! ..... =-U1 f"U _ 0- -0- - ..D - = ..... _f"U > :-- - = 0 ;: ..::II =- = I"'- -..... . z - -- - I'TI ,I b/ 7, "J \. I -I THE CARE OF BOOKS 1!onbon: C. J. CLAY AND SONS, CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE, AVE IARIA LANE, Qlilaago'DJ: 50, WELLINGTON STREET. JI.. Frotltispit'Ce 16. Great lIall of the Vatican Library, looking \lest To face 4i 17. A single press in the Vatican Library, open. From a photograph To fare 48 18.. Rough ground-plan of the Great lIall of the Vatican I.ibrary, to ilIustlate the account of the decoration . To fitre 60 19. Press in the cloi..ter at the Cistercian Abbey of Fossa KuO\'a 8. 20. (;round-plan and elevation of the hook-reccsscs in the cloister of \\' orcester Cathedral 84 XIV LIST OF ILLUSTRA TlOKS FIG, 21. Ground-plan of part of the Abbey of Fossa Kuova. To shew the book-room and book-press, and their relations to adjoining struc- tures: partly from Enlart's Origillt'S Frallfaises tk l'Architertllle Cothiqtte m Italie, partly from my own measurement. . 85 22. Ground-plan of part of Kirhtall Abbey, Yorkshire 86 23. Grcund-plan of part of Furness Abbey. From Ir \Y. H. St J. Hope's . 24. Arches in south wall of Church at Beaulieu Abbey, Hampshire, once possibly used as book-presses . To face 89 25. The cloister, \\"estminster Abbey. From l\Ir l\Iicklethwaite's plan of the buildings 91 26. Part of the ancient press in Bayeux Cathedral, called Lt' Chartrier de Ba)'eltx. From a photograph . To face 9+ 27. Pre"s in the church at Obazine, Central France. From a photograph To face 9S 28. Ground-plan of one of the \\indows in the cloister of Durham Cathedral 96 29. Range of carrells in the south cloister at C;loucester Cathedral. From l\Ir l\Iurray's Halldbook to the fVestell1 Cathcdrals . 97 30. A single carrell, Gloucester Cathedral . To face 98 31. Library at Durham, built by Prior Wess}ngton about ,++6 107 32. Library of Ihe Grey Friars House, London, commonly called Christ's HospitaL From Trollope's His/ory '!/ Christ's HosPital To face 109 33. Bird's-eye ,-iew of part of the Ionastery of Citeaux. From a dra\\ing dated 1718 110 34. Ground-plan of part of the l\Ionastery of Citeaux. From a plan dated 1718 II [ 35. Gruund-plan of the Library at CiIeaux . [ I I 36. Part of the Abbey of S. Germain des Près, Paris. From a print dated [687; reproduced in Les ..rlIlCÙllIZt'S Bib/io/hèqlles de Pans, par Alf. Franklin, VoL I. p. 126 . liS 37. Part of the Abbey of S. Germain' rles Près, Paris. From a print in His/oire de f Abba)'e Royale de Saillt Cerlllaill des Pre , par Dom Jacques BouilIart, fol. Paris, '7Z4, lettered "L\bbare...telle '1ll'elle est présentement" 116 3 8 . Plan uf the Old Library, Lincoln Cathedral 119 39. Interior of the Old Library, Lincoln Cathedral To face 118 40. Plan of Ihe Cloister, etc., Lincoln Cathedral 120 4 1 . Exterior of the Library at Salisbury Cathedral, looking north-ea't To/ace I'lZ 42. Plan of the Library in Wells Cathedral In 43. Plan of the Library at Lichfield Cathedral. From HÙtory and An- tiquities of StajJò,'dshire, by Stebbing Shaw, fol. Lond. 1798, Vol. II. p. 'lH IZ3 44. Chapter-Library at Noyon, France To face 12+ 45. A single pillar of the cloister beneath the Chapter-LiLrary at Koyon. I'lS 46. Plan of the Library at the sOllth-eru.t angle of the south transept of the Cathedral at Troyes . 1'l6 47. Interior uf the Com- des Libraires, {{,ouen, she" ing the gate of entrance from the street, and the Library To filte [30 PAGE LIST OF ILLVSTRATIÜ S HG. 4 8 . Pembro!..e College, Cambridge, reduced from Loggan'!> print, ta!..en about 16i1-8 49, Long Section of Old Congregation House and Library, Oxford, loo!..ing south. From The Chtlrch tif S. .1/"'y the Virgin, Oxford, by r. G. Jackson, Architect 50. Ground-plan of the Library at Queens' College, Cambridge 51. Elevation of boo!..-des!.. in Library of Queens' College, Cambridge 52. Ground-plan of the Library at Zutphen 53, General ,ie\\ of the north side of Ihe Lihrary attached to the church of S. \\'alburga at Zutphen To face 54. De,!.. and reader on the south side of the Library at Zutphen. From a photograph 55. Elevations of (A) one of the bookcase:, in the Library at Zutphen : (B) one of those in the Library at (2ueens' College, Calf'bridge 56. End of iron bar: Zutphen 57. End of one of tbe de.!..s un the north side of the Librar): Zutphen 58. Piece of chain, she\\ing the ring attached 10 the bar, the s\\i\el, and one of the links, actual size: Guild ford 59. P,ece of the iron bar, \\ith chain: Zutphen . 60. Chained book, from a Dominican HoU!,e at Bamberg, :,outh Germany 61. Single de..!.. in the Old Library: I incoln Cathedral 62, Elevations of (\) one of the boo!..cases in the Library at Zutphen; I B) one of those in the Lihrary at Queens' College, Cambridge; (C) one of those in the Library of Lincoln Cathedral 63. Interior of a Library. From a IS. of a French translation of the first book of the CO,lSola/ion of Philosophy by Boethiu., written in Flanders to\\ards tbe end of lbe fifteenlh cenlury 64, Library of the Collège de a'arre, Paris, no\\ destro)ed To face 65. General view of the Libraf) at Trinity HaIl, Cambridge To face 66. Elevation of a boo!..-de..!.. and seal in the Library of Trinity HaIl, Cambridge 67. Lock at end of boo!..-des!..: Trinity Hall 68. A French übraf)' of l.J. 0. From IS. 16-f in the FitZ\\ilIiam Iuseum, Camhridge To face 6g. The interior of the Library of Ihe CnÎ\ersity of Le)den. From a print by Jan Corneli. \\ oudanus, dated 1610 To Jollow 7 0 . Boo!..ca.es and seat in the Library at Corpu. Christi CoIlege, Oxford. From a phot<>grnph ta!..en in 189-f . To face 7 1 . Elevation of one boo!..case in tbe Library of Corpu, Chrisli CoIlege, Oxford 7 2 . Bookcase in the Chapler Library, Hereford Cathedral. From a s!..etch lal..en in 18i6 73. Part of a boo!..ca",e in Ihe Chapler Library, Hereford To face 74. Part of a single ,olume, shewing Ihe clasp, tbe ring for the chain, and the mode of attaching it: Hereford 75. A single volume, standing on the shelf, \\ ith the chain attached 10 the iron bar: Hereford 7 6 . Iron bar and .oe!..et, close::d to preyent remo\al of the bar: Hereford. xv P-\GE l.J.') 1;:'0 15 2 liP I;:'-f 1:;:0 ,-- 1 6 1;:.6 1:-; 1:;8 1;:'9 1;:'9 ,61 16 3 I6-f 16 16 9 168 16<) 16 9 Ii o 173 Ii3 17:; Ji li li 6 li 6 XVI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. 77. Iron bar, with part of the iron plate m' hasp which is securcd by the lock and keeps the bar in place: Hereford Piece of chain, shewing the swivel: Hereford Hook to hold up the desk: Bodleian Library, Oxford Exterior of the Library at Merton College, Oxford, as seen from' Mob Quadrangle.' From a photograph by II. W. Taunt, 1899 To face Ground-plan of the Library at Merton College, Oxford Interior of the \Vest Library at Merton College, Oxford. From a photograph hy II. W. Taunt, 1899 To fact! Bookcase in the Wcst Library of Merton College, Oxford. From a photograph by H. W. Taunt, 1899 To face Elevation of a bookcase and seat iu the \Vest Library at Merton College, Oxford. Measured and drawn by T. D. Atkinson, Architect Stall-enrl in the Library of Clare College, Camhridge Ring for attachment of chain, \\-ells Bookcases in the Library of Durham Cathcdral. From a photograph To face Conjectural plan of the Library over the Prior's Chapel at Christ Church, Canterbury Sketch of the probable appearance of a bookcase, and a reader's seat, in the Library at Christ Church, Canterbury 9 1 . Ground-plan and section of Library at Cesena General view of the Library at Ce'iena. From a photograph To face Bookcases at west end of south side of Library, Cesena Part of a bookcase, at Cesena to shew the system of chaining Piece of a chain, Cesena Chained book at Ghent Ground-plan of part of the Vatican Palace, shewiug the building of Nicholas V., as arranged for library purposes by Sixtus IV., and its relation to the surrounding structures. From Letarouilly, Le Vatica1l, fol. Paris, 1882, as reproduced by M. Fabre Ground-plan of the rooms in the Vatican Palace litted up for library- pUrpose> by Sixtus IV. . . To follow Interior of the Library of Sixtus IV., as shcwn in a fresco in the Ospedale di Santo Spirito, Rome. From a photograph taken by Danesi To face The library-settles (spalliert!) once used in the Vatican Library of Sixtus IV., and now in tbe Appartamento Borgia, From a photograph To face Bookcases in the Medicean Library, Florence Copy, slightly reduced, of a sketch by Michelangelo for one of the bookcases in the Medicean Library, Florence Elevation of desks at Cesena Elevation of desks in the Medicean Library: Florence A book in the Medicean Library, to shew attachment of chain Piece of chain in the Medicean Library, of the actual size Diagram to explain the ironwork at the l\Iedicean Library OutIìne of bolt forming part of iron\\ ork 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83, 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90, 9 2 . 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100, 101. 102. 10 3. 10 4. 10 5. 106. 10 7. 108. PAGE I7i li 8 li9 li9 ISO 181 181 181 18i 18 9 IS9 19 1 193 200 201 201 202 20 3 20-1- 210 208 '225 228 235 23 6 237 23i 23 8 23 8 239 239 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIO!\S HG. \Vest oriel of the Library at S. Juhn's College, Cambridge Boo\"cases in the Library of S. John's College, Cambridge Bookcases in the Library of Peterhouse, Camhridge . Bookcases in the south room of the University Library, Cambridge To face Bookca e in the old Library of King's College. Cambridge, made with the bequest of Nicholas Hobart, 16;;9 . Ground-plan of Library, Grantham, Lincolnshire Ring and link of chain: Wimborne :\Iinster Bookpress in the school at Bolton, Lancailia, Book IV., Chap. 2. 3 ArisIoph. R,In,e, J.IOj-I.PO, translated by J. H, Frere. The pa, sage ha, been quoted by Castellani, Biblioteehe lIdl' AIl/i a: <{ U" a: m ...J . ,. ENTRANCE ./', '). .. . . 0 . u . . I x i .... . a: . , 0 z . , 11: I - . ;1 . '-, . I I J I I' )- -1.t ' -Lt -9l': 0... ... 101 :'. \ _ '_: 0, Iy-9 // \:#j = _ ...., :>; "O) YÚ": ;;:i l-\ - E . '-":< _...... í> : í R E . t;}..,:;2: /J \-, '" ,,-_,)4ì, . ....... - - -; ,._þ-;' ::::,,,.... L.. ' ....' \ . N Fig. 2. Plan of the temple and precinct of Athena. Pergamon; with that of the Library and adjacent buildings. 10 LIBRARY AT PERGAMON [CHAP. their plates, and have condensed my description of the locality from that given in their work 1. I have also derived much va]uable information from a paper published by Alexander Conze in 18842. Of the temple of Athena only the foundations remain, but its extent and position can be readily ascertained. The enclosure, paved with slabs of marble, was entered at the south-east corner. It was open to the west and to the south, where the ground falls away precipitously, but on the east and north it was bounded by a cloister in two floors. The piJ]ars of this cloister were Doric on the ground-floor, Ionic above. The height of those in the lower range, measured from base to top of capital, was about 16 feet, of those in the upper range about 9 feet. This enclosure had a mean length of about 240 feet, with a mean breadth of J62 feet 3. The north cloister was 37 feet broad, and was divided down the centre by a row of columns. The east cloister \\'as of about half this width, and was undivided. On the north side of the north cloister, the German explorers found four rooms, which they bclie\'e to have been assigned to library purposes. The platform of rock on which these chambers stood was nearly 20 feet above the level of the floor of the en- closure, and they could only be entered from the upper cloister. Of these rooms the easternmost is the largest, being 42 feet long, by 49 feet broad. \\'estward of it are three others, somewhat narrower, having a uniform width of 39 feet. The easternmost 1 AllertÜmer van Pergamon, For., Berlin. 1885, Band II. Das Heiligtum der Athena Polias Nikephoros, yon Richard Hahn. The ground-plan (fig. 2) is reduced from Plate III. in that volume. 2 Die Pergammische Bibliothek, Sitzungsherichte der Königl. Preuss. Akad. der \Yiss. zu Berlin, 188+> II. 1259-12iO. 3 In my first lecture as Sandars Reader at Cambridge in the Lent Term, 1900. I pointed out that this enclosure was of ahout the same size as 1\evile's Court at Trinity College, if to the central area there we add the \\ iùth of one of the cloisters; and that the temple of Athena was of exactly the same width as the Hall, but about 15 feet shorter. Kevile's Court is 230 feet long from the inside of the pillars supporting the Library to the wall of the Hall; and it has a mean br adth of 13i feet. If the width of the cloister, 20 feet, be added to this, we get 15i feet in lieu of the 162 feet at Pergamon. I] LIBRARY AT PERGA IOK II of these three rooms is also the smalIest, being only 23 feet long; while the two next have a uniform length of about 33 feet. At the south-west corner of this building, but on a lower level, and not accessible from it, other rooms were found, the lIse of which is uncertain. \Ve will now return to the castern room. The foundations of a narrow platform or bench extended along the eastern, northern, and western sides, and in the centre of the northern sidc there was a mass of stonc-work which had evidently formed the base for a statue fig. 2, A). The discovery of a torso of a <;tatue of Athena 1 in this very room indicated what statue had occupied this commanding position, and also what had probably been the use of the room. This theory was confirmed by the discovery in the north wall of two rows of holes in the stone-work, one above the other, which had evidently been made for the reception of brackets, or battens, or other supports for shelves 2 , or some piece of furniture. The lower of these two rows was carried along the cast wall as well as along the north wall. Further, stones were found bearing the names of Herodotus, Alcæus, Timotheus of l\liletus, and [[orner, evidently the designations of portrait-busts or portrait-medallions; and also, h\o titles of comedies. Lastly, the very position of these rooms in connexion \\ ith the colonnade indicates their use. It will be observed that the colonnade on the north side of the area is twice as wide as that on the east side-a peculiarity which is sufficient of itself to prove that it must have been intended for some other purpose than as a mere covered way. But, if it be remembered that libraries in the ancient world were usualIy connected with colonnades (as was probably the case at the Serapeum at Alexandria, and wa'i certainly the case at Rome, as I shall proceed to shew) a reason is found for this dignified construction, and a strong confirmation is afforded for the theory that the rooms beyond it once contained the famous library. I l'\ow in the Royal Iuseum, Berlin. 2 Similar sockets have becn discovered in the \\ ails of the chambers connected \\ith the Stoa of King Attalus at Athen<;. These chamhers are thonghtto have been shops, and the sockets to have <'upported shehes on "hich \\ares were exposed for <;ale. Conze, lit sltþra, p. 1260; Adler, Die 510a tks ^';7lIlrs Alta/os Olt Alhut, Berlin, ISH; Murray's lIandbook for Cn"ea, ed. 1884, I. p. 2 5. 12 ROMAN LIBRARIES: POLLIO, AUGUSTUS [CHAP. \\'hen the Romans had taken possession of Pergamon, those who had charge of the city would become familiar with the library; and it ,>eems to me almost certain that, when the necessity for establishing a public library at Rome had been recognised, the splendid structure at Pergamon would be turned to as a model. But, if I mistake not, Roman architecture had recei\'ed an influence from Pergamon long before this event occurred. \Vhat this was I will mention presently. No public library was established in Rome until the reign of Augustus. Julius Cæsar had intended to build one on the largest possible scale, and had gone so far as to commission Varro to collect books for it' ; but it was reserved for C. Asinius Pollio, general, lawyer, orator, poet, the friend of Virgil and Horace, to de\.ote to this purpose the spoils he had obtained in his Illyrian campaign, R.c. 39. In the striking words of Pliny " he was the first to make men's talents public property (ingmia homÙwlIl rem þublimm fecit)." The same writer tells us that he also introduced the fashion of decorating libraries with busts of departed authors, and that Varro was the only living writer whose portrait was admitted 2 . Pollio is further credited, by Suetonius, with having built an atriu11l libertatis 3 , in which Isidore, a writer of the seventh century, probably quoting a lost work of Suetonius, places the library, with the additional information, that the collection contained Greek as well as Latin books 4 . The work of Pollio is recorded among the acts of generosity which Augustus suggested to others. But before long the emperor turned his own attention to libraries, and enriched his capital with two splendid structures which may be taken as types of Roman libraries,-the library of Apollo on the Palatine Hill, and that in the Campus l\1artius called after Octavia, sister to the emperor. I will take the latter first. The PortiCl/s Octa'l'iæ, or, as it was sometimes called, the Opera Octa'l'iæ, must have been one of the most magnificent structures in Rome (fig. 3). It stood in the Campus Martius, near the Theatre of l\larceHus, between the Capitoline Hill and the Tiber. A double colonnade surrounded an area which , Suet on ius, Cæsar, Chap. 44' · Pliny, Nat. Hist., Book VII., Chap. 30; Book xxxv., Chap. 2. 