained attached to the female by the partly everted spermato-
phore. In some cases, when the male did separate itself from the
female, part of the tubular neck remained permanently everted out
of the female genitalia. Such females laid only a few infertile eggs
because of the failure of sperms to reach the spermatheca from the
bursa-copulatrix. Exceptionally, however, when more than one
spermatophore were inserted in the female during copulation and at-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 597

least one was deposited completely in the bursa, fertile eggs were laid
by such a female. The highest nuniber of spermatophores found in
a female was three, normally, however, a fertilized female contained
only one spermatophore.

Out of the four females each confined with two maies at 34°C,
none laid any eggs. Mating failed to occur at this temperature and
dissection of females after death showed that the ovaries contained
only a few degenerate eggs and there was no fat body. Out of the
nine females, each kept with two males at 29-8°C, two fatled to oviposit
and the remaining seven laid only a few infertile eggs. In some of
these mating was unsuccessful as seen by the partly everted spermato-
phore through the female genitalia: in all others, mating failed to
occur as revealed by the absence of spermatophores in the bursae
of the dead females.

When’ the, “earlier stages of the “pest. were reared at different
temperatures and the adults were kept in pairs at an optimum
temperature of 22°C with food, all females that developed at 16°C
and 22°C laid fertile eggs but those which developed at higher
temperatures of 26°C and 29:8°C laid 30% and 66% infertile eggs.
respectively.

High temperatures during rearing and particularly during imaginal
life have been found to produce sterility and to result in increased
percentage of infertile eggs in other Lepidoptera and this has been
expiained as due to degeneration of eggs and exhaustion of fat bodies
in females and retardation of spermatogenesis in males.

DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY, R. R. RAWAT
J. N. Krisar Vishwa VIDYALAYA, |
JABALPUR-4.

August 17, 1970.

24. STUDIES ON THE BIOLOGY OF PHYTOMYZA
ATRICORNIS MEIGEN (AGROMYZIDAE: DIPTERA)

Taskhir Ahmed & Gupta (1941)' have reported Phytomyza
atricornis Mg. as a polyphagous pest feeding on over 72 species from
13 plant families.

During the first week of December 1966 large number of leaves
of ihe Pea crop were found infested by the leaf miners, Phytomyza

1AHMED, T. & Gupta, R. L. (1941): The Pea leaf miner, Phyvtomyza atricornis
(Meigen) in India. Indian J. Ent. 3: 37-49.

598 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

atricornis M., and Liriomyza brassicae Riley at the central Research
farm, Gwalior. This opportunity was availed of to study the biology
of P. atricornis in detail.

Nature and extent of damage:

The first indication of damage seen on the leaves was numerous
punctures made by the female with her ovipositor. These punctures
later changed into prominent protuberances. In some cases the
intensity of these punctures was so high that the tender leaves in
freshly sprouted plants etiolated, while in plants growing in dry areas
they withered. The larvae mined ihe ieaves by eating through the
mesophyll, leaving the two epidermal layers intact. In case of severe
infestation the leaves withered away while flowering and fruiting was
considerably reduced.

The intensity of attack was noted on fifty leaves at a time during
February and March 1967. The data coliected during four observations
on the number of punctures and larvae and pupae per leaf revealed that
they varied from 12 to 18 and 6 to 8 respectively. Percentage
infestation varied from 40 to 74.

Mating:

Mating occurred 3 to 5 days after emergence of adults. During
copulation the female semained stationery, while the male with its
wings closed, sat lightly over the female holding her first abdominal
segment with the first pair of legs and the mid-abdomen with the
last pair of legs. A single act of copulation took a maximum of
90 minutes and a minimum of 15 minutes,

Pre-oviposition and oviposition:

The female made punctures with her ovipositor by tilting her
abdomen over the hind legs, turning the abdomen tip downwards, and
bringing the ovipositor vertically on to the leaf surface. It then
pierced the leaf tissues, stretched the ovipositor obliquely, revolved
it under the epidermis by thrusting it repeatedly forming a triangular
blotch at the point of entry of ovipositor. The eggs were deposited
singly.

From the second week of January to the middle of March, 6
pairs of adults were kept under observation for studying the pre-
copulation and oviposition periods and fecundity per female. The
precopulation period ranged from 3 to 5 days. The female started
laying eggs soon after copulation. The oviposition period varied from
3 to 6 days, the maximum being in the fourth week of January. It
decreased to 3 days during March due to rise in temperature. The
number of eggs per female varied from 87 to 203.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 599

Incubation period and hatching:

From about the middle of January to middle of March, 6 batches of
50 eggs were kept under observation and 86 to 94% of them hatched.
There seemed to be a slight decrease in hatching as the temperature
rose. Similarly the incubation period varied between 3 and 7, increase
in the atmospheric temperature decreasing the incubation period.
During hatching the chorion was broken at the side by the thrusting
movement of the head of the larva inside the egg.

Larval and pupal periods:

The larval and pupal periods recorded in 6 cases from third week
of January to third week of March varied from 6 to 10 and 5 to 12
days respectively.

Life cycle and longevity of adults:

The period required for one life cycle varied from 15 to 28 days.
The longevity of male and female varied from 2 to 8 days and 4 to
18 days respectively. The males lived longer when kept with the
females.

Sex ratio:

On examining 20 laboratory bred specimens in each month from
January to March for their sex it was found that in January males
and females were equal in number while the males outnumbered the
females in February and March.

STAGES OF GROWTH

Ege:

Average of 10 eggs—Length 0-36 mm., breadth 0-15 mm., oval,
colourless, somewhat translucent, surface smooth, sensitive to drought
as it is laid in leaf tissues.

Maggot:

FIRST INSTAR: Average of i0 maggots—Length 1:33 mm., breadth
0:35 mm., Metapneustic, white, smoothly cylindrical tapering at the
anterior end. Cephalic region with circular pits (sense organs), pair
of antennae and maxillary palpi, mouth hooks each with two teeth.
Body eleven-segmented.

SECOND INSTAR: Average of 10 maggots—Length 1:78 mm..
breadth 0:58 mm. Amphepneustic, pale yellowish, chitinized ventral
plate bearing smoky brown trophic organs.

600

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 601

THIRD INSTAR: Average of 10 maggots—Length 3-25 mm., breadth
0-90 mm., colour somewhat brown. Enteroventral surface of head
divided into two plates, each bearing antennae and maxillary palpi.
the latter with ten sensory papillae, terminal three much longer than
the rest. Chitinous labial plate light brown.

Pupa:

Average of 10 pupae—-Length 2:09 mm., breadth 0°9 mm. Long
oval and pale yellow when fresh, attains reddish brown or dark brown
colour at the time of emergence of adult. Segments well defined,
both the anterior and posterior spiracles prominent.

Adult:

Average of 10 adults of each sex—-Length 3-2 mm. and 2:8 mm..,
breadth 9-0 mm. and 8-7 mm. of male and female respectively. Inter-
orbital space and ventral region of face yellow, two sub-equal superior
and one to two inferior orbital setae. third segment of antenna
quadrate, slightly longer, colour black. Mesonotum black with a light
grey bloom; pleural sutures narrowly vellow; femora, tibiae and tarsi
dull black; wings hyaline, halteres yellow.

Natural enemies:

During the course of the study a larval eulophid parasite, Neo-
chrysocharis sp. and a pupal braconid parasite, Opius sp. were recorded.
The extent of parasitisation by these parasites were 2 to 84% and
40% respectively.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors record their grateful acknowledgement to the Director,
Commonwealth Institute of Entomology, London, for the identification
of the parasites. We are also gratetul to Dr. R. S. Bhat, the then
Principal, Agriculture College, Gwalior. M.P. for providing facilities.

AGRICULTURE COLLEGE. A. S. KAURAVA
Gwazior, M.P.., Ss. C. ODAK
May 8, 1968. S. V. DHAMDHERE

25. A NEW HOST OF THE BRINJAL SHOOT AND FRUIT
BORER LEUCINODES ORBONALIS GUEN, AND
{TS BIOLOGY

Leucinodes orbonalis Guen. is generally considered a serious pest
of brinjal (Solanum melongena L.) in which it bores the shoots
and fruits. It has alse been recorded attacking many other plants.

602 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

We observed the pest boring the shoots and fruits of tomato
(Lycopersicum esculentum Miller) in Bhubaneswar. The infestation of
the winter crop in 1964 was 5 to 10%. As it was the first record
of Leucinodes orbonalis on tomato, it was thought worthy to study
the life history of the insect, and to compare its biology and life
history with that on the weed Solanum nigrum and on brinjal.

A large number of larvae of Leucinodes orbonalis were collected
from the field and reared to adult stage in the laboratory, in specially
designed breeding cages, containing potted brinjal plants. After
mating. the female moth laid eggs on the plant inside the cage. The
newly hatched larvae were taken from the plant by a camel hair brush
and reared on fruits of brinjal, tomato and Solanum nigrum. Newly
hatched larvae when released on the fruits, hide below the calyx by
webbing externally and then bore inte the fruits to develop inside.
As the larvae grows, it cannot accomcdate itself in the fruit of Solanum
nigrum. Therefore it comes out and webs 3-4 such fruits together
and feeds on them by remaining inside the web. Damaged fruits were
replaced from time to time, by fresh ones.

When full grown, the larvae come out of the fruit to search for
a suitable site for pupation. Such larvae were released inside 4”
diameter petri dishes loosely fitted with a plain paper base and covered
with a lid. The larvae moved below the paper base and spun cocoons
and pupated. The moths which emerged remained confined inside
the petri dish.

Newly hatched larvae bore into brinja!, tomato and Solanum nigruni
fruits in 30, 13 and 3 minutes respectively. The average length of
larval period was 12, 13 and 15 days and pupal period was 11, 11 and
10 days respectively. Variations in the growth of the insect on the
three hosts was noticed while rearing. The respective full grown
larvae measured 16:0-20:0 mm., 16-0-20:0 mm. and 10:0-13:0 mm. in
length and 2°5-4:0 mm., 2:5-3-5 mm. and 2:0-2'5 mm. in breadth.
Cocoons spun by the full grown larvae reared on brinjal and tomato
were of the same size 16:0-20-0 mm., 6:0-8-0 mm., but Cocoons from
Solanum nigrum were 8:0-10:0 mm., 3:5-4:0 mm. The length of the
pupae formed inside the respective Cocoons was 8:0-13:0 mm., 3-0-
13-0 mm. and 8-0-10:0 mm. and breadth 2-5-3-5 mm., 2:5-3-0 mm., and 2-0-
2:5 mm. Colour and texture of the Cocoons of Leucinodes orbonalis
is black and leathery on brinial, dull black, thin and papery on tomato,
and ashy, thin and papery on Solanum nigrum. Average wing expansion
of the moths from brinjal and tomato was equal— 18-0-22:0 mm.
in the male and 20-0-24-0 mm. in the female. Male and female moths
from Solanum nigrum had a wing expansion of 17:0-19:0 mm. and
17-0-20:0 mm. respectively. A difference in the fecundity of the moths

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 603

was also noticed. Female moths reared from brinjal, tomato and
Solanum nigrum laid on an average 152, 113 and 38 eggs. All the
eggs were equally viable and hatched after an incubation period of
6 days. The total life cycle of Leucinodes orbonalis Guen. on the
respective hosts was 27, 28 and 29 days. During the course of the
study the average minimum and maximum laboratory temperatures
were 79:5°F and 82:0°F and the relative humidity was 89%.

Tomato and Solanum nigrum are thus suitable alternate hosts of
the brinjal shoot and fruit borer Leucinodes orbonalis Guen. Though
the growth of the borer on Solanum nigrum is poor. However, it
completes its life cycle on this host also. Moths from Solanum nigrum
which were smaller in size with reduced wing spread laid far less eggs
in comparision to the moths from the two other hosts. This shows
that the size and vigour of the moths are correlated with their fecundity.

ORISSA COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, M. S. DAS
BHUBANESWAR, B. H. PATNAIK
July 12, 1968.

26. CHAFER BEETLE, ADORETUS SP. (COLEOPTERA:
SCARABAEIDAE) A NEW PEST ON GUAVA IN INDIA

Guava (Psidium guajava J.) is an important fruit crop in India, the
State of Uttar Pradesh being the largest grower with approximately
9,840 hectares under it and accounting roughly for over one-third of
the entire guava crop of the country (Hayes 1961). Adult Chafer
beetles Adoretus sp. (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) were recorded feeding
on its leaves in the Himalayan foothills in Uttar Pradesh. The
infestation was mainly during the monsoon season and thereafter and
the damage was fairly serious. We presume that this is the first
record of the pest on guava in India.

The adult Adoretus sp. is about 11 mm. long and light greenish-
brown in colour. They are strictly nocturnal and usually solitary.
They feed on the foliage, causing in the beginning small irregular
holes, usually starting from the middle of the infested lamina and
extending outwards towards the margin. A large number of irregular
holes 2 to 4 mm. in diameter is thus formed on the guava leaves.
Depending upon the degree of damage to the foliage. the pest reduces
the yield, and in serious cases the number of fruits is substantially
lowered.

604. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

Control Measures:

Spraying with 0:02 per cent endrin at the rate of 5 litres per
mature tree, in the early hours of the night, effectively controls the
pest. This application is recommended particularly for trees which
are not bearing. For trees bearing fruits, spraying 0-05 per cent
DDVP, i.e. 1 mi. of Nuvan 100, mixed in 2 litres of water at the
same rate is recommended.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful io Dr. R. L. Paliwal, Director (Research),
Experiment Station, and Dr. N. K. Anant Rac, Dean, College of
Agriculture, U. P. Agricultural University, Pantnagar, as well as the
Director and Scientist-in-charge, Central Indian Medicinal Plants
Organization, Lucknow for their keen interest in their work. Thanks
are also due to Dr. A. P. Kapur, Director, Zoological Survey of India,
Calcutta-12, for identifying the beetle.

DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY, J. P. SINGH
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE,
U. P. A. U., PANTNAGAR.

CENTRAL INDIAN MEDICINAI. RAJENDRA GUPTA
PLANTS ORGANIZATION (CSIR),

HALDWANI, NAINITAL (U. P.),

October 15, 1968.

27. PLIETESIAL SPECIES OF STROBILANTHINAE
(ACANTHACEAE) IN THE WESTERN GHATS (INDIA)

Biennial or perennial plant species flowering or fruiting only once
in their life-cycle are usually termed “Monocarpic’, as for instance,
Agave & Yucca. If such monocarpic species form compact communities
in a homogenous habitat with a synchronous and mass flowering
followed by fruiting and simultaneous termination of life-cycle on a
mass scale such species are usually termed as ‘Plietesials’.

Various species of bamboos are well known for their gregarious
flowering only once at the end of their life-cycle ranging from 40
years or more. A similar plietesial habit characterises certain members
of the family Acanthaceae. The term ‘plantae plietesiae’ was coined
by Bremekamp (1944) specially to describe certain species of ‘Strobilan-
thinae’ of the Acanthaceae. Clarifying the term, he writes of these

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 605

plants as follows: ‘A majority of the Strobilanthinae are monocarpic
Hes they flower but once and die when they have ripened their fruits.
Several of these are known to grow gregariously, often covering large
tracts in the undergrowth of the forest with uniform mantle of foliage
and flowering after intervals of several years simultaneously and in
profusion. Already at the time of flowering the leaves are shed and
during the comparatively long period required for the ripening of the
capsules, the naked shoots lend the site a peculiar wintry aspect, and
_as the forest so long as the plants were in flower was filled with the
humming of the bees, it is now the scene of the depredations of the
numerous frugivorous birds’. ‘As the term “perennial” is usually
reserved for polycarpic plants whose aerial parts regularly die down
and as there exists apparently no name for monocarpic plants of the
kind most often met with in the Strobilanthinae, I have introduced fcr
them in my latin descriptions the term “piantae plietesiae” 1., plants
living several years. As it seems desirable to have also a common
name for plants showing this growth form, which in tropical and sub-
tropical regions are by no means rare, I propose to call them in future
“Plietesials”.’
The flowering rhythm’ in the plietesial members is set in the following
way: the species have a vegetative phase of a fixed number of years,
characteristic to individual species. At the end of this phase, the
members of a species in a compact community flower simultaneously.
This is followed by fruit setting and dispersal of seed. All the plants
in the community then perish en masse. The seed shed by these plants
germinate during the next monsoon and start the vegetative phase,
thus completing the cycle.

Some members of the tribe Strobilanthinae are almost endemic in
Peninsular India and Ceylon and are extensively distributed in the
Western Ghats in India. The available literature, however, presents
a very scanty information as regards the life-cycles of individual species
of this group. Bremekamp (loc. cit.) states with regard to the flowering
periods of these plietesial species, that the available literature is either
incomplete or unreliable, particularly in case of genera like Nilgiri-
anthus.

The Central Bee Research ieenieate with the help of its regional
Agricultural Laboratory, Mahabsaleshwar (Maharashtra), has been
studying some of the local members of the Strobilanthinae, since 1952.
Recently these studies have been extended to its regional stations in
' Castle Rock (Mysore State) and Nilgiri and Palni (Tamilnadu) areas.
All these laboratories are fortunately located in the Western Ghats, where
a number of the plietesial Strobilanthinae are endemic. It has been
thus possible to record and confirm in successive years the flowering
16

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vjepueyy pue ‘sreoh “O76 “SI6I ‘LIGI § “(6S61 “IS61) nedejueg (19q0}09-)snsnv)
(4,0r o€Z + N,9S oLD) 896E SI 10 ZI-L ‘S68T ‘I68I ‘L88T (S061) 9YOOD “Wag
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[CAIO}UL SUIIOMO] [eAIONUT
SUIIOMO] SSeUr SUOI]890'T Sse powodey SIVIX SULIOMO] sIoyjny
Ppeplosay Poep1osoy (ported SulIOMOy)

so1oeds

a
AVNIHLNVTGOULS JO ONTYAMOT

aTav L

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 607

rhythms of several of these species. The information from earlier
reports by various botanists, augmented by actual field observations
made by this Institute from 1952 to 1969 have been summarised in
the Table.

It will be seen from the table that in so far as it concerns the
Mahabaleshwar Plateau, the intervals between successive flowerings are
as indicated above. Though stich intervals between successive flowerings
of the species seem to be fixed, it appears that the compact communities
of the same species may flower about an year eariler or later in
different localities, while preserving, at the same time, the fixed intervals
as above. For instance, Carvia callosa and Thelepaepale ixiocephala
have flowered in Mahabaleshwar in 1968, but the same species
have flowered in 1967 at Castle Rock!. This situation possibly explains
the earlier reports of flowering of these species during consecutive
years in spite of their plietesial habit. in fact Talbot (1911, 1949) does
refer to some of the above species as annually flowering. :

In the course of his observations on some of the above species
distributed in Khandala and Mahabaleshwar, Santapau (1943, 1950,
1951, 1952, 1959, 1960, 1962 and 1967) has inferred that there might
not be any fixed rhythm with definite intervals in these species, or
When they showed such intervals, the reasons for such flowering
behaviour were obscure. He had observed more or less stray
flowering of isolated plants in successive years. Quite apart from
the stray cases, repeated observatiens at the Mahabaleshwar Laboratory
do suggest a remarkable tendency for general, synchronous, mass
flowering at fairly fixed intervals as indicated in the table.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Dr. G. B. Deodikar, Director, Maharashtra
Association for the Cultivation of Science Research Institute, Poona-
4 and Shri C. V. Thakar, Dy. Director, Central Bee*Research Institute,
K. & V.I. Commission, Poona-4, for guidance, encouragement and
help; to Shri R. P. Phadke and Shri K. K. Kshirsagar of this Institute,
for their valuable information and help and to Shri. C. S. Bhambure,
Apiculture Institute, Mahabaleshwar, and Shri M. C. Mittal of this
Institute for help in the field.

CENTRAL BEE RESEARCH M. C. SURYANARAYANA
INSTITUTE,

839'/1 SHIVAJINAGAR,

Poona-4,

December 18, 1969.

!Barlier records of flowering which tally with the year 1967 in the | 8-year sequence
i ae in the table, were found to be from the same region : North Kanara (Talbot
9] °

608

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

REFERENCES

BREMEKAMP, C. E.B. (1944) : Materials
for a Monograph of the Strobilanthinae
(Acanthaceae). Verh. neder. Akad.
Wetensch. Afd. Nat. Tweede Sec. 41 (1):
1-306.