3 Suetonius, Augustus, Chap. 29. 4 Isidore, Origilles, Book \'1., Chap. 5. I] PORTICO OF OCTA\'IA 13 measured 443 feet by 377 feet, with Jalli, or four-faced arch- ways, at the four corners, and on the side next the Tiber a r:l Fnoni ..i.. . ......,... f . . . Metre. so I\'" Fig. 3. Plan of the Porticus Octaviæ, Rome. From ForJ/uz Vrfis RO lIa A,111f;uu, B rlinJ 189l). double hexastyle porch, which, with a few fragments of the colonnade, still exists in a fairly good state of preservation'. \Vithin this space were two temples, one of Jupiter, the other of Juno, a curia or hall, in which the Senate frequently met, a scho/a or" Conversation Hall"," and two libraries, the one of Greek, the other of Latin books. The area and buildings were crO\\ded with masterpieces in bronze and marble. This structure was originally built by Quintus l\IeteIlus, about 146 R.C.! One of the temples was due to his o\\"n liberality, the other had been erected by Domitius Lepidus, B.c. 179. ow I Lanciani, "'uins and Excavalzo"s of A miml ROI1l , ed. ,89;, p. 4 ï'. l\1irJdleton. A"c""t Ro"' , 1892, II. 204, 20;:'. Nibby, Roma A"tica, p. 60.. [Augu to] 'i aggiunse un luego per cOß\er are chiamato Schola. 3 Veil. Pat., Book I., Chap. II. Hie e t Ictellu :\Iacedonicus qui porticus quæ fuere circllludatæ dualJll ædibu ine in criptione positis. quæ nunc Octa\ iæ porticihus ambiuntur, fecerat. 14 LlBR.-\RY OF TIlE PALATIXE APOLLO [ CHAP. twenty years before, l\1etellus had fought in a successful campaign against Perseus king of Macedonia, in which the Romans had been assisted by Eumenes II.: and in H.c. 148, as Prætor, he received l\Iacedonia as his province. Is it not possible that on one or other of these occasions he may have visited Pergamon, and, when designing his buildings in Rome, have copied what he had seen there? Again, in B.c. 157, Crates of l\Iallus, a distinguished grammarian, was sent from Pergamon as am- bassador to Rome, and, being laid up there by an accident, gave lectures on grammar, in the course of which he could hardly have failed to mention the new library'. The buildings of l\1etellus were altered, if not entirely rebuilt, by Augustus, H.c. 33, out of the proceeds of his \'ictorious campaign against the Dalmatians; with the additional structures above enumerated. The scho/a is believed to have stood behind the temples, and the libraries behind the sehola, with the curia between them". Thus the colonnades, which l\1etellus had restricted to the two temples, came at last to serve the double purpose for which they were originally intended in connexion with a ]ibrary as well as with a temple. The temple and area of Apollo on the Palatine Hill, which Augustus began B.c. 36 and dedicated n.c. 28, exhibit an arrangement precisely similar to that of the Porticus Octaviæ. The size was nearly the sames, and the structures included in the area were intended to sen-e the same purposes. The temple stood in the middle of a large open peristyle, connected with which were two libraries. one for Greek, the other for Latin books; and between them, used perhaps as a reading-room or vestibule, was a hall in which Augustus occasionally convened the Senate. It contained a colossal statue of Apollo, made of gilt bronze; and on its walls were portrait-reliefs of celebrated writers, in the form of medallions, in the same material4. 1 Suet. De IJ/tlstr. Gramm. c. 2. 2 Middleton, Allciellt R011lC, 18 9 2 , If. 20s. 3 I have taken these dimensions from Middleton's Plan of the Palatine Hill (111 suþra, p. IS6), but until the site has been excavated the}' must be more or less conjectural. 4 Middleton, Ibid., I. I!jS-I88. The evidence for the portraits rests on the following passage in the Allnals of Tacitus ii. 3i, where he is relating how Hortalus, grandson of the orator Hortensius, being reduced to povert}', came with his four children to the Senate: .. igitur quatuor filiis ante limen curiæ ad stantibus, loco sententiæ, cum in Palatio senatus haberetur, modo Hortensii inter oratores sitam imaginem, modo AlIgIlsti, intuens, ad hllnc mod urn cæpit." I] LIBRARIES IN THE FORU:\l OF TRAJAK 15 Of the other public libraries of Rome-of which there are said to have been in all twenty-six-I need mention only three as possessing some peculiarity to which I shall ha\'e to draw attention. Of these the first was established by Tiberius in his palace, at no great distance from the library of Apollo; the second and third by Vespasian and Trajan in their Fora, connected in the one with the temple of Peace, and in the other with the temple dedicated in honour of Trajan himself. Of the first two of these libraries we have no information; but in the case of the third we are more fortunate. The Forum .00 , 300 . 4ðO fEU , Fig. 4. Plan ofth" Forum of Trajan ; aft"r Nibby. 16 LIBRARY OF IL\DRHN _-\T ATHENS [ CHAP. of Trajan (fig. 4) was excavated by order of Napoleon I., and the extent of its buildings, with their relation to one another, is therefore known with approximate accuracy. The Greek and Latin libraries stood to the right and ]eft of the small court between the Basilica Ulpia and the TC1Ilpbwi DiL'i Trajani, the centre of which was marked by the existing Column. They were entered from this court, each through a portico of five inter- columñiations. The rooms, measured internally, were about 60 feet long, by 45 feet broad. At this point I must mention, parenthetically, the library built by Hadrian at Athens. Pausanias records it in the following passage: Hadrian also built for the Athenians a temple of Hera and Panhellenian Zeus, and a sanctuary common to all the gods. But most splendid of all are one hundred columns; walls and colonnades alike are made of Phrygian marble. Here, too, is a building adorned with a gilded roof and alabaster and also with statues and paintings: books are stored in it. There is also a gymnasium named after Hadrian; it too has one hundred columns from the quarries of Libya '. A building called the Stoa of Hadrian, a ground-plan of which (fig. 5) I borrow from Miss Harrison' MJ1thology and l1Ionlt1llellts of Ancient AthClls, has been identified with part at least of that which Pausanias describes in the above passage. A lofty wall, built of large square blocks of Pentelic marble, faced on the west side by a row of Corinthian columns, enclosed a quadrangular court, measuring 328 feet from east to west, by 250 feet from north to south. This court, entered through a sort of propylæa on the west side (N), was surrounded by a cloister or colonnade 27 feet wide, and containing 100 columns. None of those columns are standing, but their number can be accurately calculated from the marks of the bases still to be seen on the eastern side of the quadrangle. \Vithin this area are the remains of a building of uncertain use, and at present only partially excavated. On the east side a row of five chambers, of which that in the centre was the largest, opened off from the colon- nade". , Pausanias, Attica, Book I., Chap. 18, 9, ed. J. G. Frazer. Vol. I., p. 26. J The above description is derived from !\Iiss Harrison's book, lit suþra, pp. 195-198; Pausanias, cd. J. G. Frazer, Vol. II., pp. 184, 18 5. I] j LIlmAR\ OF HADRIAX AT .\TIIE:O;S 17 y I I j .1II1!5ID.111111 G:,:; .. .. .. ... .- .. T v,.e jIo ... o \ " a r-..--...., I " \ F ! , C. r---! ÆOLUS STREET o , letæs m . 5 JO 3D 40 so Fig. 5 Plan of the Stoa of Hadnan, at Athens. AE, 1\:1. Pier.arcade of Ihe medieval church of the Panagia. B. :\orth.ea.t angle of Ihis church. of Roman \\ork. B, C, D, F. Portions of the Roman building which preceded the church. L, I. Re",rvoirs. K. f'ropylæa through which the court was entered. If the ground plan of this structure (fig. 5) be compared with that of the prccinct of Athcna and library at Pergamon (fig-. 2), a striking similarity betwccn thcm wil1 at once be c. L. 2 18 PUBLIC I IBRARIES OF ROME [CHAP. recognised; and, whate\-er may have been the destination of the building within the cloistered area, there can, I think, be little doubt that the library was contained in the fi\'e rooms beyond its limits to the east. They must have been entered from the cloister. much as those at Pergamon were. I t is possible that Hadrian may himself have visited Pergamon, for Trajan had built an imperial residence there; but, even if he did not do this, he would accept the type from the great libraries built at Rome by Augustus_ It should be mentioned that S. Jerome "pecially commemorates this library among Hadrian's works at Athens, and says that it was of remarkable construction (11liri operis)'. From thi... brief digression I return to the public libraries of Rome. In the first p]ace those built by Augustus had a regular organisation. There appears to have been a general director called Procurator Bibliothecan/lll Augus/i'; and subordinate officers for each division: that is to say, one for the Greek books, one for the Latin books. These facts are derived from inscriptions found in Columbaria. Secondly, it may be concluded that they were used not merely for reading and reference, but as meeting-places for literary men. The Palatine libraries evidently contained a large collection of old and new books; and I think it is quite certain that new books, as soon as pu blished, were placed there, unless there was some special reason to the contrary. Otherwise there would be no point in the lines in which Ovid makes his book-sent from Pontus after his banishment-deplore its exclusion. The book is supposed to climb from the Forum to the temple of Apollo: Signa peregrinis ubi sunt alterna columnis Belides et stricto barbarus ense pater Quæque viri docto veteres cæpere novique Pectore lecturis inspicienda patent. Quærebam fratres eJ\.ceptis scilicet iHis Quos suus optaret non genuisse parens j Quærentem frustra custos e sedibus iHis Præpositus sancto iussit ahire locos. 1 Eusebius, Chrollico1l, ed. Schöne, Vol. II., p. 16j. l\Iiddleton, A 1IÛmt Rome, I. 11>6. 3 Tristia, II I - 9. I] CÜ TE T U A D ARR\XG ME T 19 "-here, set between each pair of columns from some foreign quarry, are statues of the Danaids, and their barbarous father with drawn s\\ord; and where whattH:r the minds of men of old or men of to-day ha\e imagined, is laid open for a reader's use. I sought my brethren, sa\e those of course \\hom their father \\ould fain have never begotten; and, while I was seeking for them in \-ain, he \\ ho wa<; set over the room bade me leave that holy ground. The second couplet can only mean that old books and new books were alike to be found there. The general nature of thc collection, and its extent, may be further gathered from the advice \\ hich Horace gi\-es to his friend Celsus: Quid mihi Celsus agit? monitu multumque monendus Privatas ut quærat opes, et tangere vitet Scripta Palatinus quæcunque recepit .\pollo'. "'hat is my friend Celsus about? he who has been reminded, and must still he reminded again and again, that he should dra\\ upon his 0\\ n resources, and be careful to avoid the multifarious \\fitings which Palatine Apollo has taken under his charge. .-\. man might say now-a-days, "Trust to your own wits. and don't go so often to the library of the British :\Iuseum." :\ulus Gellius, who liwd A.D. [17-180, speaks of "sitting "ith a party of fricnds in the library of the palace of Tiberius, when a book happencd to be taken down with the title :\1. Caton is Xepotis," and they began asking one another who this 1\1. Cato epos might be 2 . This library contained also public records 3. The same writer tells a story of a grammatical difficulty "hich was to be settled by reference to a book ill tOJ1p/o Pacis, in the forum of Vespasian; and again, when a particular book was \\ antcd, .. we hunted for it diligently," he says, "and, when \\'e had found it in the temple of Peace, we read it ." The library in the forum of Trajan, oftcn called Bib/iolhcca ["!pia, was apparently the Public Record Office of Rome. Aulus Gellius mentions that some decrees of former prætors had fallen in his way there when he was looking for something else, and that he had been aUowed to read them ð; and a statement of \' opiscus is still more conc\usi,-e as to the nature of its contents. It teUs us, moreover, something- about the arrangement. In 1 Epist., I. 3. 'i. 2 lv.y/u Atlie,l', v. 21. 9' o. \ opiscus, Hisl. Atlg. Script., II. 63i. Auh" Gclliu" "I supra, X\L 8.2. · {hlei.. XI. Ij_ I. 2-2 20 PRIVATE LIBRARIES OF ROME [CHAP. his life of the Emperor Tacitus (Sept. A.D. 27S-Apr. 27 6 ) V opiscus says: And lest anybody should think that I have given too hasty a credence to a Greek or Latin author, the Ulpian Library has in its sixth press (armarium) an ivory volume (librulll elephalllinum) in which the following decree of the Senate, signed by Tacitus with his own hand, is recorded, etc. I Again, in his life of the Emperor Aurelian, the same writer records how his friend Junius Tiberianus, prefect of the city, had urged him to undertake the task, and had assured him that: "even the linen-books (/ibri /intei) shall be brought out of the Ulpian library for your use 2 ." Rooks could occasionally be borrowed from a public library, but whether from one of those in the city of Rome, I cannot say. The scene of the story which proves this is laid by Aulus Gellius at Tibur (Tivoli), where the libralY was in the temple of Hercules -another instance of the care of a library being entrusted to a temple. Aulus Gellius and some friends of his were assembled in a rich man's villa there at the hottest season of the year. They were drinking melted snow, a proceéding against which one of the party, a peripatetic philosopher, vehemently pro- testeù, urging against the practice the authority of numerous physicians and of Aristotle himself. Rut none the less the party went on drinking snow-water. \\'hereupon" he fetched a treatise by Aristotle out of the library of Tibur, which was then very conveniently accommodated in the temple of Her- cules, and brought it to us, saying- 3 ." But I need not finish the quotation, as it has no bearing on my special subject. It is probable that numerous collections of books had been got together by individuals in Rome, before it occurred to Augustus and his friends to erect public libraries. One such library, that belonging to the rich and luxurious Lucullus, has been noticed as follows by Plutarch 4 : 1 Flavii Vopisci Tacitus, c. 8. 2 Id., Altrelianlts, C. I. 3 Nodes Atticæ, XIX. 5. 4 Plutarch, LIU:U/lltS, Chap. XLII. :::;",ovóiìs ó' å 'a Kal M'Yov Tà "..pl T1W TWV ß'ßXlwv KaTauKw1jv. Ka! 'Yàp ".oxxá, Ka! 'Y..ypap.lJ.lva KaXws, uvviì'Y" ; T' xpiìu,s v 4"Xonp.oTfpa ri}s KTf)UEWS, à."EI.P.fJlWV 1f'âUL TWII ßtß'XLo8TjKWV, Ka[ TWV 1rEpl aVTås 7rEpL7råTWV Kal ux oXa - uT1}plwv àKWXÚTWS ú".OÖ'XOP.fVWV Toùs"EXX1}vas, WU".EP fls l\lovuwv T' KaTa'YW-yIOV lKElU' tþO'TWVTaS Kal UVVÖ'1JI1.EPEÍ'ovTM àXX1jXms, à".ô TWV áXXwv XPELWV àup.lvw<; à".OTpfxovTas. I] LUCCLLUS, SEXECA 21 His procedure in regard to books was interesting and remarkable. He collected fine copies in large numbers; and if he \\a<; splendid in their acquisition, he was more so in their use. His libraries were accessible to all, and the adjoining colonnades and reading-rooms \\ere freely open to Greeks, \\ ho, gladly escaping from the routine of business, resorted thither for familiar converse, as to a shelter presided over by the 1\1 uses. The Romans ,,'ere not slow in follO\\ ing the example set by Lucullus; and a library presently became indispensable in every house, whether the owner cared for reaùing or not. This fashion- able craze is denounced by Seneca (,\ riting about A.D. 49) in a ,"ehement outburst of indignation, which contains so many valu- able facts about library arrangement, that I will give a free translation of it. Outlay upon studies, best of all outlays, is rea'ionable so long only as it is kept \\ ithin certain limits. ""hat is the use of books and libraries innumerable, if scarce in a lifetime the master reads the titles? A student is burdened by a crowd of authors, not instructed; and it is far better to de\ote }ourself to a fe\\, than to lose your way among a multitude. Forty thousand books were burnt at .\.le-.andria. I lea\'e others to praise this splendid monument of royal opulence, as for e...ample Liv}, who regards it as "a noble work of royal taste and royal thoughtfulness." It wao; not taste, it \\as not thoughtfulness, it \\as learned extrmagance -nay not e\'en learned, for the} had bought their book<; for the sake of !'ohm\, not for the sake of learning-just as with many \\ho are ignorant e\en of the lowest branches of learning books are not instruments of study, but ornaments of dining-rooms. Procure then as many books as \\ ill suffice for use; but not a !'oingle one for show. You will reply: "Outlay on such objects is preferable to e...tra\agance on plate or paintings." Exce!'os in all directions is bad" \\ hy should you excuse a man who \\ ishes to possess book-presses inlaid \\ ith arbor-2'i/æ wood or ivory: \\ ho gathers together masses of authors either unkno\\ n or discredited; who yawns among his thousands of books; and who derives his chief delight from their edges and their tickets? You \\ ill find then in the libraries of the most arrant idlers all that orators or historians ha\'e written- -book-cases built up as high as the ceiling. Nowadays a library takes rank \\ith a bathroom as a necessary ornament of a house. I could forgi\'e such ideas, if they were due to e...travagant desire for learning. .\s it is, these productions of men \\ hose genius \\e revere, paid for at a high price, \\ ith their portraits ranged in line abO\e them, are got together to adorn and beautify a wall'. I De Tranquillilale Alli11l;, Chap. IX. Studiorum quoque quæ liberali-.ima iml'en a est, tallllliu laliunem halJet quamdiu mudum. Quu innumeraLilt:. liLru et 22 PRn-ATE LIBRARIES OF ROME [CHAP. A ]ibrary was discovered in Rome by Signor Lanciani in 1883 while excavating a house of the 4th century on the Esquiline in the modern Via dello Statuto. I will narratc the discovery in his o\\'n words. I "as struck, one afternoon, with the appearance of a rather spacious hall [it was about 23 feet long by IS feet broad], the walls of which were plain and unornamented up to a certain height, but beautifully decorated abO\'e in stucco-work. The decoration consisted of fluted pilasters, fi\'e feet apart from centre to centre, enclosing a plain square surface, in the middle of which there were medallions, also in stucco-work, two feet in diameter. As always happens in these cases, the frame was the only well-preserved portion of the medallions. Of the images surrounded by the frames, of the medallions themseh-es, absolutely nothing was left ill sitll, except a few fragments piled up at the foot of the wall, which, however, could be identified as ha\ing been representations of human faces. .:\Iy hope that, at last, after fifteen years of excavations, I had succeeded in discovering a library, was confirmed beyond any doubt by a legend, written, or rather painted, in bright red colour on one of the frames. There was but one name POLONIYS THY.\N..., but this name told more plainly the purpose of the apartment than if I had discm'ered there the actual book-sheh-es and their contents I. \\'hen I had the pleasure of meeting Signor Lanciani in Romc in April, 1898, he most kindly gave me his own sketch bibliothecas ql:arum dominus \'ix IOta vita indices perlegit? onerat discentem turha, non instruit, multoque sat ius est paucis te auctorihus tradere, quam errare per multos. Quadraginta milia libronlln Alexandriæ arserunt: pulcherrimum regiæ opulentiæ l110numentum alius laudavelÎt, sicut et Li\"ius, qui deg drawn up at once by Signor Paderni, keeper of the Herculaneum 1\I useum, and ad- dressed to Thomas llollis, Esq., by whom it was submitted to the Royal Society. I will extract, from this alld subsequent letters, the passages that bear upon my subject. I AII.;ell' ROlli. ed. ,8\}2, II. 25... 24 LIBRARY AT IIERCULANEUM [CHAP. iVaþlt's, 27 Aþril, 1754. ...The place where they are digging, at present, is under II Bosco di Sallt'Agostil/o..__.\ll th buildings discover'd in this site are noble ;...in one there has been found an entire library, compos'd of volumes of the Egyptian Papyrus, of which there have been taken out about 250....1 To the same. 18 October, 1754. ...As yet we have only entered into one room, the floor of which is formed of mosaic work, not u.neIegant. It appears to have been a library, adorned with presses, inlaid with different sorts of wood, disposed in rows; at the top of which were cornices, as in our own times. I was buried in this spot more than twelve days, to carry off the volumes found there; many of which were so perished, that it \\as impossible to remove them. Those which I took away amounted to the number of three hundred and thirty-seven, all of them at present uncapable of being opened. These are all written in Creek characters. While I was busy in this work I obsen'ed a large bundle, which, from the size, I imagined must contain more than a single volume. I tried with the utmost care to get it out, but could not, from the damp and weight of it. However I perceived that it consisted of about 18 volumes, each of which was in length a palm anò three Neapolitan inches, being the largest hitherto discovered. They Were wrapped about with the bark of a tree and covered at each end with a piece of wood. .\ll these were written in Latin, as appears by a few words which broke off from them. I was in hopes to have got something out of them, but they are in a worse condition than the Greek 2,... From Sir J. Gra}', Bart. 29 October, 1754. ...They have lately met \\ith more rolls of Paþyri of different lengths and sizes, some with the UmbiliCllS remaining in them: the greater part are Greek in small capitals....The Epicurean Philosophy is the subject of another fragment. A small hust of Epicurus, with his name in Greek characters, was found in the same room, and was possibly the ornament of that part of the library where the writings in favour of his principles were kept; and it may also be supposed that some other heads of philosophers found in the same room were placed with the same taste and propriet y 3. Between 1758 and 1763, the place was visited by \Vinckel- mann, who wrote long letters in Italian, dcstribing what he saw, to Consigliere Bianconi, Physician to the King of Saxony. One of these, dated 1762, gives the follo\\'ing account of the library: 1 Phil. TraIls., Vol. XL\'III., PI 2, p. 6]4. 3 Ibid., p. 82 5. 2 Ibid., p. 82 I. I] LInRARY AT HERCVL.\XEU!>I 25 II luogo in cui per la prima volta caddero sott' occhio, fu una piccola stanza nella villa d' Ercolano di cui parlammo sopra, la cui lunghezza due uomini colle braccia di tese potevano misurare. Tutto all' intorno del muro \i erano degli scaffali quali si vedono ordinariamente negli archi\; ad altezza d' uomo, e nel mezzo della stanza \' era un altro scaff ale simile 0 tavola per tenen i scritture, e tale da poten i girare intorno. Illegno di questa tavola era ridotto a carboni, e cadde, come è facile ad imaginarseio, tutta in pezzi quando si toccò. Alcuni di questi rotoli di papiri si trovarono imolti im,ieme con carta più gros- solana, di quella qualità che gli antichi chiama\ano e1//þoretica, e questi probabilmente forma\ano Ie parti ed i libri d' un' opera intiera '.... The place in \1 hich they [the rolls] were first seen \\as a small room in the \;lla at Herculaneum of \\hich \\e !'poke abO\-e, the length of II hich could be Co\ ered by two men \\ ith their arms extended. All round the wall there \\ere book-cases such as are commonly seen in record-rooms, of a man's height, and in the middle of the room there was another similar book-case or table to hold \\ritings, of such a siæ that one could go round it. The wood of this table \\as reduced to charcoal, and, a<; may easily be imagined, fell all to pieces \\ hen it \\ as touched. Some of these pap}rus rolls were found fastened together \\ ith paper of coarser texture, of that qual it} \\ hich the ancients called cmþordim, and these probably formed the parts and books of an entire work. The information which these obsen'ers ha,'e given us amounts to this: the room was about 12 feet long, with a floor of mosaic. Against the waIls stood presses, of a man's height, inlaid with different sorts of wood, disposed in rows, with cornice" at the top; and there was also a table, or press, in the centre of the room. Most of the rolls were separate, but a bundle of eighteen wa., foùnd .. wrapped about \\ ith the bark of a tree, and covered at each end with a piece of wood." A room so smaIl as this could hardly ha\'e been intended fur study. It must rather ha\'e been the place where the books were put away after they had been read elsewhere. Before I quit this part of my subject, I should like to mention one other building, a" its arrangements throw light on the question of fitting up libraries and record-offices. I allude to the structure built by Vespasian, A.I>. 78, to contain the documents relating to his restoration of the city of Rome. It stood at the south-wc<;t corner of the Forum of Peace, and what now exists of it is known as the Church of SS. Cosma e Damiano. , Of,/( Ji G. G. lVin,-kdmaml, Prato, 1831, \ II. J ï' 26 RECORD-HOUSE OF VESPASIAN [CHAP. The general arrangement and relation to adjoining structures will be understood from the plan (fig. ï). The room was about Co N ST ANT 11'11 E IF' I' L. ' .'-" [ J l . > "\/ /\ o << i!1 "k<' U) p:., @I Þ. ,-, /0 5 1"!" : , BASILICA - OF /." / . '-, ""- 3 ' "' 41Þ .s- I.. V 111 4c I.J GIS "4 Zç r-- "0 0 t 000 JJ OfYUIV; þ C'/.s J.H.M p=M....J j ,.,-ç @] Fig. 7. Plan of the Record-House of Vespasian. with the adjoining structures" @ -"-'"') 125 feet long by 65 feet broad, with two entrances, one on the north-west, from the Forllm Pads, through a hexastyle portico (fig. 7. 2), the other on the north-east, through a square-headed doorway of travertine which still exists (ibid. I) together with a considerable portion of a massi\"e wall of Vespasian's time. After a restoration by Cardcalla the building came to be called Temp/IIJ1l Sacræ Urbis. It was first consecrated as a church by pope Felix IV. (526-530), but he did little more than connect it with the Heroon Ro- 1Jll/1i (ibid. 5), and build the apse (ibid. 4). The whole building was mer- cilessly mutilated by pope C rban VIII. in [632; but fortunately a drawing of thc interior had becn made by Pirro Ligorio in the second half of thc sixtecnth cen- tury, when the original treatment of the walls was practically intact. Fig. 8. Part of the internal wall orthe Record-House orVespasian. Reduced from a sketch taken in the 16th century by Pi. ro Ligorio I] SIZE OF ROLLS .-\ D MOUE OF IIOLUlXG 2ï I gi,-e a reduced copy of a small portion ofthis drawing (fig. 8). As Lanciani says: The walls were di\ided into three horÏJoontal bands by finely cut cornices. The upper band \\as occupied by the \\indo\\s; the lower W.iS simply lined \\ith marble slabs cm-ercd h) the hookcases..-\\hich contained the.. . records.. ; the middle one wa,; incrusted \\ ith tarsia- work of the rarest kinds of marble \\ ith panels representing panoplies, the \\olf\\ith the infant founders of Rome, and other allegorical sceneS I. I explained at the beginning of this chapter that my subject is the care of books, not books themseh'es; but, at the point \\'hich \\e ha,'e now reached in regard to Roman libraries, it is necessary to make a few remarks about their contents. It must be remembered, in the first place, that those \\ ho fitted them up had to deal with rolls (í'O!1l11lÙza), probably of papyrus, but possibly of parchment; and that a book, as we understand the \\ ord, the Latin equi\'alent for which was codn-, did not come into general use until long after the Christian era. Some points about these rolls require notice. The length and the width of the roll depended on the taste or convenience of the '\"fiter . The contents were written in columns, the lines of which ran parallel to the long dimension 3 , and the reader, holding the roll in both hands, rolled up the part he had finished with his left hand, and unrolled the unread portion with his right. This \\ ay uf dealing with the roll is ,,'ell shewn in the accompanying illustration (fig. 9) reduced from a fresco at Pompeii.. In most examples the two halves of the roll are turned inwards, as for instance in the \\ ell-kno\\ n statUe of Demosthenes in the \' atican 6, The end of the roll was fastened 1 Lanciani, RuillS of Allcimt Rome, pp. 213-21;. lIe de crihes and figure< Lignrio's ele\ation, from :\15. \"at. 3".W, in CIJmmisslO1l Arch,ologica Comlmak di ROllla, Ann, x. Scr. II., I S2, pp. 29--;;... See also 'Iiddleton, Allciellt Rome, 1892. II. 1;;- -II}. The plan of Rome called the Capitoline Plan, becau'e it is no\\ pre- erved in the )Iu.eum of the Capitol, wa, fi..p(I to the north-east \\all (fig. ;. 3)' . The average length of a roll may be taken at 20-30 ft.; the width at 9-11 in. See The Pal.zolf'"aphy of Crlek Papp'i, by F. G. Ken)on, OxL 1899. Chap. II. 3 The hreadth of the oleum quod cedreum dicitur nascitur. quo reliquæ res cum sint unctæ. uti t:tiam linri. a tinei. et earie non læduntur." s\ ahO\e, p. 22. 6 Lji.../Cll/l_\, III. ii. 6. 3 0 BOOK-RO' OR CAPSA. LIBRARY-FITTfN(;S [CHAP. cedar; you shall revel in the decoration of both your sets of edges; your sticks shall be painted; your covering shall be purple, and your ticket scarJet. \Vhen a number of rolls had to be carried from one place to another, they were put into a box (scriIlÙ"Jl or capsa). This receptacle was cylindrical in shape, not unlike a modern hat-box '. It was carried by a flexible handle, attached to a ring on each side; and the lid was held down by what looks very like a modern lock. The eighteen roUs, found in a bundle at Hercu- laneum, had doubtless been kept in a similar receptacle. l\ly illustration (fig. 10) is from a fresco at Herculaneum. It will be noticed that each roll is furnished with a ticket {filllllls). At the feet of the statue of De- mosthenes already refer- red to, and of that of Sophocles, are capsæ, both of which show the flexible handles, I wiU next coUect the information available re- specting the fittings used in Roman libraries. I admit that it is scattered and imperfect; but legitimate deductions may, I think, be arrived at from it, which will give us tolerably certain ideas of the appearance of one of those collections. The words used to designate such fittings are: nidlls; fontills, or more usually fOndi; IOOllalllCllta; pilltms; pcglllata. Nidus needs no explanation. It can only mean a pigeon- hole. Martial uses it of a bookseller, at whose shop "is own poems may be bought. De primo dabit alterove Illao Rasum pumice purpuraque cultum Denaris tibi quinque !\Iartialem 2. .é. ../tf::::..... . .. -:-- 'i';'::nlll. Jr .. . 'Iij l l: 'J,I _ ....." . ... ; i: . 7 1l II 1:- :,.,;-".;..., "" ". "",,, :-.,;::: ::. .õ. "::.: ':..:.:: . ... ; ." . : L.. _ .. .. ..u.. . ,..,:' ,.":.... '. ', -' " ,,,,,,, , , ,, - ",... ," "''<'''' '''''"..., .::.j.) ==------ Fig. 10. Book-box or capsa. 1 Ovid (Tristia, I. i. IOS) addre"ing his hook, says: Cum tamen in no trum flleris pcnetraJe recepllls Contigerisqlle tuam, scrinia cuna, domlll11. 