CooKE, TH. (1905): The Flora of the
Bombay Presidency. vol. 2, pp. 442-
449. Rep. Govt. of India, Calcutta.

FYSON, P. FP. (@1915):> The Flora “of
the Nilgiri and Pulney Hill Tops (above
6,500 ft.). vol. 1, pp. 310-314.

GAMBLE, J. S. (1924): Flora of the
Presidency of Madras. vol. 2, p. 726.
Rep. Govt. of India, Calcutta.

McCann, C. (1943): The flowering
of Strobilanthes callosus Nees. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 44: 143-144.

Rosinson, M. E. (1935): The flower-
ing of Strobilanthes in 1934. ibid. 38:
117-122.

SANTAPAU, H. (1943): The flowering
of Strobilanthes. ibid 44 : 605-606.

(1950): The flowering of

Strobilanthes. ibid 49: 320-321.

———— (1951): The Acanthaceae of
Bombay. Univ. Bombay bot. Mem. 2.

———— (1952): The flowering “of
Strobilanthes in Khandala. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 50 : 430-431.

——— (1959): The flowering of
Strobilanthes. ibid. 56: 677

———— (1962): Cee flower-
ing of Strobilanthes and Bamboos. ibid.

59 : 688-695.

— (1967): The Flora’ of
Khandala on the Western Ghats of
India. Rec. Bot. Surv. India 15 (1):
197-199. ;

TALBoT, W. A. (1911): Forest Flora
of Bombay Presidency and Sind. vol. 2
Govt. of Bombay, Poona.

(1949) : The trees,shrubs and
woody climbers of the Bombay Presi-
dency. 3rd edn. Govt. Photozinco-
graphic Press, Poona.

28. A NOTE ON THE TOAD RUSH, JUNCUS BUFONIUS L.
FROM INDIA

(With a plate)

Hooker (1894) described 26 species of the genus Juncus from
India. Most of them are from alpine and sub-alpine Himalayas and
Assam and a few from drier parts of India. Juncus bufonius L. has
been reported in northern India from the plains to 13,000 ft. in the
Himalayas and in the south from Madras (Gamble & Fischer 1956).
There is no report of its occurrence in any part of Western India.

The plant was recently collected by my students J. N. Patel,
K. S. Sobti and I. A. Patel from the different sites ranging from
Sadra to Sarkhej from the saline bed of River Sabarmati (Herbarium
sheet numbers 1518 dated March 2, 1970 and 659 dated February
11, 1970). The description and figures will familiarize botanical
collectors with its identity.

Juncus bufonius L.

Slender, dwarf, elegant. (Fig. 1) annual with tufts of leafy branched
fertile stems from a fibrous root-stock. Flowers markedly pro-
trandrous, in small cymes (Fig. 2). The partial inflorescence is an

J. BoMBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 67 (3)
Shah: Juncus bufonius

Fics. 1-4. Juncus bufonius L. External morphology. Fic. 1. Plant body x1.
Fic.2. Part of inflorescence x4. Fic.3. Diagram of an open flower x8. Fic. 4.
Monadelphous stamens x 25. (a, anther; br. bract ; st. stigma).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ~ 609

axillary raceme. Each flower subtended by a membranous bract and
two bracteoles. Perianth six lobed, the three outer lanceolate
and the three inner broadly ovate with hyaline margins. Anthers six,
two-celled, basifixed and introrse, opening lengthwise and arising
exactly opposite the perianth lobes. Filament with a single reduced
vascular- bundle and radially arranged air spaces. The cells contain
abundant starch grains. The filaments fuse at the base to form a
united structure, enabling all six anthers to be removed in one bunch.
The stamens are thus monadelphous (Fig. 4). Gynoecium tri-carpellary.
The ovary is unilocular with three parietal placentae, each bearing an
indefinite number of ovules arranged in severai irregular rows. The
placentae are fertile only at the sides but in some preparations, it
develops ovules all round. The ovarian chamber does not show a
transition from axile to parietal placentation as reported by Buchenau
(1892). The placental epidermis is glandular and consists of radially
elongated cells. The rudimentary style is capped by six stigmatic
lobes which are beset with thickly studded papillae (Fig. 3). Some
instances with only three stamens in a flower and four parietal placentae
are also met with. The fruit is a loculicidal dehiscing capsule. The
perianth segments appear glumaceous and surround the capsule.

BOTANY DEPARTMENT, : C. K. SHAH
‘GUJARAT UNIVERSITY,

AHMEDABAD-9, |

April 20, 1970.

REFERENCES

BUCHENAU, F. (1892): Uber die (1956): Flora of the Presidency of
Bestaubungs-Verhaltinisse bei den Jun- Madras, 3 Vols. Reprinted, Ed. Calcutta.
caceen. Jb. Wiss. Bot. 24: 363-424. Hooker, J.D. (1894) : Flora of British

GAMBLE, J. S. & FISCHER, C. E. C. India, VI, London.

129: THE IDENTITY OF SOLANUM KHASIANUM CL. VAR.
CHATTERJEEANUM SEN GUPTA (SOLANACEAE)

Sen Gupta (Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 3:412-415. 1961) established a
variety, chatterjeeanum, based on the material collected by Subra-
manyam (10413) from Nilgiris in Madras State, under Solanum khasi-
anum Cl., a species described from Khasia Hills in Assam, but, now
known to be distributed also in Burma and China (Sen Gupta, loc. cit.
413); distinguished from the tvpical variety by not less than eight
characters which are more or less constant; and stated further that
intermediates often do occur.

610 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

In the course of studies on the flora of Dehra Dun, I collected
specimens of a Solanum from plants growing in waste places near habita-
tional sites, which are rightly comparable to the specimens identified
and described as Solanum khasianum Cl. var. chatterjeeanum Sen
Gupta. But a critical study of the specimens with the help of Dunal’s
monographic account of the genus (in DC. Prodr. 13:240-241. 1852),
however, reveals that these specimens belong to a species of southern
Brazil, namely SOlanum viarum Dunal, the identity of which was
confirmed by Mr. C. V. Morton of Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
D.C. (personal communication). Further study on the type of Solanum
khasianum Cl. var. chatterjeeanum Sen Gupta proves beyond doubt
that §. khasianum var. chatterjeeanum is nothing but S. viarum Dunal,
which might have been accidentally introduced into India during late
thirties or early forties of this century. Therefore, $. khasianum Cl.
var. chatterjeeanum Sen Gupta should be treated as a synonym of
S. viarum Dunal, the correct name for this S. American species now
naturalized in various parts of India. The relevant synonymy and
references are as follows:

Solanum viarum Dunal in DC. Prodr. 13:240. 1852.

§. khasianum Cl. var. chatterjeeanum Sen Gupta in Bull. Bot. Surv.
Ind. 3:412-415. 1961, syn. nov.; Maity in Journ. Bomb. nat. Hist.
Soc.62 7323-327, 196s:

Sen Gupta (loc. cit.) was right in ascertaining its affinity to S.
khasianum Cl. among the Indian species, though distinguished from
S. khasianum by eight characters. There is no doubt that among
the Indian species of Solanum, S. viarum Dunal is very closely allied
to S. khasianum Cl. which is also probably of S. American origin, but
the two taxa can be distinguished by the following differences which
are tabulated below:

S. viarum Dunal

1. Stem, petioles, pedicels and caly-
ces patently short-hairy with dirty white or
greyish-white 0°03-0°04 (-0.05) cm. long,
gland-hairs mixed with a smaller number of
0:01 cm. long glandular hairs.

2. Stem aculeate with stout compres-
sed hooked or strongly recurved 0°4-0°5
(-0°7) cm. long prickles mixed with short

straight slender 0°2-0°25 cm. long prickles.

3. Leaves sinuate—lobed with ovate
triangular subobtuse or subacute lobes,
softly glandular—tomentose mixed with a
smaller number of stellate hairs on the
lower surface.

S. khasianum Cl.

Stem, petioles, pedicels and calyces
patently long-hairy with yellowish-
brown or greyish-brown 0°3-0°5 cm. long
glandular hairs mixed with a_ few
0:15 cm. long gland hairs.

Stem aculeate with straight or slightly
curved unequal prickles.

Leaves pinnatilobed to-fid with ovate—
lanceolate, acute lobes, pilose with long
simple hairs on the upper surface, pubes-
cent beneath with long simple hairs
mixed with a smaller number of stellate
hairs,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 61!

4. Calyx aculeate, lobes 0'17-0°2 (-0°25) Calyx unarmed or aculeate, lobes

cm. long during anthesis. 0°7-0°8 cm. long during anthesis.
5. Corolla-lobes lanceolate, acuminate. Corolla—lobes ovate lanceolate, sub-
acute.
6. Ovary pubescent. Ovary glabrous.
7, Seeds 0°22-0'25 cm. across. Seeds 0°3-0°32 cm. across.

It is very difficult to ascertain how, where and when it gained
foothold on Indian Soil, but the fact that it has not been included
in any of the standard Indian floras coupled with the non-existence of
collections prior to 1938, suggests its introduction during World War II,
probably along with some imported articles. As far as I am aware,
this plant has not been reported from Asia and, hence this may be
the first record of its appearance in Asiatic mainland. It is now
widely naturalized in Assam, W. Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Madras and
Uttar Pradesh in India and also in Sikkim.

Specimens examined:

INDIA: Madras. Nilgiri Dt., Devarshola, alt. 1075 m., Subramanyam
10413 (A-holotype of S. khasianum Cl. var. chatterjeeanum Sen Gupta
—(CAL). Uttar Pradesh. Dehra Dun, Hathibarkla near Bindal-bridge,
C. R. Babu 34694 (BSD, CAL).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to express his grateful thanks to Mr. C. V4
Morton, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. for confirming the
identity of this plant and to Dr. §. K. Mukherjee for his encouragement
and valuable suggestion in the preparation of this paper.

CENTRAL NATIONAL HERBARIUM, C. R. BABU
HOWRAH-3,
December 29, 1969.