2 EPigrams, I. 11 j. I] WORDS USED FOR LIBRARY-FITTIXGS 3 1 Out of hi.. fir t or econd pigeon-hole, polished \\ ith pumice stone, and smart with a purple cmering, for five denarii he will give you :\lartial. In a subsequent epigram the word occurs with reference to a private library, to which the poet is sending a copy of his works. Ruris bibliotheca delicati, Yicinam ddet unde lector urbem, Inter carmina sanctiora si quis Lasci\æ fuerit locus Thaliæ, Hos llido licet inseras \el imo Septem quos tibi misimus libellos l . o library of that well-appointed villa \\ hence a reader can see the City near at hand-if among more serious poems therc be any room for the wanton :\luse of Comedy. you may place these seven little books I send you even in your lowest pigeon-hole. Fontlus or fOYl/1i occurs in the following passages, Suetonius, after describing the building of the temple of the Palatine Apollo by Augustus, adds, .. he placed the Sibylline books in two gilt receptacles (fontlis) under the base of the statue of Palatine .-\pollo "2; and Juvenal, enumerating the gifts that a rich man is sure to receive if burnt out of house and home, says, Hic lihros dahit, et font/os, mediamque \linenam 3 . The word is of uncertain deri\ ation, but fOYltS, of which it is clearly the diminutive, is used by Virgil for the cells of bees: Complehuntque foros et floribus horrea te'\.cnt 4 . The abm'e-quoted passage of J uvenal may therefore be rendered: .. Another will gi\'e books, and cells to put them in, anrl a statue of :\Iinerva for the middle of the room." The word loculalllClltulIl is explained in a passage of Columella, in which he gives directions for the making of dovecotes: I et small sta1..es be placed close together. with planks laid across them to carry cells (/ocu/aJ//ell/a) for the birds to build their nests in, or sets of pigeon-holes made of earthem\are'. I Epigrams, \11. Ii. 2 Suet. Aug, 3 1 , Libws SihyIlinoo conrlidit duobu forul;s auratis sub I'alatini .\pollinis basi. 3 Sat, III. 21 9. 4 G org. 1\. ;;o. . D R RlIstica, VIII. 8, l'axilIis adacti. IahuI.1.. superponantur; quæ ,el loculamt:nta quibuo nirlificent aves, ,d fictilia columharia, recipiant. 3 2 WORDS USED FOR LIBR \RY-FITTIN(;S [OIAP. In a second passage he uses the same word for a beehive 1 j Vegetius, a writer on veterinary surgery, uses it for the socket of a horse's tooth 2 ; and \ïtruvius, in a more general way, for a case to contain a small piece of machinery3. Generally, the word may be taken to signify a long narrow box, open at one end, and, like Ilidlis and fontlus, may be translated "pigeon-hole." Seneca, again, applies the word to books in the passage I have already translated, and in a singularly instructive manner. " You will find," he says, " in the libraries of the most arrant idlers all that orators or historians have written-bookcases (foclI/a- mellta) built up as high as the ceiling'." Pegmata, for the word generally occurs in the plural, are, as the name implies, things fixed together, usually planks of wood framed into a platform, and used in theatres to carry pieces of scenery or performers up and down, ,,\s applied to books "shelves" are probably meant: an interpretation borne out by the Digcst, in which it is stated that "window-frames and pegmata are included in the purchase of a house"." They were therefore what we should cal1 "fixtures." A p/lItms was a machine used by infantry for protection in the field: and hence the word is applied to any fence, or boarding to form the limit or edgf' of anything, as a table or a bed. Pilitci were not attached so closely to the walls as þt'glllata, for in the Digest they are classed with nets to keep out birds, mats, awnings, and the like, and are not to be 1 Ibid., IX. 12. 2. The writer, having described hees swarming, proceeds: protinus custos novum loculamentum in hoc præparatum perlinat intrinsecus præ- dictis herbis...tum manibus aut etiam trulla congregatas apes recondat, atque... diligenter compositum et iIIitum ,'as...patiatur in eodem loco esse dum ad,'e- sperascat. Primo deinde crepusculo transferat et reponat in ordiuem reliquarum alvorum. 2 Vegetius, Art. Vet., III. 32. Si iumento (oculamenta dentium ,'el dentes doluerint. 3 Vitruvius, De Arch., ed. Schneider, x. 9. Insuper autem ad capsum redæ loculamentum firmiter figatnr hahens tympanum versatile in cultro collocatum, etc. , Dr Sandys, in his edition of Aristotle's C-òllstittttioll tif Athells, 1893, p. '74, has shewn th'lt in the office of the public clerk a similar contrivance was used, called f7rionysius and \lenophilus hao; been im'aluahle. ì\othing could look neater than those sheh'es of yours (ilia tua l'egllltlta), since they smartened up my hooks \\ith their titles". 1 lloid., 2'). 1. '7. Reticuli circa columna , plutei circa pariete , item cilicia, vela, .\:rlium non sunt. I Sat. I1. . I do not think that these line rder to a library. The \\ hole hon.e. not a single room in it, is full of plaster busts of philo opher.. 3 E/,. cv. (ed. Billerbeck); Ad Alt. IV. , p. 2. 6 E/,. cvi. (Ibid.); Ad All. IV. !'o. E/,. cxi. (iloid.); A,{ Alt. I\'. R. c. L. 3 34 \YORDS USED FOR LIBR\RY-FITTINGS [CH \P. Xo other words than those I ha,"e been discussing are, so far as I know, applied by the best writers to the storage of books; and, after a careful study of the passages in which they occur, I conclude that. so long as rolls only had to be accommodated, IJri,"ate libraries in Rome were fitted with rows of sheh'es standing against the walls (p!ltta), or fixed to them (pcgmata). The space between these horizontal shelves was subdivided by vertical di,'isions into pigeon-hoJcs (nidi, fOYltli, !ocu!aIllCllta), and it may be conjectured that the width of these pigeon-holes would vary in accordance with the number of rolls included in a sing]e work. That such receptacles were the common furniture of a library is proved, I think, by such evidence as the epigram of l\Iartial quoted above, in which he tells his friend that if he will accept his poems, he may "put them even in the lowest pigeon-hole (nido ,'e! imo)," as we should say, "on the bottom shelf"; and by the language of Seneca when he sneers at the" pigeon-holes (!om!a1/lCllta) carried up to the ceiling." The height of the woodwork varied, of course, with individual taste. In the library on the Esquiline the height was only three feet six inches; at Herculaneum about six feet. I can find no hint of any doors, or curtains, in front of the pigeon-holes. That the ends of the rolls (frontes) were visible, is, I think, quite clear from what Cicero says of his own library after the construction of his shelves (peg11lata); and the various devices for makinf,; rolls attractive seem to me to prove that they were intended to be seen. A representation of rolls arranged on the system which I have attempted to describe, occurs on a piece of sculpture (fig. I I) found at Neumagen near Trèves in the seventeenth century, among the ruins of a fortified camp attributed to Constantine the Great 1 . Two divisions, full of rolls, are shewn, . This cut is given in AlltitjuitalulIl et Å1l1W/ÙtlJl Trevire1l,iulIl /ibri xxv. Auctoriuus RR. Pl'. Soc. JIo'SU p. Chri_tophoro Bro\\ero, et P. Jacoho ì\Iasenio, '2 v. fol. Leodii. 16jo. It is headed: Schlo'ma \oluminum in bibliothecam (sic) ordine olim digestorum Xmiomagi in loco Castrorum Constantini 1\1. hodiedum in lapide reperto excisum. See also C. G. Schwarz, De OrUalllClltis LibrorlllJl, ..to, Lips, IjS6, pp. 86, Ij2, '231, and Tah.II., fig..." I learnt this reference from Sir E. ì\I. Thompson's Halldbook of Greek ami Latiu Pal.1:ography, ed. '2, 189.f, p. 5j, 1lote. The Director of the :\Iuseum at Trèves informs me that aU the antiquities discO\ered at !\eumagen \\ere de'tro}ed in the se\entcenth century. Il .\PPE.\RA:\CE OF \ RO:\I-\X LIBRARY 3S from which a man, presumably the librarian, is selecting one. The ends of the rolls are furni..,hed with tickets. nr-""'""\c-.....--r '-""""rnn " ' \-; jl ) I - - i.:> J -- l\.r ... ., --.... '--L Fig. II. A Roman taking down a roll from its place in a library. The system of pigeon-holes terminated, in all probability, in a cornice. The explorers of Herculaneum depose to the discovery of such an ornament there. The wall-space above the book-cases was decorated with the likenesses of celebrated authors-either philosophers, if the owner of the library wished to bring into prominence hi.. adhesion to one of the fashionable systems-or authors, dead and living, or personal friends. This obvious form of decoration was, in all probability, used at Pergamon 1 ; Pollio, as we ha,'e seen, introduced it into Rome: and Pliny, who calls it a novelty (l1O'i'i/Ù'1Jl Ùl'i.'OltU 1Jl), deposes to its general adoption!. \ V e are not told how these portraits were commonly treated-whether they were busts standing clear of the wall on the book-cases; or bracketed against the wall; or forming part of its decoration, in plaster-work or distemper. .-\ suitable inscription accom- panied them. I\Iartial has preserved for us a charming specimen of one of these complimentary stanzas-for such they un- doubtedly would be in the case of a contemporary-to be placed beneath his own portrait in a friend's library: Hoc tihi sub nostra breve carmen imagine ,i,'at Quam non ohscuris iungis, .hite, viris: 1 ec aho\c, p. II. · /I,i.!., p. 12. 3 2 3 6 DESK FOR READIKG ROLLS [CHAP. Ille ego Slim ill/IIi Ilugarum laude sl'eulldus, Quem !WII miraris, sal þulo, lector, am'!s. lIIaiores lllaiora SOl/ellt: mild parva lOCI/to Suffieit ill vestras sæpe redire lllall1ls' Placed, with my betters, on your study-wall Let these few lines, Avitus, me recall: To foremost ral/k in trifles I was raised,. I think 1I10l loved me, thollJ::11 they l/ever praisal. Let greater pods greater themes profess: lIEy modest lilies seek but tile hand's caress That tells me, reader, of thy tenderness. The beautiful alto-relievo in the Lateran Museum, Rome, representing an actor selecting a mask, contains a contrivance for reading a roll (fig. 12) which ::"'" may have been usual in libraries and elsewhere, though I have not met with another instance of it. A vertical suppurt at- tached to the table on which two masks and a :MS. are lying, carries a desk with a rim along its lower edge and one of its sides. The roll is partially opened, the closed portion lying towards the left side of the desk, next the rim, The roll may be supposed to contain the actor's parP. It is much to be regretted that we have no definite infor- mation as to the way in which the great public libraries built Fig. 12. Desk to support a roll while by Augustus were fitted up; but it is being read. I see no reason for supposing that their fittings differed from those of private libraries. vVhen books (codices), of a shape similar to that with which 1 Epigrams, Lib. IX. Introduction. · The whole relief is figured in Seyffert, Ðictionar)' of Classical A ntiq"itÙs, ed. Xettleship and Sandys, p. 6+9. I] USE OF PRESSI:S 1'\ PUBLIC LIBRARIES 37 modern librarians ha\ e to deal, had to be accommodated as well as rolls, it is manifest that rectangular spaces not more than a few inches wide would be singularly inconvcnient. They were thercfore discarded in favour of a press (armarium), a picce of furniture \\ hich would hold rolls (,'olumina) as well as books (codices), and was in fact, as I shall shew, used for both purposes. The word (armarium) occurs commonly in Cicero, and other writers of the best period, for a piece of furniturc in which valuables of all kinds, and household gear, wcre stowed a\\ ay; and \-itruvius l uses it for a book-case. .-\ critic, he says, " produced from certain presses an infinite number of rolls." In later Latin writers-that is frum the middle of the first century A.D.-no other word, speaking generally, occurs. Thc jurist Ulpian, who died A.D. 228, in a discussion as to \,hat is comprised under the term liber, decides in favour of including all rolls ('l!oll/milla) of whate,.er material, and then considers the question whether codiæs come under the same category or nut-thereby she\\ ing that in his day both forms of books were in use. .-\gain, when a library (bib/iv/hem) ha" been bequeathed, it is questioned whether the bequest includ<:;s merely the press or pre-;ses (armarium 'l'el armaria), or the books as welJ2. The Ulpian Library, or rather Libraries, in Trajan's Forum, built about I I4 .\.0. 3 , were fitted up with presses, as we learn from the passage in Vopiscus which I have already quoted; and when the ruins of the section of that library \\ hich stood next to the Quirinal Hill were excavated by the French, a very intcresting trace of one of these presses was discovered, N"ibby, the Roman antiquary, thus describes it. I3eyond the above-mentioned bases [of the columns in the portico] some remains of the inside of the room became ,isible on the right. They consisted of a piece of curtain-wall, admirably constructed of brick, part of the side-wall, \\ ith a rcctangular niche of large size in the form of a prcss (ill fOKgia di ar11ludio). One ao;cended to this by three steps, \, ith a landing-place in front of them, on \\ hich it was possible to st.tnd \\ ith ease. On the sides of this niche there still e'\ist traces of I D Architetlura, Lib. 'II. Pref. [Ari.Ioph:me-] e certis annariis infinita \olu- mina eduxit. 2 Digesta Just;,tialli Augusti, cd. Iumm'en. 8vo. Berlin. l!jïo. Yo\. II. p. Sel. Boo!" X'\ XII. :;'1. · Thi is the datc of the Co/z",,,,a cochlis. liddleton', Ro", . II. '14 11<11.. 38 REPRESEKTATIOKS OF BOOK-PRESSES [CHAP. the hinges, on which the panels and the wickets, probably of bronze, rested I. It seems to me that we have here an early instance, perhaps the earliest, of those presses in the thickness of the wall which were so common afterwards in the monasteries and in pri,'ate libraries also. A similar press, on a smaller scale, is described by the younger Pliny: "l\ly bedroom." he says, "has a press let into the wall which does duty as a library, and holds books not merely to be read, but read over and over again 2 ." It must not, however, be supposed that cupboards were always, or even usually. sunk into the wall in Roman times. They were detached pieces of furniture, not unlike the ward- robes in which ladies hang their dresses at the present day, except that they were fitted with a certain number of horizontal shelves, and were used for various purposes according to the requirements of their owners. For instance, there is a sarco- phagus in the Museo Nazionale at Rome, on which is re- presented a shoemaker at work. In front of him is a cupboard, exactly like those I am about to describe, on the top of which several pairs of shoes are set out. 1 can, however, produce three representations of such presses being used by the Romans to contain books. The first occurs on a marble sarcophagus (fig. 13), now in the garden of the Villa Balestra, Rome, where I had the good fortune to find it in 18983; and Professor Petersen, of the German Archaeological School, was so kind as to have it photographed for me. He assigns the work to about 200 A.D. In the central portion, 21 in. high, by Isi in. wide, is a seated figure, reading a roll. In front of him is a cupboard, the doors of which are open. It is fitted with two shelves, on the uppermost of whICh are eight rolls, the ends of which are turned to the spectator. On the next shelf is something which looks like a dish or shallow cup. The lower part of the press is solid. Perhaps a second cupboard is intended. Above, it is finished I Xihby, Noma Antico, 8...0. Roma, [839, p. [88. 2 Epist. II. [í. 8. Palieti eius [cubiculi mei] in hibliothecæ speciem armarium insertum est quod non legend os libros sed lectitandos capito 3 I should not ha...e known of the existence of this sarcophagus had it not been figured, accurately enough on the whole, in Le Palm's de Scallrlls, by l\Iazois, published at Par1s in [822. The sarcophagus had passed through Ihe hands of se\ eral collectors since Iawis figured it, and I had a long and amusing search for it. - - - - ..... \5...., -- I'- ",'r " , -; . , çc r.,. '\ .. }\J -",,; -, ø, 7- f-lC ,... . >-<1- . .. . ,. ð- '\ '.1- ...,,. (0- . :ý.., \ ... ..... :.-. -" I I , 0, f " , Fig. 13. A Roman reading a roll in front of a press (armarzllm). /"'''111 a phot"graph of a ,arc('pha(:'lb in the ganlen of the \ïlb Rale-Ira, Rome I] TOMB OF GALLA PLACIDI.-\ 39 off with a cornice, on which rests a very pualing object. There are a few faint lines on the marble, which Professor Petersen believes are intended to represent surgical instruments, and so to indicate the profession of the seated figure.. There is a Greek posterity inscription on the sarcophagus, but it merely warns not to disturb the bones of the deceased 2. The second representation (fig. 14) is from the Galla Placiclia, at Ra- venna. It Occurs in a mosaic on the wall of the chapel in which she was buried, A.D. 4493; and was presumablyex- ecuted before that date. The press closely re- sembles the one on the Roman sarcophagus, but it is evidently intended to indicate a taller piece of furniture, and it ter- minates in a pediment. There are two shelves, on which lie the four Gospels, each as a sepa- rate codc.r, indicated by the name of the Evan- gelist above it. This press rests upon a stuut frame, the legs of which are kept in position by a cross-piece nearly as thick as themselves. tom b of ì .. .... -- - 7) ... ...... ......... .; .._ --:::. --... - :.4: =- . . -. - .... .: . _' L.V(ASA - , ., NA . - Fig. '4. Press containing the four Gospels. From a mosaic above the tomb or the Emprcc;.. Galla Placidia at R1.vcnna. · /llitth i"l1Ig " tit's J;. D. Archat'ologischtlllmtitlils ROlli, 1900, Band '1(\" p. IiI. Der Sarkophag eines Arzte... 2 The in,cription is printed in rull in Alltike /lildc:n,'. 600-636, REG. I'S.-\L)1. !.IE. PROI'H. EPIST. XXI. 1 The Octa/ltch, or, the five boo\". of M() c', __ith the addition of Joshua, Judge,. and Ruth. 2 Consol. Philosoplz., Book I. Ch. f,. :oJec l>ibliolhec\: poliu, compto. ehon" ac \ itro parictc' quam tu." ment;, e(l"m rCtures graLl', So long shall live your honour, name, and praise 2 . 1 De Origilu Hisloria b,d,âh"s so'i"ii el hihliolheaz Set/is Afostolico cOlllllle"I,llio loallllis BaptisltP de Rossi.... ..to. Rum.c, IHHfi, Chapter '.. A brief, but accurate, ,ummary of hi account "ill be fonnd in I anciani's A 'lCie,,1 ROllle, Hvo. 1 HHH, pp. 18j-190. Father C. J. Ehrle ha given me much help on Ihis difficult que,liun. · Sid.,,,ii Apo//;'larÙ Opera, ed. Sirmondi. ..to. I'ari , 16 1. XoIe_, p. 33. The words of thi letter, "hich I have tran_lated very freely, art: as follow : Sed dum hæc tacitus mecum revolvo, occurrit mihi 'Iuncl in Hihhotheca _tu,liosi s ccularium litterarum pUt:r quondam, uI ..e ætatj_ iIIiu, curio itas hahet, prætereundo legi_.em. am cum _upra memoratæ ædis onlinator ac dominu . inter exprcs_as lapilli_ aut ceri_ di'culorilm . f""n.lla-'Iuc eni!:ie- ,cI Oraturum ,d t:liam I'octanlm 44 LIBRARY OF POPE AGAI'ETUS [CHAP. Agapetus, who was chosen Pope in 535, and lived for barely a year, had intended, in conjunction with Cassiodorus, to found a college for teachers of Christian doctrine. He selected for this purpose a house on the Cælian Hill, afterwards occupied by S. Gregory, and by him turned into a monastery. Agapetus had made some progress with the scheme, so far as the library attached to the house was concerned, for the author of the Einsiedlen 1\IS., who visited Rome in the ninth century, saw the following inscription" in the library of S. Gregory "-i.e. in the library attached to the Church of San Gregorio Magno. SANCTOR\' [ YENERANDA COIIORS SEDET ORDINE LOXGO mnXAE LU;IS l\IYSTICA DICTA DOCEXS HOS I:-ITER RESIDENS AGAPEn"s lYRE S.-\CERDOS CODlCIBVS I'\'LCHRV J COl\OIDIT ARTE LOC\":\I GRATIA PAR CVNCTIS SANCT'"S L\BOR OMl\IB\"S VN\"S l>ISSO!,;A VERBA QVIDEl\I SED TAr-IE!'; YNA FlUES Here sits in long array a reverend troop Teaching the mystic truths of law divine: 'l\Iid these by right takes Agapetus place ""ho built to guard his books this fair abode. All toil alike, all equal grace enjoy- Their woreIs are different, but their faith the same. These lines unduubtedly imply that there was on the walls a long series of portraits of the Fathers of the Church, including that of Agapetus himself, who had won his right to a place among them by building a sumptuous home for their works). The design of Agapetus, interrupted by death, was carried forward by his friend Cassiodorus, at a place in South Italy called Vivarium, near his own native town Squillace. Shortly after his final retirement from court, A.D. 538, Cassiodorus established there a brotherhood, which, for a time at least, must have been a formidable rival to that of S. Benedict. A library held a prominent place in his conception of what specialia singulorum autotypis epigrammata subdidisset; ubi ad præiuclicati eloquii venit poetam, hoc modo orsus est. The la t three lines of the inscription are from the ÆllÛd, Book I. 607. I owe the most important part of the translation of Rusticus to Lal1ciani, tit SIIpla, p. 196: that of Virgil is by Professor Conington. ) I have taken the text of the inscription, and my account of Agapetus and his '"ork, from De Rossi, tit suþra, Chap. \"II. p. h.. I] LIBRARY OF ISIDORE, BISHOP OF SE\'ILLE 45 was needed for their common life. He says little about its size or composition, but much rhetoric is expended on the contrivances by which its usefulness and attractiveness were to be increased. A staff of bookbinders was to clothe the manuscripts in decorous attire; self-supplying lamps \\ ere to light nocturnal workers; sundials by day, and water-clocks by night, enabled them to regulate their hours. Here also was a scriptoriu11l, and it appears probable that between the exertions of Cassiodorus and his friend Eugippius, South I taly was well supplied with manuscripts 1. These attempts to snatch from oblivion libraries which, though probably according to our ideas insignificant. \\ ere centres of culture in the darkest of dark ages, will be illustrated by the fuller information that has come do\\ n to us respecting the library of Isidore, Bishop of Se\ ille 600-636. The" verses composed by himself for his 0\\ n presses," to quote the oldest manuscript containing them', have been presen-ed, with the names of the writers under whose portraits they were inscribed. There were fourteen pres,;cs. arranged as follows: I. Origen. \1 I I. l'rudentius. II. Hilary. IX. ,hitus, ]uvencus, 5edulius. II I. Ambrose. X. Lusebius, Orosiw,. 1\'. .\ugustine. XI. (;regory. \- Jerome. XII. I cander. \1. Chryso tom. XIII. Theodosius. Paulus, (;aius. \11. Cyprian. '\:1\'. Cosmas, D.lmian, Hippocrates, Galen. These writers are probably those whom Isidore specially admired, or had some particular reason for commemorating. The first seven are obvious types of theologians, and the presses over which thcy prt'sided were doubtless filled not merely \\ ith their o\\'n works, but with bibles. commentaries, and works on Divinity in general. Eusebius and Orosius are types of ecclesiastical hi,torians; Theodosius, Paulus, and Gaius, of jurists; Cosmas, Damian, etc. of physicians. But the Christian poet,> Prudentius to Sedulius could hardly have needed t\\O presses to contain their works: nor Gregory the Great the whole of one. La"tly. Leander, I..idore's cider brother, could 1 Ca. siodorus, D blSt. Div. Litt. Chap. x'\ x. pp. 114;:, ..fí. Ed. 1\Iignc. De Ro\si, tit stl/ro. 2 \'ersus qui scripti sun! in armaria ,ua ah il"o [Isi' _r. I 'r .::J '"4 Iii. - _ ( "111 I J '/1' , '.-.; I ll< .-r .ê v' . I J \' J , .!. . · - n ;. fl.!; , · f:. : \9 v ' : J:& .. L · . j k Þ : :,' ..... : . !f ) '- . ..:'\., ,\'( "'-'- I \ ;" ;r. ", 1, ...'M 1 .' . , . 0,.. " "\ '.". '. '..... ' .... . .... I "Jt, . . - '\.'11, \ ',-:: .;; '- - . I ""l> . ,,' ',- . . - - C,-! \ .' I J . I 1/1 .. :--- Ilf ., IHt ' \ " \ .. ,. - \,,' , . fJ f ' ..of ' ) \ I.J , { I ........ .. ... j' _- I I -,. i;-- I . J" .. ,- , -'---- - II' ',' .' , , - _"'J -. -... \ '" I, . I . L: I - .. .-- . [_ t r. ... .....- - / / , 41 - . . _J - '" Q) bD s:: :;;; o :>; .... os .... .D ....1 s:: os u > Q) -5 o [ij :r: Q) .... o \Õ t>D tI.. I] \'-\TIC\ LIBRARY OF POPE SIXTUS V 47 \Vith these three examples I conclude the section of my work which deals with what may be called the pagan conception of a library in the fulness of its later development. Unfor- tunately, no enthusiast of those distant times has handed down to us a complete description of his library, and" e are obliged to take a detail from one account, and a detail from another, and so piece the picture together for ourselves. \\'hat I may call .. the pigeon-hole system," suitable for rolls only, was re- placed by presses which could contain rolls if required, and certainly did (as shewn (fig. 13) on the sarcophagus of the \Illa Balestra), but which were specially designed for codices. These presses were sometimes plain, sometimes richly ornamented, according to the taste or the means of the owner. \\ïth the same limitations the floor, the walls, and possibly the roof also were decorated. Further, it was evidently intended that the room selected for books should be used for no other purpose; and, as the books were hidden from view in their presses, the library-note, if I may be allowed the expression, was struck by numerous inscriptions, and by portraits in various materials, representing either authors whose works were on the shelves, or men distinguished in other ways, or friends and relations of the owner of the house. The Roman conception of a library was realised by Pope Sixtus V., in 15 8 7\ when the present Yatican Library was com- menced from the design of the architect Fontana. I am not aware that there is any contemporary record to prove that either the Pope or his advisers contemplated this direct imitation; but it is evident, from the most cursory inspection of the large room (fig. 16), that the main features of a Roman library are before us s ; and perhaps, having regard to the tendency of the Renaissance, especially in Italy, it would be unreasonable to expect a different design in such a place, and at such a period. This noble hall-probably the most splendid apartment ever assigned to library-purposes-spans the Corti Ie del Belvedere I See lien. Ste\en on, Topograjia e .lllJIllImmti di /loma nel/e Plttllre a fns o tli Sisto V. del/a Ribliote,a Vati dll". p. i; in AI SOIl/II/O r.'"t'1i e Leo"," XIII. Oll/aggio Gillhilan tlel/'I Bihlioteca lãti Qlla, Fol. Rome, I!:\ I. Sib'nor Lanciani (And,'lIt ROII/e, p. I'J ) "as the fir,t to ,ugge t a cnml'arhon hd\\Len the Yatican Lihrar) ,mil Ih.he of ancient ){ome. 4 R \'ATICA UHR.\R\' OF POPE SIXTUS \' [cn -\P. from east to west, and is entered at each end from the galleries connecting the Belvedere with the Vatican palace. It is 184 feet long, and 57 feet wide, divided into two by six piers, on which rest simple quadripartite vaults. The north and south walls are each pierced with Seven large windows. No books are visible. They are contained in plain wooden presses 7 feet high and 2 feet deep. set round the piers, and against the walls between the windows. The arrangcment of these presses will be under- stood from the general vicw (fig. 16), and from the view of a single press open (fig. 17). In the decoration, with which e....ery portion of the walls and vaults is covercd, Roman mcthods are rcproduced, but with a difference. The great writers of antiquity are conspicuous by their absence; but the developmcnt of the human race is commemorated by the presence of those to whom the invention of letters is traditionally ascribed; the walls are covered with frescoes representing the foundation of the great libraries which instructed the world, and the assemblics of the Councils which cstablished the Church; the \'aults record the bcnefits conferred on Rome by Sixtus V., in a series of historical views, one above each window; and over these again are stately figùres, each embodying some sacred abstraction-" Thrones, domination.., princedoms, virtues. powcrs "-with angels swinging censers, and graceful nymphs, and laughing satyrs-a strange combination of paganism and Christianity-amid wrcaths of flowers, and arabesques twining round the groups and over every vacant space, partly framing, partly hiding, the heraldic devices which commemorate Sixtus and his family:-a web of lovely forms and brilliant colours, combincd in an intricate and yet orderly confusion. It may be questioned whether such a room as this was evcr intended for study. The marble floor, the gorgeous decoration, the absence of all appliances for work in the shape of desks, tables, chairs, suggest a place for show rather than for use. The great libraries of the Augustan age, on the other hand, seem, so far as we can judge, to have becn used as meeting-places and reading-rooms for learned and unlearned alike. In gcneral arrangement and appearance. howe....er, the Vatican Library must dosely rescmble its impcrial predecessors. 1 - ------ - - -- - ---=---- --= - , J j ' ' I - , - "::::;"j ,.. J- '. ... I t J Iii ii :.; t !l t -- = ........... L if I . I Fig. r7. A single press in rhe Vatican Library. open. I'rom a photog-r:\ph. I. APr.] DECOR \TION OF '"ATlCAI\ LIBR.\RY 49 APPENDIX TO CHAPTER I. DECORATIOr-: OF TIlE VATICAN LIBRARV. TilE system of decoration carried out in this Library, of which I ha\'e just given a summary description, is so interesting, and bears evidence of so much care and thought, that 1 subjoin a detailed account of it, which, by the kindness of Father Ehrle, prefect of the Library, I was enabled to draw up during my late visits to Rome. The diagrammatic ground-plan (fig. 18) which accompanies this description, if studied in conjunction with the general view (fig. 16), will make the relation of the subjects to each other perfectly clear. The visitor is supposed to enter the Library from the vestibule at the east end: and the nota- tion of the piers, windows, wall-frescoes, etc., begins from the same end. Further, the visitor is supposed to examine the east face of each pier first, and then to turn to the left. I will begin with the figures on the central piers and half- piers. These figures are painted in fresco, of heroic size: and over their heads are the letters which they are supposed to have invented. I. PIL\STER AGAINST E.\ST "'.\LL ADA:\I. A tall stal",art figure dre sed in short chiton. lIe holds an apple in his left hand, and a mattock in hi. right. Adam divinitus edoctus primus scientiarum eI litteraruIll invenIor. 2. FIRST PIER. (a) ABRAHAM. Ahraham Syra5 et Chaldaicas litteras in venit. (b) THE SONS OF SErH. Filii Seth eulumnis duabus rerum eælestium disciplinam inscrihunt. c. L. 4 50 DECORATIO OF VATICAN LIBRARY (c) ESDRAS. Esdras novas Hebraeorum litteras invenit. (á) MOSES. l\Ioyses antiquas Hebraicas litteras invenit. On the cornice of the presses round this pier are the following inscriptions: (a) Doctrina bona dabit gratiam. Provo xiii. If-. (b) Yolo vos sapientes esse in bono. Rom. xvi. 19. (e) Impius ignorat scientiam. Provo xxix. j. (d) Cor sapientis quærit doctrinam. Provo xv. If. 3' SECOND PIER. (a) MERCURY. l\Iercurius Thovt .-Egyptiis sacras litteras conscripsit. (b) ISIS. Isis regina Ægyptiarum litterarum inventrix. (c) MENON. l\Ienon Phoraneo æqualis litteras in Ægypto in venit. (á) HERCULES. Hercules ægyptius Phrygias Iitteras invenit. On the cornice of the presses: (a) Recedere a malo intelligentia. Job xxviii. 28. (b) Timere Deum ipsa est sapientia. Job xxviii. 22. (e) Faciendi plures libras nullus est finis. EccI. xii. 12. (d) Dat scientiam intelligentibus disciplinam. Dan. xi. 12. 4. THIRD PIER. (a) PHOENIX. Phoenix litteras Phoenicibus tradidit. (b) CECROPS. Cecraps Diphyes primus Atheniensium rex Græcarum litterarum auctor. (c) LINUS. Linus Thebanus litterarum Græcarum inventor. (á) CAD:\1US. Cadmus Phænicis Crater litteras XVI in Græciam intulit. On the (a) (b) (e) (d) cornice of the presses: In malevolam animam non introibit sapientia. Sap. i. f. Habentes soIatio sanctos libros. I l\Iach. xii. 9. Cor rectum inquirit scientiam. Provo xxvii. 12. Sapientiam qui abiicit inCelix est. Sap. iii. If. DECORATION OF \.ATICAN LIBRARY 5. FOURTH PIER. (a) PVTHAGOR-\5. Pythagoras. Y . litteram ad humanæ vitæ exemplum invenit. (b) PALA'IEDES. Palamedes bello Troiano Græcis littens quattuor adiecit. (c) SDIOX'IDES. Simonides Melicus quattuor Græcarum litterarum inventor. (d) EPICHAR:\IUS. Epichannus Siculus duas Gn cas addidit litteras. On the cornice of the presses: (a) Qui evitat discere incidet in mala. Provo vii. 16. (h) on glonetur sapiens in sapientia sua. Ier. ix. 23, (e) Si quis indiget sapientia postulet a Deo. lac. i. 1:-. (d) Melior esI sapientia cunctis pretiosissimi . Provo viii. II. 6. FIFTH PIER. (a) EVANDER. Evander Carment. F . aborigines litteras docuit. (b) NICOSTRATA. icostrata Carmenta latinarum liuerarum inventrix. (c) DE'IARATUS. Demaratus Corinthius etruscarum liUerarum auctor. (d) CLAUDIUS. Claudius imperator tres novas liUeras adinvenit. On the cornice of the presses: (a) on erudietur qui non e I sapiens in bono. Ecc1. xxi. 2+. (6) \ïri intelligentes loquantur mihi. lac. xxxiv. 