30. LINDERNIA ANGUSTIFOLIA (BENTH.) WETTST.
(SCROPHULARIACEAFE)—A NEW RECORD
FOR SOUTH INDIA

(With a _ plate)

Lindernia Allioni, at present containing, as currently accepted, the
genera Vandellia L., Bonnaya Link and Otto. and Ilysanthes Rafin.
was hitherto known to have only twenty representative species in south
India. Lindernia angustifolia (Benth.) Wettst., found by the author

612 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

to occur widely in paddy fields at Punalur, Kerala State, is an
addition to the south Indian representatives of Lindernia All.
Though Rev. Dr. Cecil J. Saldanha of St. Joseph’s College, Bangalore,
has collected this plant from Puttur, South Kanara, Mysore and
Ettakote, Cannanore, Kerala and described it in his Ph.D thesis en-
titled “Taxonomic Revision of the Scrophulariaceae of the Western
Peninsular India’ (Vol. I, Pages 40, 165, 193-195; Vol. IT, Part II, Plate
33) submitted to the University of Bombay in 1963, there is no published
record of this plant for south India. This species has so far been
reported in India only from the subtropical Himalayas, Kumaon,
Sikkim, Chota Nagpur, Assam, Bengal and the Khasia mts. (Hooker,
FLORA OF BRITISH INDIA 4:282-283. 1885 and S. K. Mukherjee: ‘A
Revision of the Indo-Burmesz species of Lindernia Allioni’ in Journ.
Indian. Bot. Soc. 24: 127-134. 1945). -.

Fresh specimens of Lindernia angustifolia (Benth.) Wettst, were
first collected by the author from Punalur in November 1968 and
preserved in the Herbarium, Sree Narayana College, Quilon, Kerala
State. It was found growing in paddy fields along with other species
of Lindernia namely L. pusilla (Willd.) Boldingh., L. anagallis (Burm.
f.) Pennell. and L. hysscpicides (L.) Haines. escription and sketches
given here are based on fresh specimens. |

Lindernia angustifolia (Benth.) Wettst. Diffuse or sparsely branched
glabrous annual aquatic herbs. Stem erect, sometimes rooting at the
lower nodes, succulent or slender, 4 gonous, up to 55 cm. long. Leaves
opposite, sessile, exstipulate, linear-oblong to linear-lanceolate with a
retuse tip, glabrous, rather thick, entire or obscurely toothed, mid vein
impressed above, lateral veins obscure, to 3:5 cm. long and 8 mm.
broad. Flowers solitary, axillary, long pedicelled and ebracteolate;
sepals 5, free to the base, linear-lanceolate, glabrous with obscurely.
toothed margin, 3 to 5 mm. long; fruiting sepals about 1/3 as long
as the capsule; corolla 2 lipped, 8 to 12 mm. long, 35 to 5 mm.
wide at the mouth, yellow towards the base, pink brown in the
middle, white towards the lobes, with an yellow round blotch on the
palate, glandular hairy outside, glabrous within; tube cylindric; upper
lip 2 fid lower larger, broader, spreading and 3 lobed, lobes imbricate;
stamens 4, all perfect, 2 posterior with appendaged anthers inside the
tube, 2 anterior in the throat of the corolla, the glabrous filament
having a linear blunt appendage towards the base, anthers divergent,
connivent in pairs; ovary — 2 mm. long, + 1 mm. broad glabrous
with a small yellowish cupular gland mostly waiting on the posterior
side, ovules many, style slender, glabrous + 3 mm. long, stigma
prominent, 2 lamellate. Capsule linear, septicidal, 1 to 1-5 cm. long

J. Bompay naT. Hist. Soc. 67 (3)

Ravi: Lindernia angustifolia

1. Plant. 2. Flower. 3. Sepal. 4. Corolla cut open showing stamens.
5. Gynoecium. 6. Fruit. 7. Seed.

J. BomBAy NAT. Hist. Soc. 67 (3)

Das & Pramanik: Chrysanthemum leucanthemum

Wp

, _ Chrysanthemum leucanthemum Linn. — ,
A. habit; B. disk flower; C. disk flower split open; D. anther; E. marginal flower.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES . , 693

and 2:5 mm. wide with the pedicel equalling or exceeding the leaves:
Seeds many, small and rugose.

. Lindernia angustifolia (Benth.) Wettst. is very similar to L. ana-
eallis (Burm. f) Pennell. in floral structure, the flowers being quite in-
distinguishable. -But the latter can be easily identified by its pro-
cumbent stem, rooting at nodes and shortly petiolate, ovate, obscurely
crenate, toothed, leaves.

I am grateful to Rev. Dr. Cecil J. Saldanha who helped i in. pre-
paring this note. I thank the Regional Botanist, Southern Circle,
Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore, for information on the south
Indian species of Lindernia All.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY, N. RAVI
SREE NARAYANA COLLEGE,

QUILON, KERALA STATE,

S. TNDIA,

December 30, 1969.

31. A NOTE ON CHRYSANTHEMUM LEUCAN-
THEMUM LINN. (ASTERACEAE)

(With a plate)

During the floristic survey of Darjeeling district in May, 1966,
we came across some Specimens of Chrysanthemum leucanthemum Linn.
(Compositae), growing in Senchal lake area. The original habitat of
this species as recorded by Linnaeus (1753) is Europe; A. Gray
(1884) noted in from North America, which was corroborated by Gleason
(1963). Raizada (1959) first listed this species from Mussoorie in the
Indian sub-continent, followed by Gupta (1967). Our collection. from.
Darjeeling district extends its distributional area to Eastern Himalayas.
As the description of this plant is not available in Indian Floras, the
diagnostic characters and a plate is provided to facilitate identification.

Chrysanthemum leucanthemum Linn. Sp. Pl. 2:888. 1753; Gray;
Synopt. Fl. North America 1:2:365. 1884; Raizada in Indian For.
85:679. 1959; Gleason, Illus. Fl North. U.S. & Adj. Canada 3:385.
1963; Gupta, Seasn. Fl. Ind. Summ. Res. Mussoorie Hills 137. 1967.

Erect or decumbent, ascending, perennial herbs, with a rhizomatous
root-stock, 30-60 cm. tall. Stems simple or branched. Basal leaves
long-petioled, obovate-spathulate, rounded or obtuse at apex, higher
ones sessile with a narrowed, semi-amplexicaul base, ovate-oblanceolate
or lanceolate-oblong, obtuse or rounded at apex, dentate to pinnati

614 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

lobed-pinnatifid, glabrate or glandular-hairy, becoming smaller upwards.
Heads terminal, solitary, on 3-5 cm. long peduncles; involucral bracts
3-seriate, membranous, lanceolate-oblong, scarious-margined, often
suffused with reddish-brown, obtuse, 0-3-0:-5 cm. long; marginal flowers
©, 1-seriate, with white, entire or obscurely 3-dentate, 1-5-2 cm. long
ligules; disk flowers 2 0.4-0.5 cm. long, with yellow, 3-lobed,
tubular corollas; achenes terete, 10-ribbed, glabrous; pappus wanting
or of a crown-like membranous rim in marginal achenes; receptacle
flat, slightly raised, pitted, glabrous, 0-5-0-6 cm. across.

Specimens examined:

West Bengal, Darjeeling, Senchal Lake, 22.5.66, D. Das 135 (CAL);
N.W. Himalayas, Mussoorie, Happy valley, 17.5.58, J. C. Sen Gupta
2012, (CAL).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to Sri S. P. Banerjee, Botanist, Central National
Herbarium, for his valuable advice.

CENTRAL NATIONAL HERBARIUM, (Miss) DEBIKA DAS
Howrau-3, BHABESH PRAMANIK
August 11, 1969.

32. NEW DISTRIBUTIONAL RECORDS FOR COASTAL
PLANTS FROM ANDHRA PRADESH

During ecological studies on the vegetation of coastal Andhra Pradesh,
Aeluropus lagopoides (L.) Trin. ex Thw., Ipomoea tuba (Schlit.) G. Don
and Trianthema triquetra Rottl. ex Willd. were collected which have not
been recorded earlier from Andhra Pradesh. The specimens cited below
are deposited in CAL.

Aeluropus lagopoides (L.) Trin. ex Thw.

Gamble (Fl. Madras Pres. 3 : 1276, repr. ed. 1957) reports the occur-
rence of this species along both the coasts, without mentioning precise
localities. Recently, Rao & Mukherjee (1965) reported this species as
a new record from Midnapore and Kakadwip coasts in West Bengal.
The occurrence of this species in alkaline area in the backshore of
Kakinada and Uppada in the coastal Andhra Pradesh is of interest.
These collections from the eastern coast of India indicate that this saline
grass is now more widespread in eastern coast than previously recorded,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 615

It thus points out the earlier range of distribution of this species along the
eastern coast of India.

Kakinada: 2.10.69, T. A. Rao 7266 ; Uppada : 5.10.69, 7. A. Rao
7324.

Ipomoea tuba (Schlecht.) G. Don

The occurrence of this species in south India was first recorded from
Rameshwaram Island (Rao 1964). The present report of this species
from Coringa tidal forests in A.P. not only extends the range of distri-
bution of this species further north along the east coast, but also links
up its distribution between Sundarbans and Rameshwaram Island,
suggesting its possible occurrence in the tidal forests of Mahanadi
estuaries in Orissa State.

Coringa tidal forest: 3.10.69, 7. A. Rao 7287.

An extensive climber in the tidal forest ; usually abundant where the
brackish water influence is less.

Trianthema triquetra Rottl. ex Willd.

Gamble (FI. Madras Pres. 1 : 389, repr. ed. 1957) records the occur-
rence of this species in the coastal districts of Carnatic from Sriharikota
(near Pulicat Lake) southwards, and inland up to Coimbatore. Rao
et al. (1967), reported this species as a new record for Kakadwip, in
West Bengal. The present report of this species from coastal Andhra
Pradesh extends its distributional range into a new area.

Uppada: 5.10.69, 7. A. Rao 7316.

A fairly common herb with many prostrate branches growing on
loamy soil in the backshore.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, T. ANANDA RAO
76, ACHARYA JAGADISH BOSE ROAD, A. R. K. SASTRY
CALCUTTA-14,
May 18, 1970.

REFERENCES

Rao, T. A. (1964) : Ipomoea tuba (Schle- Midnapur coast in West Bengal State.

cht) G. Don from Rameswaram Island— Curr. Sci. 34: 589-590.

a new distributional record for South ——., BaAnerseEE, L. K. &

India. Bull. bot. Surv. India 6 : 307. MUKHERJEE, A. K. (1967) : Some plant
——— & MUKHERJEE, A. K.(1965): — records for. West Bengal. Sci. & Cult.