3+. (c) on penbit consilium a sapienti. Ier. xviii. 18. (d) Sapientiam atque doctrinam stulIi despiciunt. Provo i. 17. 7. SIXTH PIER. (a) CHRYSOSTOM. S. 10. Chrysostomus liuerarum Armenic:uum auctor. (b) VLPHlL'lS. Ylphilas Epl"Copus Gothomm liUeras imenit. 4- 2 51 52 DECORATION OF VATICAN LIBRARY (c) CYRIL. S. Cyrillus aliarum IIIyricarum litterarum auctor. (d) JEROME. S. Hieronymus litterarum IIIyricarum inventor. On the cornice of the presses: (a) Scientia inflat charitas vero ædificat. (h) (c) (d) Cor. viii. I. Sapere ad sobrietatem. Rom. xii. 3. Vir sapiens fortis et vir doctus robust us. Provo xxiv. 5. Ubi non est scientia animæ non est bonum. Provo xix. 2. 8. PILASTER AGAINST WEST WALL. CHRIST. Our Lord is seated. Over His Head A, n; in His Hand an open book: Ego sum A et n; principium et finis. At I lis Feet: le us Christus summus magister, cælestis doctrinæ auctor. On Christ's right hand is a POPE, standing, with triple cross and tiara. Christi Domini vicarius. On Christ's left hand is an EMPEROR, also standing. with crown, sword, b]ue mantle. Ecc\esiæ defensor. I will now pass to the decoration of the walls. On the south wall, between the windows, are representations of famous libraries; on the north wall, of the eight general Councils of the Church. Each space is ornamented with a broad border, like a picture-frame. In the centre abO\ie is the general title of the subject or subjects below: e.g. Bibliothcca ROlllflllOYltlll; and beneath each picture is an inscription describing the special subject. Above each window, on the vault, is a large picture, to commemorate the benefits conferred by Sixtus V. on Rome and on the world. I will describe the libraries first, beginning as before at the east end of the room. LJECORATlOl' OF VATICAX LIBRARY 53 I. SIXTUS V. AXD THE ARCHITECT FO TA A. (Right of Entrance.) Sixtus V. Pont. :'Ii. Bibliothecæ \'aticanæ aedificationem prescribit. The Pope is seated. Fontana, a pair of compasses in his right hand, is on one knee, exhibiting the plan of the intended library. II. lOSES E TRCSTS THE TABLES OF THE L.\\\' TO THE LEVITES. (Left of Entrance.) :\Ioyses librum legis Le\ it is in tabemaculo reponendum tradit. 'loses hands a large folio to a Levite, behind whom more I evites are standing. Soldiers, etc., stand behind :\loses. Tents in hack- ground. III. BlBLlOTHECA HEBRÆA. (On first wall-space south side.) Esdras sacerdos d scriba Bibliothecam sacram restituit. Ezra, attired in a costume that is almost Roman, stands in the centre of the picture, his back half turned to the spectator. An official is pointing to a press full of books. Porters are bringing in others. IV. BlBLlOTHECA BABYLO ICA. (Two pictures.) (a) The education of Daniel in Babylon. Daniel et socii linguam scientiamque Chaldæorum ediscunI. Daniel and other young men are \\ riting and reading at a table on the right of the picture. A group of elderly men in front of them to the left. Behind these is a lofty chair and desk, beneath which is a table at \\hich a group of boys are reading and \\Titing. In the background a set of book-shelves with a desk, quite modern in style. 54 DECORATION OF VATICAN LIBRARY (b) The search for the decree of Cyrus. Cyri decretum ùe templi restauratione Darii iu_su perquiritur. Darius, crowned, his back half turned to the spectator, is giVing orders to several young men, who are taking books out of an armarium -evidently copied from one of the Vatican book-cupboards. V. BlBLIOTHECA ATHENIENSIS. (Two pictures.) (a) Pisistratus arranges a library at Athens. Pisistratus primus apud Græcos publicam bihliuthecam instituit. Pisistratus, in armour, over which is a blue mantle, is giving orders to an old man who kneels before him, holding an open book. Behind the old man attendants are placing books on desks-others are reading. .. Behind Pisistratus is a group of officers, and behind them again a book- press without doors, and a row of open books on the top. (b) Restoration of the library by SeleuClis. Selel1cus bibliothecam a Xerxe asportatam referenùam curat. Servants are bringing in books which are being hastily packed into cases. In the hackground is seen the sea, with a ship; and the door of the palace. A picture full of life and movement. VI. BIBLIOTHECA ALEXANDRINA. (Two pictures.) (a) Ptolemy orgam'ses the library at Alexandria. Ptolemæus ingenti bibliotheca instructa I1ebreorum libros concupiscit. Ptolemy, a dignified figure in a royal habit, stands in the centre. He is addressing an elderly man who stands on his right. Behind him are three porches, within which are seen desks and readers. In the central porch are closed presses, with rows of folios on the top. Below arc desks, at which readers are seated, their backs turned to the presses. (b) The SeVe1lty Tra1ISlators bring t/leir worR to Ptolemy. LXXII interpretes ab Eleazaro mi.si sacros librus Ptolemæo reùùunt. Ptolemy is seated on a throne to right of spectator with courtiers on his right and left. The messengers kneel before him, and hand him volumes. DECORATION OF VATICAN LIBRARY 55 VII. BIBLIOTHECA ROMANORUM. (a) Tarquin receives the Sibylline BooRs. Tarquinius Superbus Iibros Sibyllinos tres aliis a muliere incensis tantidem emit. Tarquin, seated in the centre of the picture, receives three volumes from an aged and dignified woman. In front a lighted brazier in which the other books are burning. (b) Augustus opens the Palatine library. Augustus Cæs. Palatina Bibliotheca magnifice ornata viros liUeratos rovet. Augustus, in armour, with imperial mantle, crown and sceptre, stands left of centre. An old man seated at his feet is writing from his dictation. Left of the Emperor are five desks; with five closed books lying on the top of each. These desks are very probably intended to represent those of the Vatican Library as arranged by Sixtus IV. Two men, crowned with laurel, are standing behind the last desk, conversing. Behind them again is a book-case of three shelves between a pair of columns. Books are lying on their sides on these shelves. Beneath the shelves is a desk, with books open upon it, and others on their sides beneath it. VIII. BIBLIOTHECA HIEROSOLBlITANA. Akmnder, Bishop alld AIartyr, collects a library at fi'rusalelll. S. Alexander Episc. et !\lart. Decio Imp. in magna temporum acerbitate sacrorum scriptorum libros Hierosolymis congregat. A picture full of movement, occupying the whole space between two windows. The saint is in the centre of the picture, seated. Young men are bringing in the books, and placing them on shelves. IX. BlBLlOTHECA CÆSARIENSIS. Pamphi/us, Pnest alid A/artyr, collects a library at Cæsarea. S. Pamphilus l'resb. et !\lart. admirandæ sanctitatis et doctrinæ Cæsareæ acram bibliothecam conficit multos libros ua manu describit. l'amphilus, in centre of picture, is giving orders to porters who are bringing in a basket of books. On his left a large table at which a scribe is writing. S. Jerome, seated in right corner of picture, is apparently dictating to the scribe. Behind them is a large book-case on the shelves of which books lie on their sides; others arc being laid on the top by a man standing on a ladder. In the left of the picture is a table covered with a green cloth, on which book-binders are at work. In front of this table a carpenter is preparing boards. In background, seen through a large window, is a view of Cæ:.are.l. 56 DECORATION OF VATICAN LIBRARY X. BIBLIOTHECA APOSTOLORUM. S. Peter orders the safe-kæpÙzg of books. S. Petrus sacrorum libwrum thesaurum in Romana ecc\esia perpetuo asservari jubet. S. Peter is standing before an altar on which are books and a cross. In front doctors are writing at a low table. [A small picture between window and west wall] XI. BIBLIOTHECA PONTIFICUM. The successors if S. Peler carryon the library-tradi/Ùm. Romani pontifices apostolicam bibliothecam magno studio amplificant atque illustrant. A pope, his left hand resting on a book, is earnestly conversing with a cardinal, whose back is half turned to the spectator. Another pope, with three aged men, in background. [A small picture on west wall.] \\'e wiII now return to the east end of the room, and take the representations of Councils, painted on the east and north walls, in chronological order. I. II. CONCILIUl\I NICAENUM I. (On east wall.) The first COUIlCit held at Nicæa, A.D. 325. S. Silvestro pr. Constantino Mag. imp. Christus dei Filius patri con- suhstantialis dec\aratur Arii impietas condemnatur. The bumillg if the books if ArÙts. Ex decreto concilii Constantinus Imp. libros Arianorum comburi iubet. III. COi-JCILIUM CONSTANTINOPOLITANUM I. The first Coullcil held at COllstalltÙlOple, A.D, 8I. S. Damaso PP. et Theodo io sen, imp. Spiritus Sancti divinitas pro- pugnatur nefaria :\Iacedonii h.eresis extinguitur. DECORATION OF VATICAt\' LIBRARY 57 IV. CONCILlU:\I EPHESINU I. The CO/lncil held at EpheslIs, A.D. 431. S. Cælestino PI'. et Theoùo io Jun. Imp. t\'estorius Christum diviùens ùamnatur, B. Maria Virgo dei genetrix prædicatur. V. CONCILlCì\I CHALCEDONENSE. The COlt1lcil held at Cha/cedo1l, A.D. 45 I. S. Leone magno PP. et l\Iarciano Imp. infelix Eutyches vnam tantum in Chri.to post incarnationem naturam a seren confutatur. VI. CONCILlU:\I CUNSTANTINUPOLITANU:\I II. The seco1ld Cou1lcil held at COllstantinople, A.D. 553. Vigilio Papa et Iu,tiniano Imp. contentiones de tribus capnibus seùantur Origcnis CHores refelluntur. VII. CONCILlU:\I CONSTANTINOPOLITANUl\I III. The third COIt1lcil held at COllstanti1lople, A.D. 680. s. Agathone Papa Con tantino pogonato Imp. munothelitæ h.eretici \nam tantum in Christo voluntatcm docentes exploduntur. VIII. CONCILIU I NICAENUl\I II. The second Council held at M'cæa, A.D. 7 8 7. lIadriano papa Constantino Irenes F. imp. impii iconomachi reiiciuntur ,acrarum imaginum veneratio confirmatur. IX. X. CONCILIU 1 CONSTANTINOPOLlTA Ul\I IV. The fourth Council held at COllstantÍ1lOple, A.D. 86 9. Hadriano papa et Basilio imp. S. Ignatius patriarch a Constant. in suam sedem pub" I'hotiu restituitur. The burlllilg of the books of PhotÍ/ts. I', dccrt:to concilii Ba,ililh Imp. chirographa Photii et conciliab. acta comhuri iuhct. S8 DFCORATION OF VATICAN LIBRARY In conclusion I will enumerate the series of eighteen large pictures on the side-walls and in the lunettes at each end of the room, representing, with some few exceptions, the benefits conferred on Rome by Sixtus. The most important of these pictures are above the windows (fig. 16), of which there are seven on each side-wall. A Latin couplet above the picture records the subject, and allegorical figures of heroic size, one on each side, further indicate the idea which it is intended to convey. The series begins at the east end of the room, over the door. I. Procession of Sixtus to his coronation. Hie tria Sixte tuo eapiti diademata dantur Sed quantum in eælis te diadema manet. ELECTJO SACRA. MAN I FESTATIO. On the left of this, over the First Nicene Council, is I I. COr{IJflltioll of Sixl1fs, with façade of old S. Peters. Ad templum antipodes Sixlum eomitantur euntem Jamque novus Pastor paseit ovile novum. HONOR. DIG:oIITAS. With the following picture the series on the south wall begins, above the windows: II I. An allegorical tableau. A lion with a Iwman face, and a thullder- bolt ill Ilis rigllt þaw, stallds Oil a green hill. A flock of sllæþ is feedillg around. Alcides partem Italiæ prædone redemit Sed tolam Sixtus: die mihi major utero JUSTITIA. CASTIGATIO. IV. The obelisk in front of old S. Peter's. The dome 1.isÍ1lg be/lind. Dum stabit mOlus nullis ObeIiseus ab Euris Sixte tuum tabit nomen hono que tuus. RELIGIO. l\IUNIFICENTIA. V. All all<',f{oriml tableau. A tree loaded willl fruits, uþ whicll a lion is trying to climb. A flock of sheeþ bmeath. Temporibus Sixti redeunt Saturnia regna Et pleno cornu eopla fundit opes. CH"RI rAS. LI/JERALITAs. DECORATION OF YATICAN LIBRARY 59 VI. A Columna Codzlis surmounted by a statue. Vt vinclis Ienuit Petrum sic alta columna SusIinet; hinc decu est dcdecus unde fuit. SUBLIMATIO. MUTATIO. \' II. A crowd assembled Ùl fr01lt of a dlUrch. Sixtus regnum inieus indicit publica vota Ponderis 0 quanJi vota fuisse vides. SALUS GENERIS HU\IA I. P!ETAS REI.IGIONIS. . \ Ill. The Laterall Palace, with the Baþtistery and Obelisk. Quintus restiIuit Laterana palatia Sixtu Atque obelum medias Iranstulit ante forns. SANATIO. PURGATIO. I X. A fountain ereckd by Sixtus. Fons felix celebri notus super æthera versu Romulea passim jugis in urhe fuit. l\IlsERATIO. BENIG'lòITAS. The next two pictures are ahove the arches leading from the west end of the library into the corridor: X. Pallorama of Rome as altaed by Sixtlts. Dum rectas ad templa vias sanctissima pandit Ipse sibi Sixtus paudit ad astra viam. L.'FTIFICATIU. I\"OIHf.ITAS. XI. All allegorical reþreselltatiOlI of the Tiara, with adorilll{ worshiþþers. \ïrgo intacta manet nee vivit adultera conjux Casta'lue nunc Roma est quæ fuit ante salax. CASTITAS. DEFE:lISIO. With the following picture the series on the north wall begins: :hI I. See/ioll of S. Peters, 'with /Ill' dOllle. Virginis absistit mirari templa Dianæ Qui fanum hoc inIrat Virgo :\Iaria tuum. . FQUII'ARATIO. POT EST AS. XIII. The Obelisk in the Cin'us of Nero. :\Iaximus e"t uhelus circus quem maximus olim Condidit et Sixhh maximus inde trahit. \{F.A"f>lFICATIII. CUGNITIO \ EIU IIEI. 60 DECORATION OF VATICAN LInRARY XIV. Tile Tiber, willI the Ponte Sisto, and the Osþedale di Santo Spirito. Quæris cur tot a non sit mendicus in U rbe: Tecta parat Sixtus suppeditatque cibos. CLEMENTIA. OPE RATIO BONA. XV. A similar 1iew. Jure Antoninum paulo "is Sixte subesse Nam vere hie pius est impius ille pius. ELECTIO SACRA. "ERA GLORIA. XVI. A similar view, with /lIe Obelisk. Transfers Sixte pium transferre an dignior alter Transferri an vero dignior alter erat. RECOGNITIO. GRATITUDU. XV I I. The Obelisk, now in front of S. Peler's, before it was rt'mO'lwl. Qui Regum Ad eunas OBLATIO. tumulis obdiseus serviit olim Christi tu pie Sixte loeas. DE\'OTIO. XVIII. A fleet at sea. Instruit hie Sixtus classes quibus æquora purget Et Solymos victos sub sua jura trahat. rROVIDENTIA. SECURITAS. Burning of the books of Arius First Council of Constantinople Council of Ephesus Council of Chalcedon Second Council of Constantinople Third Council of Constant! nople Second Council of Nicaen Ii,dus V Moses & ;;Sl C uncil 01 Nica1= ,fonIanf IE It.. Le\ilçs , I 8 I II .. II: Adam III Blbhotheca : Hebræa ! --t- ---- ---------- ----!':.------So'. 9"------ Abraham . Moses d0b Sons 01 SeIh IV r: Ezra Fourth Council of IX Constantinople x j Burn'"l1 ollhe boo,,-\ 01 Phallus III IV Mercury . Hercules d0b Isis r: Menon Bibliotheca Babylonica V Bibliotheca Atheniensis Phoenix . Cadmus dEJb Cecrops r: Linus Ö ":.i- 00 - . : PvIhagoras . . VI Epicharmus d b Palamedes VII r: Si mon ides Evander . VII ClaudIus dGb Nlcoslrala VIII r: Demaralus Chrysoslom . VIII Jerome d[{]b Vlphila IX r: Cyril VI Bibliotheca Alexandrina Bibliotheca Romanorum Bibliotheca HierosolimitanR Bibliotheca Cesariensis CHRI'" EmpeFloc f Bibliotheca XI X Apostolorum t tl.PonI llicum Fig. 18. Rough groundplan of the great hall of the Vatican Library. to ilIustrate the account of the decoration. CHAPTER II. CHRISTL-\X LIBRARIES COXXECTEI> WITH CHURCHES. USE OF THE APSE. :\IOXASTIC CO:\I\IL"XITIES. S. PACHO:\IIUS. S. BENEDICT AXD HIS SUCCFSSORS. E -\CH HOL'SE H -\D .\ LIBR.-\RY. Ar\XUAI AUDIT OF BOOKS. LOA:\'" OX SECURITY. MODES OF PROTECTIOX. CURSES. PRAYERS FOR DOXORS. EXDOW:\IEè\T OF LIBRARIE!'. USE OF THE CLOISTER. DEVELOP IEXT OF ClSTERCL-\r\ BOOK-ROO:\1. CO:\I:\IOX I'RESS. CARRELLS. GLASS. (' _ " HE evidence collected in the last chapter shews r , that what I have there called the Roman con- 'T\I t;"'t)) ccption of a library was maintained, even by j f Christian ecclesiastics, during man} centuries of our era. I have next to trace the beginning and the development of another class of libraries, directly connected \\ ith Christianity. \Ve shall find that the books intended for the use of the new communities were stored in or near the places where they met for service, just as in the most ancient times the safe-keeping of similar treasures had been entrusted to temples. It is easy to see how this came about. The necessary scrvice-books would be placed in the hands of the ecclcsiastic who had charge of the building in \, hich the congregation asscmbled. To these volumes-which at first were doubtless regarded in the same light as ,"cstmcnts or sacred vessels-- treatises intended for edification or instruction would bc gradually addcd, and so the nucleus of a library would be formed. The existence of such librarics does not rest on inference only. There are numcrous allusions to them in thc Fathers 62 LIBRARlES COXNECTED WITH CHRISTI.-\N CHURCHES [CH. and other writers; S. Jerome, for instance, advises a correspondent to consult church-libraries, as though every church possessed one1. As however the allusions to them are general, and say nothing about extent or arrangement, this part of my subject need not detain us long 2 . The earliest collection of which I have discovered any record is that got together at Jerusalem, by Bishop Alexander, who died A.D. 25 0 . Eusebius, when writing his Ecclesiastical History some eighty years later, describes this library as a storehouse of historical records, which he had himself used with advantage in the composition of his work 3 . A still more important collec- tion existed at Cæsarca in Palestine. S. Jerome says distinctly that it was founded by Pamphilus, "a man who in zeal -for the acquisition of a library wished to take rank with Demetrius Phalereus and l'isistratus 4 ." As Pamphilus suffered martyrdom in A.D. 309, this library must have been got together soon after that at Jerusalem. It is described as not only extensive, but remarkable for the importance of the manuscripts it contained, Here was the supposed Hebrew original of S. :\Iatthew's Gospel5, and most of the works of Origen, got together by the pious care of Pamphilus, who had been his pupil and devoted admirer. S. Jerome himself worked in this library, and collated there the manuscripts which Origen had used when preparing his Hexapla 6 . At Cirta the church and the library were evidently 1 Epist. XLIX. !! 3- Ad Pammachium. Revolve omnium quos supra memoravi commentarios, et ecclesiarum bibliothecis fruere et magis concito gradu ad optata coeptaque pervenies. " I have to acknowledge my indebtedness to the article .. Libraries," in the Dictionary oj Christian Antiquities, and to the references there given. 3 Hist. Ece!. VI. 20. lIKp.aI"ol' lil Karå roûro 7I"XEÍovs M')'.o. Kai fKKX'I)(TLaur'Kol Ò.I'lipfS WI' Kal itnuroXås ås 7I"pðs à,\,\>í,\ovs li,' Achery, Spicile izll1', ed. Ij13, I. 667. . Ibid. Lib. III. Cap. x. Ibid. 690. De PrtCcen/ore e/ Arman'o. Præcentor et ,\rmariu Arm3rii nomen obIinuit eo qUM in eju, manu solet es e llibliotheca quæ et in alio nomine Armarium appellatur. S Reyner. Alos/oia/lls BenedÙ/i,zorul1l in Anglia, fol. 1616. ApI" Part III. 1'.111. A Lanfranc tyles him c1f in the prolobTUe Bi,hop of Rouen, these decrees must have hecn j"ued bet"cclI .\uglht lofij 3nd .\Ug'bt 10jo. "hen he \\a, made Archbishop of Canterbury. 5- 2 68 ENGLISH BENEDICTINES. LANFRANC'S STATUTES [CH. books brought together into the Chapter-House and laid out on a carpet, except those which had been given out for reading during the past year: these the brethren ought to bring with them as they come into Chapter, each carrying his book in his hand. Of this they ought to have had notice given to them by the aforesaid librarian on the preceding day in Chapter. Then let the passage in the Rule of S. Benedict about the observance of Lent be read, and a discourse be preached upon it. Next let the librarian read a document (bre'l'e) setting forth the names of the brethren who have had books during the past year; and let each brother, when he hears his own name pronounced, return the book which had been entrusted to him for reading; and let him who is conscious of not having read the book through which he had received, fall down on his face, confess his fault, and pray for forgiveness. Then let the aforesaid librarian hand to each brother another book for reading; and when the books have been distributed in order, let the aforesaid librarian in the same Chapter put on record the names of the books, and of those who receive them 1. It is, I think, certain that when Lanfranc was writing this passage thc Cluniac Customs must have been before him 2 . It should be noted that the librarian is not defined otherwise than as "keeper of the books," but we learn from the Customs of Benedictine houses subsequcnt to Lanfranc's timc that this duty was discharged by the Precentor, as in the Cluniac Customs. For instance, in the Customs of the Benedictine house at Abingdon, in Berkshire, drawn up near the end of the twelfth century, we read: The precentor shall keep clean the presses belonging to the boys and the novices, and all others in which the books of the convent are stored, repair them when they are broken, provide coverings for the books in the library, and make good any damage done to them 3. The precentor cannot sell, or give away, or pledge any books; nor can he lend any except on deposit of a pledge, of equal or greater value than the book itself. It is safer to fall back on a pledge, than to 1 Reyner, Apos/olatus EenedictÙlOrlll1l in A IIglia, fo!' 1616. App. Part III. p. '216. 2 I am aware that the Customs printed by D' Achery are dated 1110; but it need not be assumed that they were written in that year. Similar directions are to be found among the Veteres Consuetudines of the Benedictine Abbey of S. Benoit sur Loire, or Fleury, founded A.D. 615. Floriaccmis vetus Eibliotheca, 8vo. Lyons, 160:;, p. 39... 3 Cantor alma ria puerorum juvenum et alia in quibus libri convent us reponentur innovabit fracta præparabit [reparabit?] pannos librorum bibliothecæ reperiet fracturas librorum reficiel. Cllrollicoll monaster;i de Abingdon (De obedientariis Abhendoniæ). Rolls Series, II. 3i I. II] EKGLISII nE EDICTINES. CARTHUSIA S 69 proceed against an individual. Moreover he may not lend except to neighbouring churches, or to persons of conspicuous \\orth '. The Customs of the Abbey of Evesham in \\'orcestershire give the same directions in a slightly different form. It is part of the precentor's duty to entrust to the }ounger monks the care of the pre ses, and to keep them in repair: \\ henever the convent is sitting in cloister, he is to go round the cloister as soon as the bell has sounded, and replace the books, in case any brother through carelessness should have forgotten to do so. He is to take charge of all the books in the monastery, and have them in his J.eeping, provided his carefulness and knowledge be such that they may be entru ted to him. o one is to take a book out unless it be entered on his roll: nor is any book to be lent to anyone without a proper and sufficient \ oucher, and this too is to be set dm\ n on his rolP. The Carthusians-the second offshoot of the Benedictine trce ( 108 4)-also preserved the primitive tradition of study. They not only read themselves, but were actively employed in writing books for others. In the chapter of their statutes which deals with the furniture allowed to each" tenant of a cell (i/lcola celie) "-(for in this community each brother li\"cd apart, with his sitting-room, bcd-room, and plot of garden-ground)-all the articles necdful for writing are enumerated, " for nearly all those whom we adopt we teach, if possible, to write," and then the writer passes on to books. Moreover he-[the tenant of the cell]-receives two books out of the prcss for reading. He is admoni..hed to take the utmost care and pains that they be not soiled by smoke or dust or dirt of any kind; for it is our \\ ish that books, as being the perpetual food of our souls, should be most jealously guarded, and most carefully produced, that we, who cannot preach the word of God \\ ith our lips, may preach it with our hands ". , Cantor non pote t libros vendere dare vel impignorare. CanIor non potest libros accommodare nbi pignore, quod tanti vel majoris fuerit, repo iIo. Tutius e.t pignori incumbere quam in personam agere. I loc autem licet facere tantum vicinis ecc1esiis \"el excellentibus personis. Ibid. pp. 373, 3i4. 2 /rlon. .rl1'gl. II. 39, The la t sentence run as follo\\s in the original: r-. ullus liurum capiat ni,i scribatur in rotulo ejus; nec alicUl liber aliquis mutuo Iradatur ahsque competenti et sufficienti memoriali, et hoc ponatur in rotulo ip,iu,. I 0\\ e this quotation and the la t to Father Ga>oquet's So"' .\'olu on lIl,dieval .1lIJnas/;c LibYllries, 1891, p. 10. a Adhuc etiam lihros ad legendum de armario accipiI duos quibus omnem "iligcntiam curanuluc prehcrc mondur ne fumo ne puluere vd ..Iia qualiuet ,or"c 70 CARTHUSIAKS. CISTERCIAN'S [CHAP. They did, however, on occasion lend books, for it is provided that when books are lent no one shall retain them contrary to the wiII of the lenders l . It would be interesting to know how this rule was enforced. The Cistercian Order-founded I 128-adopted the Benedic- tine Rule, and with it the obligation of study and writing. Moreover, in their anxiety to take due care of their books, they went further than their predecessors; for they entrusted them to a special officer, instead of to the precentor, and they admitted a special room to contain them into the ground-plan of their houses. At a later point I shall return to the interesting subject of the Cistercian book-room. For the present I must content myself with translating from their Customs the passage relating to books. It occurs in Chapter cxv., Of the precentor and his assistant. After describing his various duties, the writer proceeds: With regard to the production and safe-keeping of charters and books, the abbat is to consider to whom he shall entrust this duty. The officer so appointed may go as far as the doors of the writing- rooms when he wants to hand in or to take out a book, but he may not go inside. In the same way for books in common use, as for instance anti phoners, hymnals, graduals, lectionaries [etc.], and those which are read in the .Frater and at Collation, he may go as far as the door of the novices, and of the sick, and of the writers, and then ask for what he wants by a sign, but he may not go further unless he have been commanded by the abbat. "'hen Collation is over it is his duty to close the press, and during the period of labour, of sleep, and of meals, and while vespers are being sung, to keep it locked". The Customs of the Augustinian Order are exceedingly full on the subject of books. I will translate part of the 14 th chapter of the Customs in use at BarnwclJ3, near Cambridge. maculentur; Libros '1uippe tanquam sempiternllm animarum nostrarum cibllm cautissime cuslOdiri et studiosissime volumus fieri vt qui ore non possumus dei verbum manibus predÌl:emns. Guigonis, PlÌoris Carthusiæ, Statuta. 1'01. Basle, 1;;10. Statuta Alltiqucl, Part 2, Cap. XVI. 9, I Libros cum commodantur nullus contra commodantium retineat voluntatem. IbÙi. Cap. XXXII. 16. 2 L s MOllllmtltts primitijs de la R,'gle Cist râell1ze, par Ph. Guignard, 8vo. Dijon, 18i8. p. 23i. 3 Th ObSe17J,mces ziz lIS at tIle Augllstimtl1l Priory tif S. Gil s alld S. Alldrew at Barllwdl: ed. J. W. Clark. 8\0. Camh., I89i, p. [ . This passage also occurs ill the Customs of the Augustinian House at Grönendaal near Brussels. rs. in the Royal Library, Brussels, fol. ;;3. ,0. De Armario. II] AUGt::STI:'\IAKS 7 1 It is headed: Of tlte safe keepÙlg of tlte books, and of tlte office of Librariall (armarilts). As the passage occurs also in the Customs as observed in France and in Belgium, it may be taken, I presume, to represent the general practice of the Order. The Librarian, who is called also Precentor, is to take charge of the books of the church; all \\ hich he ought to keep and to kno\\ under their separate titles; and he should frequently eJ\.amine them carefully to pre\ent any damage or injury from insects or decay. He ought also, at the beginning of Lent, in each year, to shew them to the con\ent in Chapter, when the souls of tho>>e who have given them to the church, or of the brethren \\ ho have \Hitten them, and laboured over them, ought to be absolved, and a senice in convent be held over them. He ought also to hand to the brethren the books which they see occasion to use, and to enter on his roll the titles of the books, and the names of those who receive them. These, \\ hen required, are bound to give surety for the \olumes they receive; nor may they lend them to others, whether kno\\n or unknown, \\ithout ha\ing first obtained permission from the Librarian. Kor ought the Librarian himself to lend books unless he recei,,-e a pledge of equal value; and then he ought to enter on his roll the name of the borro\\ er, the title of the book lent, and the pledge taken. The larger and morc valuable books he ought not to lend to anyone, knO\\n or unknO\\n, \\ithout permission of the Prelate.... Books which are to be kept at hand for daily use, whether for singing or reading, ought to be in some common place, to which all the brethren can ha,,-e easy access for inspection, and selection of anything which seems to them suitable. The books, thcrefore, ought not to be carried away into chambers, or into corners out!.ide the Cloister or the Church. The Lihrarian ought frequcntly to dust the books carefully, to rcpair them, and to point them, lest brethren should find any error or hindrance in the daily sef\ice of the church, \\ hether in singing or in reading. Ko other brother ought to era,;e or change anything in the books unless he ha"e obtained the consent of the Librarian.... The press in which the books are l.ept ought to be lined inside with wood, that thc damp of the walls may not moi'iten or !.tain the books. This press should be di"ided vertically as well as horizontally by sundry shelves on \\ hich the books may be ranged so as to be separated from one another; for fear they be packed !.o close as to injure each other or delay those who want them '. Further, as the books ought to be mended, pointed, and taken care of by the Lihrarian, so ought they to be properly bound by him. 'A I know of no olher passage in a medieval \\filer which descrihes an armarillm, 1 lranscribe Ihe original lext: Armarium. in quo Iihri reponunlur, inlrin,ecu' ligno ve,lilum e"e dehet ue humor parieIum libro, humeclel vel inficiaI, In quo eciam diver i ordines seorsum el deor um dislincIi e'se t more \\idely than all others'. At Assisi, the parent house of the Franciscan Order, there was a library of considerable extent, many volumes of which still exist, with a catalogue drawn up in 13 8 1. At this point I will resume the conclusions which may be deduced from this examination of the Benedictine Rule and the Customs founded upon it, In the first place they all assume the existence of a library. S. Benedict contents himself with general directions about study. The Cluniacs put the books in charge of the precentor, who is to be called also armarills, and they prescribe an annual audit of them, with the assignment of a single volume to each brother, on the security of a written attestation of the fact. These regulations were adopted by the Benedictines, with fuller rules for the librarian, who is still precentor also. He is to keep both presses and books in repair, and personally to supen-ise the daily use of the manuscripts, restoring to their proper places those that brethrcn may have been reading. Among these rules permission to lend books on receipt of a pledge first makes its appearance. The Carthusians maintain the principle of lending. Each brother might have two books, and he is to be specially careful to keep them clean. The Cistercians appoint a special officer to have charge of the books, about the safety of which great care is to be taken, and at certain times of the day he is to lock the press. The Augustinians and the Premonstratensians follow the Cluniacs and Benedictines: but the Premonstratensians direct their librarian to tahe note of the boohs that the House borrows as well as of those that it lends: and they adopt the Cistercian precaution about his opening and locking the press. I Th Philo","', n of Rirhar,/ de flury, ed. E. C. Thoma,. R\n. Lond. ,SHR, p. Oj. 74 BOOKS LENT ON SECURITY [CHAP. Secondly, by the time that Lanfranc was writing his statutes for English Benedictines, it was evidently contemplated that the number of books would have exceeded the number of brethren, for the keeper of the books is directed to bring all the books of the House into Chapter, and after that the brethren, one by one, are to bring in the books which they have borrowed). Among the books belonging to the House there were probably some service-books; but, from the language used, it appears to me that we may fairly conclude that by the end of the eleventh century Benedictine Houses had two sets of books: (I) those which were distributed among the brethren; (2) those which were kept in some safe place, as part of the possessions of the House: or, to adopt modern phrases, that they had a lending library and a library of reference. Thirdly, it is evident that the loan of books to persons in general, on adequate security, began at a very early date. On this account I have already \'entured to call monastic libraries the public libraries of the l\Iiddle Ages. As time went on, the practice was developed, and at last became general. It was even enjoined upon monks as a duty by their ecclesiastical superiors. In 1212 a Council which met at Paris made the following decree, but I am not able to say whether it was accepted out of France: We forbid those who belong to a religious Order, to formulate any vow against lending their books to those who are in need of them; seeing that to lend is enumerated among the principal works of mercy. After careful consideration, let some books be kept in the House for the use of brethren; others, according to the decision of the abbat, be lent to those who are in need of them, the rights of the House being safe-guarded. From the present date no book is to be retained under pain of incurring a curse [for its alienation], and we declare all such curses to be of no effect ". 