Distribution of some plants along 23-125,

616) JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. -SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

33, FAMILY COMMELINACEAE IN-KOLHAPUR AND
ITS ENVIRONS |

In spite of the luxuriant vegetation of Kolhapur and its environs only

stray references are found to the plants of this region in the regional and

Indian floras and hence it was decided to revise the different flowering

plant families of this region. The work was initiated in 1967 and by now
members of Commelinaceae, Eriocaulaceae and Cyperaceae have been
fully revised and others are under investigation.

This note gives an account of the family Commelinaceae found in
Kolhapur and surrounding places like Pahnala, Gagan bavada,
Radhanagari and Katyayani.. The. different species collected are being
grown in the departmental garden to follow the morphological changes.
if any, undergone by these under uniform conditions of cultivation.
The identification and nomenclatural changes are confirmed by consult-
ing herbarium of B.S.I., Western circle,. Poona... The herbarium speci-
mens and carpological collections are deposited in the herbarium ou
Shivaji University, Botany Department, Kolhapur.

The family is represented by 17 taxa belonging to four genera and
15 species in this region. The details of the species collected are
as follows. (numbers given in brackets refer to herbarium specimens
deposited in the University herbarium).

Cyanotis tuberosa (Roxb.) Schult. f. Common in grasslands of

Kolhapur (256), Pahnala (500) and Gagan bavada (670). June-October.

C. concanensis Hassk.. (C. sahyadrica Blatter) Gagan bavada (675,

676), along slopes of fort. July-September.

C. cristata (L.). Don. Marshy places in Kolhapur (259) and Pahnala
(510). July-September. x! 3

C. fasciculata (Heyne ex Roth.) Schult.f. On moist rocks -in-

Kolhapur (261), Pahnala (512) and Radhanagari (710). August-
September.

| C, fasciculata (Heyne ex Roth.) Schult.f. var. glabrescens C.B. Cl.
Pahnala (514) on moist rocks. August-September.

Amischophacelus axillaris (Linn.) Rolla Rao et Kammathy (Cyanotis
axillaris (L.) Roem. and Schultz.) Common in moist black soils and rice
fields in Kolhapur (265) and Kagal (268). July-October.

A. cucullata (Roth.) Rolla Rao et Kammathy (Cyanotis cucullata
(Roth.) Kunth.). Moist shady places in Kolhapur (271, 275). July-
October.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 617

Murdannia semiteres (Dalz.) Santapau. -Along road sides and moist
places in Kolhapur (278), Katyayani (280) and Pahnala (520). July-
September.

M. nudiflora (L.) Brenan. Common in moist places and marshy
areas of Kolhapur (282), Pahnala (516) and Gagan bavada (678). July-
September.

M. nudiflora var. compressa C.B.Cl. Flowers rose coloured. Gagan
bavada (679, 680), along with M. nudiflora.

M. spirata (L.) Bruckn. Common in moist soils of Kolhapur (284),
Katyayani (286), Pahnala (518), Gagan bavada (685, 686) and Phonda
ghats (850). July-September.

M. loriformis (Hassk.) Rolla Rao et Kammathy. An undergrowth in
forests and grass lands of Radhanagari (712, 715). August-September.

Commelina benghalensis Linn. Common in fields, along canals and
bundhs in Kolhapur (289), Katyayani (291), Kagal (293) and Pahnala
(520). June-October.

C. forskalaei Vahl. Weed in fields. Kolhapur (295), Katyayani
(297) and Pahnala (522). duly; Oeveber.

C. hasskarlii C.B. Cl. Common in marshes of pools, ponds and are
of Kolhapur (300) and Kagal Lake (305). June-March.

C. subulata Roth. Weed of rice fields and other marshes. Kolhapur
(310, 312). July-August.

C. undulata R. Br. (C. Kurzii C.B. Cl.) Pahnala (525, 527), in grass-
lands and forest floors along with grasses. July-October.

During this study along with the normal blue flowered plants of
Murdannia spirata those bearing scarlet coloured flowers (petals) were
also collected from Gagan bavada. ‘The two populations of this species
grew together at Gagan bavada. The two types are being cultivated
separately for the last three years and they have maintained the distinct-
ness in their flower colour. Plants with blue flowers have all the fila-
ments bearded, whereas those with scarlet flowers have filaments of only
fertile stamens bearded.

Underground cleistogamous. flowers are recorded in Commelina
forskalaei by Barnes (1946) and Maheshwari & Maheshwari (1955).
Repeated collections of the plants of this species from different localities
of Kolhapur did not reveal the presence of such flowers. Probably, as
Maheshwari & Baldev (1958) have pointed out, a number of external
factors, particularly the water content of the soil in which the plants grow,

618 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

might be determining the production of cleistogamous flowers in this

species.

The authors are thankful to Rolla Seshagiri Rao, Regional Botanist,
B.S.I., Western circle, Poona for his help in confirmation of the identi-

fication of many species.

BOTANY DEPARTMENT,
SHIVAJI UNIVERSITY,
KOLHAPUR,

March 30, 1970.

A. R. KULKARNI
P. V. MUDGAL

REFERENCES

BARNES, E. (1946) : Some observations
on South Indian Commelinas ; Two new
species of Commelina from South India.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 46 (1) : 70-89.

lina forskalaei Vahl and C. benghalensis

L. Phytomorphology 5 (4) : 413-422.
MAHESHWARI, S. C. & BALDEV, B.

(1958): A contribution.to the morpho-

logy and embryology of Commelina
forskalaei Vahl. Phytomorphology 8
(3, 4) : 277-297.

MAHESHWARI, P. & MAHESHWARI, J.
K. (1955): Floral dimorphism in Comme-

34. SOME INTERESTING PLANTS FROM LUCKNOW AND
ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD

Kapoor (1962) published a comprehensive list of plants of Lucknow
District in an endeavour to revise Anderson’s (1859) catalogue. Later
Sharma (1964) supplemented Kapootr’s list by recording 13 more plants.
The present paper includes some more species gathered at Lucknow or
its neighbourhood. A few of these, like Ambrosia artemisifolia Linn.
and Dichrocephala latifolia DC. are particularly noteworthy from their
distribution and occurrence in the Upper Gangetic Plain. The speci-
mens are lodged in the herbarium of the National Botanic Gardens,
Lucknow.

1. Acanthospermum australe (Linn.) O. Kuntze (A. hispidum DC.).
Compositae.

Butler Palace Compound, Ram Singh 2286; University, D. D.
Awasthi 2929.

It was reported as a new record for Upper Gangetic Plain from
Ajmer-Merwara by Raizada & Sharma (1962) and one of our sheets
(Awasthi 2929) was incidentally cited by them. It is now being observed
to be getting more and more frequent within this area and has perfectly
established itself.

The identity and nomenclature of this plant needs correction. The plant is
Acanthospermum hispidum DC. Prodr. 5 : 522, 1836; but this is not A. hispidum auct.
e.g. Blake in Contrib. U.S. Nat. Herb. 1921, which is identical with A. australe (L.)
O. Kuntze. The plant found in many parts of India is A. hispidum DC., and not A
australe (L.) O.K.—EDS.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 619
2. Amaranthus hybridus Linn. subsp. cruentus (L.) Thell. var. paniculatus
(L.) Thellung (A. paniculatus Linn.). Amaranthaceae.
Lucknow, Hira Lal 9596 ; Near garden Well, S. L. Kapoor 20461.

It is commonly cultivated in gardens, parks and private houses and
is seen frequently as an escape.

3. Ambrosia artemisifolia Linn. Compositae.

Daliganj, Hira Lal 99050.

Panigrahi & Kar (1966) recorded it as a new find for India from
Khasi & Jaintia Hills, Assam. As far as the authors know it has not so
far been recorded for the Upper Gangetic Plain.

4. Atylosia platycarpa Benth. Papilionaceae.
Kursi Road, U.S. Misra 4848 ; Garden compound, Ram Nath 51492.
Duthie (1903, Vol. 1, p. 213) recorded it only from Saharanpur and
Saugor.

5. Centaurium roxburghii (G. Don) Druce (Erythraea roxburghii G.
Don). Gentianaceae.

Reported by Anderson (1859), excluded by Kapoor (1962). This
collection confirms its occurrence.

6. Clerodendrum inerme Gaertn. Verbenaceae.

Lucknow, P. C. Kanjilal s.n.
It is cultivated and is occasionally an escape.

7. Dichrocephala latifolia DC. Compositae.
Kursi, K.M. Balapure & Party 89120.
Our specimen was collected just outside the administrative boundary

of Lucknow District ; it is included here as Duthie recorded it only from
Dehra Dun.

8. Glossogyne bidens (Retz.) Alst. (G. pinnatifida DC.). Compositae.

Barkhurdarpur Tehrwa, S. L. Kapoor & Party 42358. This was re-
ported by Anderson (1859) but was kept as doubtful by Kapoor (1962).

9. Leucas urticaefolia R. Br. Labiatae.

Banthra, U.S. Misra 2828.
It is rare in our area.

10. Lindernia anagallis (Burm.) Penn. (Bonnaya veronicaefolia Spr.).
Scrophulariaceae.
Near Kukrail Reserved Forests, Hira Lal & Janki Prasad 24281.
Anderson (1859) recorded it from Lucknow but Kapoor (1962) kept
it as doubtful. It does occur here in moist situations.

620 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

11. Swietenia mahagoni Jacq. Meliaceae.
Shivaji Marg, S. Ibrahim Husain 65698; Trilok Nath Marg, S.

Ibrahim Husain 76687.
Cultivated on roadsides.

12. Trifolium alexandrinum Linn. Papilionaceae.

Near Bhadruk, Ram Singh 399.

It is cultivated in the suburbs of Lucknow and is frequently seen as an

escape near cultivated area.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to the Director, National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow
for herbarium facilities and to Dr. L. D. Kapoor for going through the

manuscript.

NATIONAL BOTANIC GARDENS,
LUCKNOW,
November 4, 1969.

S. IBRAHIM HUSAIN
S. L. KAPOOR

REFERENCES

ANDERSON, T. (1859): Notes on the
flora of Lucknow with catalogues of the
cultivated and indigenous plants. J. As.
Soc. Bengal 28 (2): 89-120.

Durtuie, J. F. (1903-1911): Flora of
the Upper Gangetic Plain and of the
adjacent Siwalik and Sub-Himalayan
Tracts. Calcutta.

Kapoor, S. L. (1962) : On the botany
of Lucknow District. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 59: 862-896.

PANIGRAHI, G. &. Kar, S. K. (1966) :
The family Compositae in Assam and
North East Frontier Agency. Bull.
bot. Surv. India 8 : 229.

RAIZADA, M. B. & SHARMA, V. S.
(1962) : New plant records for the Upper
Gangetic Plain from Ajmer-Merwara.
Indian For. 88 : 364.

SHARMA, P. C. (1964): A note on the
flora of Lucknow District. Bull. bot.
Surv. India. 6: 101.

35. A RICH, BUT LITTLE KNOWN COLLECTION OF
INDIAN PLANTS IN U.S.S.R.

During a recent visit to the U.S.S.R., I visited the Botanical Institute
of the Academy of Sciences of Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, .at
Kiev. There is a large herbarium (KW) attached to this institute, with
about one million sheets and believed to be one of the biggest herbaria
in U.S.S.R. |

The herbarium is rich in Ukrainian plants. In addition to the general
herbarium, there are some old collections which have, so far, been kept
separate as special herbaria. Notable among these are the herbaria of
‘N. S. Turczaninow, I. F. Schmalhausen, A. S. Rogowicz, W. S. J. G.
Besser and J. E. Gilibert. | , ef

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 621

Turezaninow’s (1796-1864) herbarium is very rich in Indian plants,
and I believe, it is the second biggest collection of Indian plants in the
U.S.S.R. ; next only to the herbarium of the Komarov Botanical Institute
at Leningrad (LE).

The Turczaninow herbarium is reported to have about 52,000 speci-
mens, comprising several thousand species.

The collections in this herbarium are mostly of the nineteenth century.
They are listed in a catalogue which runs into three bound volumes. It
was prepared about 100 years ago, and much of it was written by
Turcezaninow himself. The species are listed more or less according to
De Candolle’s system of classification. The grasses are listed in volume
3, pages 194-277. The catalogue, however, seems to be incomplete.

The collection is remarkably rich in Wallichian specimens ; and for
some genera examined by me, more or less complete series was present.
As I had only limited time at my disposal, I could consult material of
only a few grass genera of the Rottboellineae, Maydeae, and Chlorideae.
The following Wallichian specimens were present in the tribe Rottboel-
lineae :—

Wallichian Catalogue numbers: 8868, 8869, (A, B), 8870 (C),
8871 (D, E, F), 8872, 8873 (B), 8874 (B, C), 8875 (E, F, G), 8876, 8877
(B, C), 8879 (B, E, F, H), 8880 (B, C). That is, except 8878, all numbers
from 8868 to 8880 were present. In the Maydeae, I found 8623 (A, E,
F, G, H and K), 8624 (C, E, F, G), 8625, 8627 (A), and 8630 (D).

This abundance of Wallichian sheets suggests that the set was perhaps
received here from an institution where the Wallichian material was first
made into sets and distributed.

Other collectors, whose material seems to be present in large numbers
are: W. Griffith, (Assam, etc.), B. Heyne (India orientalis), R. F,
Hohenacker (PI. India Or., S. India-Nilgiris), J. D. Hooker (Khasia, etc.),
G. S. Perrottet (Nilgiris), T. Thomson (Punjab, Mysore, Carnatic,
Nilgiris) and R. Wight (India Or., Bihar, etc.).

These are all unmounted specimens, kept loose on sheets or between
blotting sheets with their labels lying loose on sheets. All the folders,
that I saw, had material of one species within one folder ; but in several
cases, collections of one species from different localities, (even from
different countries) were kept within one folder. As the specimens are un-
mounted, and the labels are loose in the folders, there is a chance of error
by mixing of labels. The folders are about 60 x45 cm., i.e. much larger
than usual species or genus covers (which are about 4428 cm.). The
sheets inside the folders vary from normal size (441 x 26 cm.) to very
large (+ 56x40 cm.). The specimens are generally in good condition.

Turczaninow was a senior officer in Siberia and held administrative
posts. He travelled very widely, and also sent his junior officers on tours
to different parts of the country, and obtained plant specimens through

1,

622 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

them. Turczaninow had wide exchange relations and received speci-
mens from different parts of the world, and in exchange, he sent plants of
Siberia, Ukraine, and other regions of Russia. He was a keen naturalist
and had published many botanical works, among ihem the ‘ Flora
of Baikal’ is well known in the U.S.S.R. and outside. He had described
many new taxa of plants, some of these occur in India, namely Zizania
latifolia Turcz. and Stipa mongholica Turcz.

After retirement, Turczaninow went to Kharkhov, and gave all his
collections to the herbarium there. He spent all his pension in purchase
and exchange of specimens.

Dr. A. I. Barbarycz who is in charge of the herbarium said that in
1943, during the Second World War, the Nazi armies took away the entire
herbaria from various institutions in Ukraine to some place in east
Germany and that after the war, they were recovered from Poznan, in
Poland. When the material was located, much of it was in very bad condi-
tion, even soaked in water and about one hundred bundles were so wet
that they had to be abandoned. These were mosily Ukrainian plants.
The material was broughi to Kiev, and since then, it has stayed there.

The collection is very valuable to Indian botanists and the material
has remained practically untouched for more than a century. The
Russian scientist Prof. Bobrovto offered to try to arrange to send speci-
mens on study loan if desired.

The scientists at the institute at Kiev are busy with the preparation of
Flora of the Republic, and other routine work, and have not been able to
give attention to the Indian material. They plan to mount those speci-
mens and if possible keep a separate Indian section in the herbarium.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Dr. A. I. Barbarycz for facilities of working in the
Kiev herbarium, and to other botanists who made themselves available
for discussion. I am grateful to the Academy of Sciences of U.S.S.R. ;
Director, Botanical Survey of India; and the Ministry of Education,
Government of India, for giving me the opportunity of visiting the

U.S.S.R. under the Indo-Soviet Scientific and Cultural Exchange
Programme.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, S. K. JAIN
CALCUTTA,
December 4, 1969.

AN APPEAL
WORLD WILDLIFE FUND

Indian Nationai Appeal

Perhaps one of the most conspicuous lacks of the conservation set-up
of this country has been that there was no channel, so far, through which
a layman could involve himself in the conservation movement, even if he
wanted to. The most he could do was to persuade a friend to subscribe
to the Journal. As a result, we have had a growing body of people
(including members of the Society) who have an urgent concern for
natural life, and would like to help in its preservation, but are powerless
to do so, short of becoming ecologists themselves.

The Indian National Appeal of the World Wildlife Fund offers an
opportunity to the layman for more personal involvement in the country’s
conservation programmes. The WWE which is primarily concerned with
raising money, for specific conservation projects, has its headquarters at
Morges, Switzerland, and operates through ‘ National Appeals’ (fund-
raising organisations) in various countries. National Appeals are already
in operation in Britain, U.S., Germany, Austria, Italy, S. Africa and some
other countries. The money raised by these Appeals is largely used for
wildlife projects in the country of origin. The projects can be anything
from ecological surveys and park management to setting up a chair for
conservation in a university. From 1962 to 1967, over $79,500 were
raised by the WWF altogether, to support 183 different projects, the
world over.

The Indian National Appeal was launched in New Delhi in November
1969 at the occasion of the IUCN General Assembly. His Highness the
Maharaja of Baroda is the International Trustee, and Zafar Futehally is
the Honorary Secretary.

Our object, of course, is only to raise money and then try to make sure
that we grant it to the most urgent causes in the nature conservation field.
Our first project is a survey of the Great Indian Bustard by Shri R. S.
Dharmakumarsinhji, which should lead to the creation of a sanctuary
for this bird by the Gujarat Govt. We have already produced a pamphlet
on the bird written by Shri Dharmakumarsinhji, which is available on
request.

Examples of other projects supported by WWE International or the
Indian Appeal are: a breeding programme for the Swamp Deer in
Kanha National Park; a study of the White-Winged Wood Duck

624. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

in Assam, which would lead to protection measures; a similar
study of the Nilgiri Tahr ; a snake park for Madras ; and a bridge for a
Sanctuary in Nepal.

The response from business houses to the Appeal, so far, has been
most encouraging. The Tata Group has given us Rs. 30,000 guaranteed
for two years, Godrej and Co. have furnished our office at Hornbill
House free of charge, Imperial Chemicals (India) have donated Rs. 10,000
a year for five years, and Selvel have donated hoardings. Various other
companies have sponsored literature etc.

We are of course anxious for individual donations, which can be sent
to the World Wildlife Fund, Hornbill House, Shahid Bhagat Singh Road,
Bombay 1. Youcan also help greatly becoming a Member of the Appeal.
The fee is Rs. 10 annually and it entitles you to receive our Newsletter
and other literature regularly. ;

HONORARY SECRETARY

World Wildlife Fund
Indian National Appeal.

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR 1969-70

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE
President
Dr. P. V. Cherian, Governor of Maharashtra

Vice-Presidents

Major-General Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, 1.M.s. (Retd.)
Dr. Salim Ali, D.Sc., F.N.1I.
Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, s.J.

Hon. Secretary ex-officio
Mr. Zafar Futehally
Hon. Treasurer
Mr. J. D. Kapadia, I.c.s. (Retd.)
Member
Secretary, Ministry of Education, Govt. of India
Elected Members
Mr. Humayun Abdulali
Mr. G. V. Bedekar, I.c.s. (Retd.)
Prof. P. V. Bole
Mr. S. Chaudhuri
Mr. R. E. Hawkins
Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, M.sc., Ph.p.
Mr. Duleep Maithai
Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati, M.D.
Mr. D. J. Panday
Mr. D. E. Reuben, I.c.s. (Retd.)
ADVISORY COMMITTEE
Mr. H.G. Acharya .. 4 Me .. Ahmedabad
Mrs. Jamal Ara ef. asi H, .. Ranchi
Mr. F. C. Badhwar, O.B.E. } .. New Delhi
Sir Chintaman Deshmukh, Kt., C.1.E., I.C.s. (Retd,) .. Hyderabad
Mr. A. K. Ghosh, I.Cc.s. (Retd.) sit .. New Delhi
Mr. M. Krishnan .. ne a, .. Madras
Mr. M. J. S. Mackenzie 4 hes .. Assam
Dr. N. K. Panikkar, M.A., D.Sc., F.N.I. i .. New Delhi

Mr. P. D. Stracey, 1.F.s. 9 af .. New Delhi

626 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)
HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1969
MEMBERSHIP |

The total of the Ordinary Membership which had shown a tendency
to remain more or less static near 700 showed a small but encouraging
increase during the year. The total membershipin good standing on our
Register as on 3lst December 1969 compared to the membership as on
December 1968 is given below :

1968 1969

Life Members ae es 151 163
Ordinary members 2 ie 677 823
Forest Department Nominees he 63 68
Student Members eK ae 1 4
Honorary Members ae at 2 2
894 1060

In addition, we have to receive subscription from 148 ordinary
members. Efforts are being made to persuade them to continue their
membership. The meagre membership of the Society is perhaps a
reflection of the general apathy towards nature in this country. The
Society’s membership is in effect a barometer of the interest it has been
able to create among educated people, and there is large scope for en-
rolling new members. Our existing members must play a part in this

sphere. During the year 102 members joined as against 23 resignations
and 5 deaths.

THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS

Journal: Three numbers of the Journal were published during the
year: Vol. 65(3) and Vol. 66 Nos. 1 and 2. The 717 pages include 8
articles each on birds and botany, 10 on invertebrates other than in-
sects, 6 on mammals, 4 on insects, 2 on fishes and one on wildlife. The
90 Miscellaneous Notes covered all aspects of Natural History.

Among the articles, it is difficult to pick out any as particularly out-
standing. However, some from the subjects which they discussed, were
of unusual interest. Instances are: ‘The Birds of Sind’ by J. O. Wright
& D. A. Holmes which reviews the status of the birds of the plains of
Sind 45 years after the publication of the first comprehensive account of
the avifauna. Fr. A. E. Bean’s investigation of the ‘ Occurrence of
Spindasis abnormis on the Western Ghats’ is an excellent example of
contributions made by the devoted amateur to any discipline of Natural
History. The Society’s continuing interest and anxiety on the status of

A.G.M. 1969-70—PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 627

wildlife in India is reflected in the wildlife survey reports by Spillett which
draw attention to the failure in the management of a national asset. The
report by Schaller on the status of the Kashmir Stag highlights the impor-
tant and urgent problems threatening the survival of the species. Other
articles of particular interest are ‘The Elephant (Elephas maximus) in
U.P.’ which describes a census of the population, ‘The Spider Fauna of
India’ which is the first collation and systematic catalogue of Indian
spiders and the ‘ Food-habiis of Water birds of the Sundarbans, 24 Par-
ganas, W. Bengal, India’ a detailed study of the food habits of water-
birds.

Books: The year saw three more of our popular publications THE
BOOK OF INDIAN ANIMALS, BUTTERFLIES OF THE INDIAN REGION and INDIAN
MOLLUSCS going out of print. A third edition of the BOOK OF INDIAN
ANIMALS will appear in 1970. However, reprinting of the other two
books in the near future appears unlikely as the Society is unable to lock
up a considerable amount of its capital in slow selling publications.

The publication of the 2nd and 3rd volumes of the HANDBOOK OF THE
BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN, a publication which is sponsored by the
Society, adds two more volumes to the definitive literature on Indian
avifauna. Excellent progress is being maintained and the subsequent
volumes are expected at short intervals of time. The manuscript of
FAUNA VOLUME for the Maharashtra Gazetteer was completed and handed
over. Its publication is expected shortly.

The Society with financial assistance from the Rockefeller Founda-
tion published ‘The Ecology of the Lesser Bandicoot Rat in Calcutta’
by Juan Spillett. The book records 15 months observation on the
Bandicoot rat which is apparently the dominant species among the des-
tructive rodents in the Calcutta environs.

The Society’s Journal is an indispensable reference Volume for any
study of the Oriental fauna and the unavailability of many of the earlier
issues is a constant source of frustration to serious researchers. Arrange-
ments have now been completed with M/s. Swets Zeitlinger of the
Netherlands for printing photo-offset editions of the out-of-print volumes.

Under the nature education scheme of the Society, and with financial
assistance received from the Seth Purshotamdas Thakurdas & Divaliba
Charitable Trust, the Society published a booklet on nature (MAZE MITRA)
prepared by its Nature Education Organiser. The booklet which is
printed in Marathi and Gujarathi is for free distribution to school
children in Maharashtra and Gujarat.

GENERAL

Bird Migration Study: As we reported last year, the bird ringing
camps are now organised on an all year basis. During the migratory
season camps were held at Bharatpur in Rajasthan and Point Calimere

628 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

and camps were run at Mahableshwar and Daulatabad during the non-
migratory season for ringing resident species.

Satisfactory results were obtained and in summary the camps ringed
38,594 birds of over 150 species, and recoveries gave an overall pic-
ture of the area of origin of the migrants. Much information was also
obtained on the movements and habits of resident birds. We are grate-
ful to the MAPS Organisation and the Smithsonian Institution for their
generous financial support.

Conservation: An effort was made to obtain information on the
status of Crocodile species in various parts of the country. The
attempt produced very little constructive information apart from draw-
ing attention to the fact that crocodiles have disappeared or have not
been noticed in a large part of their former habitat.

A similar enquiry on the status of the Tiger indicated an alarming
decline in their number.

The Society was instrumental in arranging an expert to advise the
Government of Maharashtra on the planning of the proposed National
Park at Borivli in the Bombay suburban area.

The Indian Board for Wildlife which met after 4 years at Delhi under
the Chairmanship of Dr. Karan Singh, the Minister for Tourism, is now
taking a more active approach to conservation problems than in the
past. In this connection we would also refer to the concern and interest
of the Prime Minister in the conservation programmes of the Govern-
ment.

The IUCN General Assembly at Delhi between 24 November and 1
December was the major conservation activity during the year. Many
useful resolutions and projects relating to Indian conservation needs were
formulated and the Society is pressing for the speedy implementation
of the resolutions and action on the projects.

DONATIONS
Sdlim Ali-Loke Ornithological Research Fund: During the year we
received donations from:

N. H. Wadia Charity Fund .. Rs. 1,000°00
Dr. Salim Ali As .- Rs. 6,000°00

Rs. 7,000°00

0

Appeals were sent to many trusts and persons who were thought to
be in a position to contribute to the Corpus of the fund. There was

A.G.M. 1969-70—PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 629

only a single response. The contributions received so far are mainly
from a few donors.

Lady Peng McNiece bed Rs. 20,939°40
Dr. Salim Ali 5 Rs. 19,000°C0

Executive Committee
Members (2) ae Rs. 2,500°00
Members (5) a Rs. 1,021°96
Others 3: Rs. 1,416°62
Interest earned ne RS. e452
Rs. 49,089°50

4

Auditorium : The Cactus Club donated a chair for the auditorium.

RESEARCH STUDIES

Gir Project: Members may recall that last year we had reported
on the plans for a Wildlife and Ecology research station in the Gir.
The project received the Government of India’s approval, and research
is now in progress.

Andaman Islands: A further trip was made to the Andaman Islands
in February 1969, the object being to visit the isolated Narcondam
Island and observe the rare Narcondam Hornbill. This was achieved
though the period of stay at Narcondam was less than 24 hours.

University Department : The recognition of the Society as an insti-
tute for field Ornithology was renewed for a further period of three
years. We have three research students, two registered for M.Sc. and
one for Ph.D.

NATURE EDUCATION SCHEME

The scheme now in its 22nd year, continues its activities in Bombay,
Poona and adjacent areas for creating interest in nature among school
children.

LIBRARY

During the year 319 books were added to the Library. Among these
34 were received for review, 12 purchased and 273 donated by members
and others. Our thanks are due to the donors and to the publishers who
have sent us review copies.

630 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

January :
February :

March ;

April :

June:

September :
November :

December :

MEETINGS & EXHIBITIONS

Photos by Morarjit, P.R. & Films of Thakore?.
Exhibition? of ‘ Fish on Stamps’.

Peter Jackson®—Wildlife of Africa.

Kenworthy, J. B.2—Fire and the balance of Nature.
Peter Jordan?—The Ecology of Timberwolf in North
America and some suggestions for Ecological Studies in
the Gir Sanctuary.

P. J. Deoras?—Rat Problem in Bombay.

Film?—No Room for Wild Animals.

Exhibition of flowering Orchids?.

Film?—Serengeti shall not die.

G. B. Schaller?>—Some Observations on Indian Wildlife.
Raniitsinh?—Indian Wild Life.

Weldon Gratton?—Planning a National Park.

O. A. Hoeg*?—Birds of Norway.

REVENUE ACCOUNTS

The financial position of the Society continues to be difficult as will
be evident from the statements of accounts.

ADDITIONS TO THE COLLECTIONS

During the year 415 specimens were added to the collections :

Mammals i 9

Birds mi 301 7346

Reptiles .. hie ak

Amphibians eek,
STAFF

The Committee wishes to record its appreciation of the willing co-
operation of the entire staff in the activities of the Society.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The Committee’s thanks are due to Mr. M. J. Dickins who continues
to look after the Society’s interests in the United Kingdom.

1 Exhibition.
2 Film Show.

8 Talk.

631

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642 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

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ALAIOOS AYOLSIH TYYNLVYN AVANO

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY HELD AT
HORNBILL HOUSE, SHAHID BHAGAT SINGH ROAD,

BOMBAY 1, ON FRIDAY, 18TH SEPTEMBER, 1970,
AT 6-30 P.M., WITH MR. R. E. HAWKINS IN THE CHAIR.
APPROXIMATELY 30 MEMBERS WERE PRESENT

Before the meeting commenced, the Chairman referred to the sad
death of Fr. Santapau, and said that in his death the Bombay Natural
History Society has suffered an irreparable loss. Apart from his emi-
nence in botany, Fr. Santapau took the keenest interest in the activities
of the Society, and was closely associated with it for the last 20 years.

The Chairman said that the Society was trying to establish a small
floristic sanctuary in the Khandala Ravine, an area where Fr. Santapau
had done much botanical work. It was hoped that the Government of
Maharashtra would accept the recommendation made by the Society for
the creation of this sanctuary.

Members stood in silence for a minute as a mark of respect to
Fr. Santapau. .

The Chairman then asked the Honorary Secretary to make any com-
ments he wished on the Annual Report before any questions were asked
about it. The Honorary Secretary said that there had been a small
though welcome increase in the membership from 894 to 1060. Of the
148 members who had paid their subscription in 1968, but had not done
so in 1969, a few were expected to pay. Regarding the 23 resignations,
it was unfortunate that even institutions like the Marathwada University,
the Salar Jung Museum and other institutions of learning had discon-
tinued their membership. The Society would try and have these member-
ships reinstated.

The Honorary Secretary stated that he would like to make a comment
on the Borivli National Park established by the Government of Maha-
rashtra in Bombay. This was a most imaginative step, and one which
would be of the greatest benefit to the citizens. However, it was un-
fortunate that a film city was being built up in a portion of the Park, and
this would detract from the park values. Representation had been made
in this connection to the Government but apparently it was not possible
at this stage to go back on this scheme. Government, however, had
indicated that they were acquiring further forest land on the southern
side of the Bassein Creek, and this would add a large area of forest to
the Park. The Honorary Secretary said that at the present time when
the resources of Government were limited, and when there were so many
demands on them it was natural that only those schemes were put
through which provoked strong public support. It was, therefore, most
important for members of the Bombay Natural History Society and others
to get more vocal, and put forward their demands more vigorously.

644. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

The Chairman then asked the meeting if there were any questions to
be asked on the report. No questions were asked, and Mr. G. V. Bedekar
proposed and Mr. D. E. Reuben seconded that the report be adopted.
The report was unanimously adopted.

The Chairman then asked the Honorary Treasurer to present the
accounts for the year. The Honorary Treasurer answered the questions
that were asked and Mrs. Khan proposed and Prof. Bole seconded that
the accounts be unanimously adopted. The accounts were unanimously
adopted.

The Chairman then stated that the panel of names proposed by the
Executive Committee for 1970-71 for election may be taken as approved
by the meeting since no alternative names had been suggested.

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

President
Nawab Ali Yavar Jung, Governor of Maharashtra

Vice-Presidents

Major-General Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, 1.M.s. (Retd.)

Dr. Salim Ali, D.Sc., F.N.I.

Mr. R. E. Hawkins

X= i
Hon. Secretary AE OUTEHD

Mr. Zafar Futehally

Hon. Treasurer
Mr. J. D. Kapadia, I.c.s. (Retd.)

Member
Secretary, Ministry of Education, Govt. of India. ;

Elected Members

Mr. Humayun Abdulali

Mr. G. V. Bedekar, 1.c.s. (Retd.)
Prof. P. V. Bole

Mr. S. Chaudhuri

Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, M.Ssc., Ph.D.
Mr. Duleep Matthai

Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati, M.D.

Mr. D. J. Panday

Mr. G. S. Ranganathan

Mr. D. E. Reuben, 1.c.s. (Retd.)

MINUTES OF THE A.G.M. OF THE B.N.HS. 645

ADVISORY COMMITTEE

Mr. H. G. Acharya

Mrs. Jamal Ara

Mr. F. C. Badhwar, 0.B.E.

Sir Chintaman Deshmukh, Kt., C.1.E., I.C.S. s. (Retd.)
Dr. A. P. Kapur Be cue

Mr. M. Krishnan

Dr. S. K. Mukherjee

Dr. N. K. Panikkar, M.A., D.SC., F.N.I.

Mr. R. C. Soni, I.F.S.

Mr:.P. D. Stracey,, IFS. (Retd.)

Ahmedabad
Ranchi
New Delhi
Hyderabad
Calcutta
Madras
Calcutta
Panaji

New Delhi
New Delhi

The meeting then formally terminated with a vote of thanks to the

Chair.

After the meeting there was a slide-show of the colour transparencies of
Mr. Ranjit Sinh, Mr. E. P. Gee and others. The slide show was followed
by a display of two films by Mr. E. P. Gee—on the Kanha National

Park and on the Manas Sanctuary.

646 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 67 (3)

ERRATA

“Volume 67 (2), August 1970, page 362, add: ‘cristata L. (Fig. 16).
Crossandra undulaefolia Salisb. (Fig. 17 & 17A).’ between 5th and 7th
lines below the photograph.”

Field Work Grant

The Society is in a position to financially assist individual
projects in field work in Vertebrate Zoology. including collecting,
and would be glad to consider applications for specific proposals.

Apply in detail to the Honorary Secretary.

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY C. E. KOSHY AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS,
10 CHURCH ROAD, VEPERY, MADRAS—25-3-1971. C1977
EDITORS: ZAFAR FUTEHALLY, J. C. DANIEL & P. V. BOLE

THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS

Birds

The Book of Indian Birds, by S4lim Ali. 8th (revised) edition. 66 coloured and
many monochrome plates. Rs. 25

(Price to: members Rs. 20)

4

Snakes

Identification of Poisonous Snakes. Wall chart in English, Gujarati, and Marathi.

Rs. 16
(Price to members Rs. 8)
Miscellaneous
Picture Postcards of 12 representative Indian Birds (In colour) per set Rs. 2°50
Glimpses of Nature Series Booklets :

1. Our Birps I (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi, and Marathi, Rs. 0°80
Kannada. Rs. 0°62
2. Our Birps II (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi. Rs. 0°62

3. Our BEAUTIFUL TREES (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi and Marathi. Rs. 0°62
4. Our Monsoon PLANTs (with 8 coloured plates) in English,

Gujarati, Hindi, and Marathi. Rs. 0°80
5. Our ANIMALS (with 8 coloured plates) in English, Gujarati,
Hindi, and Marathi. Rs. 1°25

Back numbers of the Society’s Journal. Rates on application.

Correspond with:

The Honorary Secretary,
Bombay Natural History Society,
Hornbill House, Shahid Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 1-BR.

Agents in England :

Messrs Wheldon & Wesley Lid.,
Lytton Lodge, Codicote, Near Hitchin,
Herts, England.

The Society will gratefully accept back numbers of the Journal, particularly
numbers prior to Vol. 45, from members who may not wish to preserve them.

TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP

Life Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 (25p.) and a life membership fee of
Rs. 600 (Inland), £45°50 (Foreign).

Ordinary Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 (25p.) and an Boreal subscription of
Rs. 36 (Inland), 43 (Foreign).
Members residing outside India should pay their subscription by means of orders:
on their Bankers to pay the amount of the subscription to the Society in
Bombay on the Ist January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum of

43°00 should be paid annually to the Society’s London Bankers—The National &
Grindlays Bank Ltd., 23 Fenchurch Street, London E.C. 3.

The subscription of members elected in October, November, and Decsiiber
covers the period from the date of their election to the end of the following year.

CONTENTS

OBSERVATIONS ON THE NILGIRI TAHR (Hemitragus hylocrius OGILBY, 1838). By
George B. Schaller mi

GENETIC-EVOLUTIONARY STUDIES ON CULTIVATED CANNAS. By Iva Mukherjee
and T. N. Khoshoo

ANALOGOUS BIOCLIMATES AND INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMIC ExoTics. By V. M.
Meher-Homji

ARTHROPOD FAUNA OF THE NESTS OF SOME COMMON BIRDS IN POONA, INDIA, WITH
SPECIAL REFERENCE TO BLOOD SUCKING FORMS. By T. Ramachandra Rao
and P. K. Rajagopalan

PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS ON THE NATURAL RESISTANCE OF SIXTY-NINE SPECIES
OF INDIAN TIMBER TO MARINE BORER ATTACK AT BOMBAY. By L. N. Santha-
kumaran

STUDIES ON BOTTOM-LIVING DIATOMS OF A FRESHWATER FISH POND. By C.S. Singh

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BREEDING OF STORKS IN INDIA AND CEYLON. By M. Philip
Kahl

CYCLONIC DAMAGE TO PLANT Tissues. By B. G. L. Swamy and
K. V. Krishnamurthy ae

ee

AGRICULTURAL IRESEARCH—PROGRESS, PROBLEMS AND Prospects. By M. S.
Swaminathan

TRENDS IN INTRASPECIFIC SEX-LIMITED VARIATIONS IN SOME MYCOPHAGOUS TUBULI-
FERA (THYSANOPTERA). By T. N. Ananthakrishnan

THE FLOWERING OF THE STROBILANTH (ACANTHACEAE). By K. M. Matthew, S.J.

APLANOSPORE FORMATION OR OUTCOME OF PARASITIC ATTACK? By Ella A.
Gonzaives and G. R. Sonnad

SPAWNING HABITS, EGGS AND EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF DECCAN MAHSEER, Jor
khudree (SYKEs). By C. V. Kulkarni

ASPECTS OF THE FLORA, AND ECOLOGY OF SAVANNAS OF THE SOUTH INDIAN HILLS.
By F. Blasco

THE Nitciri Tanr, Hemitragus hylocrius OGILBY, INTHE HIGH RANGE, KERALA
AND THE SOUTHERN HILLS OF THE WESTERN GHATS. By. J. C. Daniel

REVIEWS .. te
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
AN APPEAL is ag

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ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BomBAy NATURAL History SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR
1969-70 bee

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STATEMENTS OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL History SOCIETY

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING

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‘came z oe = oe = if
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coer rend
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2 a = ys _ 2 B
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z ” a : w rd aes wn
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z= = yet ae =
: 2 Oy = Z : Z
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a oie ae ” =z Y _ ie
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” > ” > oh 2
uu 7) oa 77) o ”
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J = < = < =
| oa = ca = : 2
=: fe) = O Se ! o
ra = i ae aa es
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a 3 ~ 52 y al z |
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Ss ~ = 2 bib =
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we Zz « ” z | wn Z
z =. 2 z | z Z
a z
ae S z . & + &
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fe . 5. 8 a Zz _ @
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a. ff Zz a ra Ww
| = oc a fee Le = OO
= 4 < i A | <
a om Sj Oo ne oc
am, fea) aS ~. as Mm
fe) S cas Oo 2 ) ~~
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= e) 2 O
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z 1 wtf fg = EA a =
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a SR ba ee ee z «
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: 3 u! SE 8 %
let : z : : :
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