1 In the Cluniac Cu toms those volumes only which had been assigned to particular brethren are to be laid on the carpet. It is difficult to understand the reason for this formal assignment of a book to each brother who chose to ask for one. As brethren in those early times had no separate cuhicles or cells, it could hardly imply more than a precaution against the difficulty of two brethren requiring the use of Ihe same volume. Possihly Ihe \\hole intention was disciplinary, to ensure study as prescribed by the Rule. 2 Delisle, Bib!. de l'École des Chartès. Ser. 3, Vol. I. p. 5' Interdicimus inter alia viris religiosis, ne emittant juramentum de non commodando lihros suos indigen- tibus, cum commodare inter præciplla mist:ricordiæ opera computetur. Sed, adhibita II] VALUE SET UPO:"\' BOOKS 75 I n the same century many volumes \\ ere bequeathed to the Augustinian House of S. \ïctor, Paris, on the express condition that they should be so lent!. It is almost needless to add that one abbey was continually lending to another, either for reading or for copying2. Houses which lent liberally would probably be the first to relax discipline so far as to admit strangers to their libraries; and in the sixteenth and following centuries the libraries of the Benedictine House of S. Germain des Près, Paris, as well as the already mentioned House of S. \Tictor, were open to all comers on certain days in the week. '''hen we tr)' to realise the feelings with which monastic communities regarded books, it must always be remembered that they had a paternal interest in them, In many cases they had been written in the very House in which they were after- wards read from generation to generation: and if not, they had probably been procured by the exchange of some work so written. In fact, if a book \\as not a son of the House, it was at least a nephe\\. The convictiun that books were a possession with which no cOI1\'ent could dispense, appears in many medie\'al writers. The whole matter is summed up in the phrase, written about 1170, .. claustrum sine armario, castrum sine armamentario S ," an epigram which I will not spoil by trying to translate it; and even more clearly in the passionate utterances of Thomas à Kempis on the desolate condition of priest and convent without books.. The U round of creation" is explored for similes to enforce this truth. A priest so situated is like a horse without bridle, a ship without oars, a writer without pens, a bird without wings, etc.; while the House is like a kitchen without ste\\ pans, con,ideratione diligenti, alii in domo ad opus fralrum retineantur; alii secundum providentiam abbaIi_, cum indemnitate dOni us, indigenIihu_ cnmmodentur. Et a modo nullu liber sub anathemate teneatur, et omnia predicIa anathemata ahsolvimus. Labbe, COllcilia, XI. 69' I Deli"le, Cab. des .JlanrlScrils, II. 226. 2 M. Delisle (III mpra, II. 12.) cites an in-cription in one of tbe ISS. of Ihe Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris: .. Liber i te de Corheia: ...e,I pre'tavernnt nobis usque I'ascha." S fabillon, TIz sallrlls An cdol{>rll"', \"o\. I. p. I I. · Opa Thomæ a CamPis, fo\. 1 23. Fnl. XI \ II,;, The I'a-"'ge "ecur_ in hi, n{){ln'na/ Jllvc",l1n, Cap. \ . 7 6 PROTECTIO OF BOOKS [CHAP. a table without food, a well without water, a river without fish- and many othcr things which I have no space to mention. Evidence of the solicitude with which they protected their treasures is not wanting. The very mode of holding a manuscript was prescribed, if not by law, at least by general custom. "\Vhen the religious are engaged in reading in cloister or in church," says an Ordcr of the General Benedictine Chapter, " they shall if possible hold the books in their left hands, wrapped in the sleeve of their tunics, and resting on thcir knees; their right hands shall be uncovered with which to hold and turn the leaves of the aforesaid books 1 ." In a manuscript at Monte Cassino' is the practical injunction Quisquis quem tetigerit Sit illi Iota manus; and at the same House the possession of handkerchiefs-which were evidently regarded as effeminate inventions-is specially excused on the ground that they would be useful-among othcr things-" for wrapping rounù the manuscripts which brethren handles." Of similar import is the distich at the end of a fine manuscript formerly in the library of S. Victor: Qui servare liLris preciosis nescit honorcm Illius a manibus sit procul iste liber 4 . \\'ith these injunctions may be compared a note in a four- teenth century manuscript from the same library: Whoever pursues his studies in this book, should be careful to handle the leaves gently and delicately, so as to avoid tearing them by reason of their thinness; and let him imitate the example of Jesus Christ, who, when he had quietly opened the book of Isaiah and read therein attentively, rolled it up with reverence, and gave it again to the minister ð ; 1 lIf-..dÙvallllo1Jastic Libraries: by F. A. Gasquet, p. 15, The passage translated above occurs in a Custumary of S. Augustine's, Canterbury, I\ISS. Cotton, Faustina, c. XII. fol. 196 b. I Cat. iI/Ollie Cassino, II. 299. 3 Theodmarus Ca'isinensis to Charlemagne, ap. lIæften, DistJuisitiolles 1Ilonflsticæ, fol. 1644. p. 108S. 4 Delisle, 211 supra, II. 22j. ð Delisle, ut supra, II. 22j. Tu, quicunque studebis in hoc libro, prospice, et leviter atque dulciter tractes folia, ut cavere possi rupturam propter ipsorum tenui- taIem; et imitare doctrinam Jesu Christi, qui cum modeste aperuisset librum Ysaie et attente legisset, tandem revelenter complicuit ac minÏslIo reddidit. This injunction occurs, in substanct:. in the Philobibloll of Richard de Bury, ed. Thomas, p. 2.p. II] CU RSES 77 and the advice of Thomas à Kcmpis to the youthful students fòr whose benefit he composed the treatise called Doctrillak jmlC1ll11Jl which I have already quoted: Take thou a book into thine hands as Simeon the Just took the Child Jesus into his arms to carry him and kiss him. .\nd when thou hast finished reading, close the book and give thanks for every \\ord out of the mouth of God; because in the Lord"s field thou hast found a hidden treasure '. In a similar strain a writer or copyist entreats readers to be careful of his work-work which has cost him an amount of pains that they cannot realise. It is impossible to translate the original exactly, but I hope that I have given the meaning with tolerable clearness: I beseech you, my friend, when you are reading my book to keep your hands behind its back, for fear you should do mischief to the text by some sudden movement; for a man who knows nothing about \Hiting thinks that it is no concern of his. Whereas to a writer the la'it line is as sweet a'i port is to a sailor. Three fingers hold the pen, but the whole body toils. Thanks be to God. I Warembert \Hote this book in God's name. Thanks be to God. "\men!. Entreaties so gentle and so pathetic as these are seldom met with; but curses-in the same strain probably as those to which the Council of Paris took exception-are extremely common. In fact, in some Houses, a manuscript invariably ended with an imprccation-more or less severe, according to the writer's tasteS. I will append a few specimcns. This book belongs to S. :\Iaximin at his monastery of Iicy, which abbat Peter caused to be written, and with his own labour corrected and punctuated, and on Holy Thursday dedicated to God and S. Iaximin on the altar of S. Stephen, with this imprecation that he who should take it aw.lY from thence by what dc\Ìce soever, \\ith 1 Opera Tho",,/, a CCit !>Crihere nullum -e putat hahere lahon:m; quia sicut navigantihus dulcis e t purlu" ita !'criptori novis imu, versu'. Calamus tribu digiIis continetur, Iotum corpus laborat. Deo gratias. Ego, in Dei nomine, "uarembertus crip,i. Deu gratias. From a IS. in the Bib\. Xat. Paris (:\IS. Lat. I'Z29fi) from the Ahbey of Corbie: "les caractères dénotent I'époque carlovingienne." DelIsle, ul supra, 11. 121. 3 On th" cur,,, imariahly u_ed at S. 'ictor' . .ee Deli_Ie. fit Sllprirs of I ,l>rar;i!S, I. 2 3' 80 USE OF THE CLOISTER [CHAP. scriptorÙtl11 of the church uf Ely for the purpose of making and repairing the books of the said church '." The books referred to were probably, in the first instance, service-books; but the number required of these could hardly have been sufficient to occupy the whole time of the scribes, and the library would doubtless deri\'e benefit from their labours. The scriptori1tlll at S. Alban's was also specially endowed. \Ve must next consider the answer to the following questions: In what part of their Houses did the :\Ionastic Orders bestow their books? and what pieces of furniture did they use? The answer to the first of these questions is a very curious one, when we consider what our climate is, and indeed what the climate of the whole of Europe is, during the winter months. The centre of the monastic life was the cloister. Brethren were not allowed to congregate in any other part of the conventual buildings, except when they went into the frater, or dining-hall, for their meals, or at certain hours in certain seasons into the warming- house (califactorÙtII1). In the cloister accordingly they kept their books; and there they wrote and studied, or conducted the schooling of the novices and choir-boys, in winter and in summer alike. It is obvious that their work must have been at the mercy of the elements during many months of the year, and some important proofs that such was the case can be quoted. Cuthbert, Abbat of \Vearmouth and Jarrow in the second half of the eighth century, excuses himself to a correspondent for not having sent him all the works of Bede which he had asked for, on the ground that the intense cold of the previous winter had paralysed the hands of his scribes'; Ordericus Vitalis, whu wrote in the first half of the twelfth century, closes the fourth book of his Ecclesiastical History with a lament that he must lay aside his work for the winterS; and a monk of Ramsey Abbey in Huntingdonshire has 1 Sllpple1Jll'nt to B,lltham's Ely, by \Vm Stevenson, 4to. ' Iï. p. 5" I have to thank my friend the Rev. J. II. Crosby,l\Iinor Canon of Ely Cathed,al. for a transcript of Bp Kigel's deed. 2 1IIoll111Jlt'1lta _ logll1ltilla, ed. Jaß"é, 8vo. Berlin, 1866, in Bib!. Rer. Gel1ll. Vol. III. p. 30. ; quoted in Bede's works, ed. Plummer, p. xx. 3 See Church's S. A1lSd1Jl, ed. 1885, p. 48. The words are: Nunc hyemali frigore rigens, aliis occupationibus ,acabo, præsentemf(lle libellum hic terminare fatigatlls decemo. Redeunte vero placidi veris sereno, etc. fEist. Eccl. Pars II. lib. IV. II] USE OF THE CLOISTER. FUR:\ITURE 81 recorded his discomforts in a Latin couplet which seems to imply that in a place so inconvenient as a cloister all seasons were equally destructive of serious work: In vento mini me plmia nive sole sedere Possumus in clau!ttro nee scribere neque studere'. .\s we sit here in tempest in rain snow and sun Nor \\ riting nor reading in cloister is done. But, when circumstances were more propitious, plenty of good work that was 'of permanent value could be done in a cloister. A charming picture has come down to us of the literary activity that prevailed in the Abbey of S. Martin at Tournai at the end of the eleventh century, when Abbat Odo was giving an impulse to the writing of l\ISS. "'''hen you entered the cloister," says his chronicler, "you could generally see a dozen young monks seated on chairs, and silently writing at desks of careful and artistic design. \\ïth their help, he got accurate copies made of all Jerome's commentaries on the Prophets, of the works of Blessed Gregory, and of all the treatises he could find of Augustine, Ambrose, Isidore, and Anselm; so that the like of his library \\as not to be found in any of the neighbouring churches; and those attached to them used generally to ask for our copies for the correction of their o\vn 2." The second question cannot be answered so readily. \Ve must begin by examining, in some detail, the expressions used to denote furniture in the various documents that deal with conventual libraries. S. Pachomius places his books in a cupboard (fenestra): S. Benedict uses only the general term, library (bibliotltaa), which may mean either a room or a piece of furniture; and the word press (armarium), with which we become so familiar afterwards, does not make its appearance till near the end of the cle\'enth century. Lanfranc does not use it, but as I This couplet, written on the Ay-lear or a 'IS. in the library or the l"nÏ\er ily of Camhridge (llh. \'I. II). was pointed out to me by my rriend F. J. II. Jenkinson, ('A., Librarian. · lIerimanni liber de re lauratione S. 'lartini Tomacensi.: ap. I'ertz, .11011. G,'rm. XIV. . 13. c. L. 6 82 CLOISTER-PRESS. CO:\nrON PRESS [OIAP. I have shewn that he based his statutes, at least to some extent, on the CIuniac Customs, and as they identify the library (bibliolhcca) with the press (arlllarÙ/lIl), and call the librarian, termed by Lanfranc the keeper of the books, the keeper of the press (armarius), we may safely assume that the books to which Lanfranc refers were housed in a similar piece of furniture. MoreO\,"er, in Benedictine houses of ]ater date, as for instance at Abingdon and Evesham, the word is constantly employed. I pointed out in the first chapter that the word press (armariu1Jl) was used by the Romans to signify both a detached piece of furniture and a recess in a wall into which such a contrivance might be inserted 1. The same use obtained in medieval times , and the passage quoted above from the Augustinian customs 3 shews that the book-press there contem- plated was a recess lined with wood and subdivided so as to keep the books separate. The books to be accommodated in a monastery, even of large size, could not at its origin have been numerous4, and would easily have been contained in a single receptacle. This, I conceive, was that recess in the wall which is so frequently found between the Chapter-House and the door into the church at the end of the east pane of the cloister. In many monastic ruins this recess is still open, and, by a slight effort of imagination, can be restored to its pristine use. Elsewhere it is filled in, having been abandoned by the monks themselves in favour of a fresh contrivance. The recess I am speaking of was called the common press (armariu1/l C01ll1/l/l1le), or common cloister-press (cOlll1llll11e armarium claustri); and it contained the books appointed for the general use of the community (COlll1JlllllCS liórz). A press of this description (fig. 19) is still to be seen in excellent preservation at the Cistercian monastery of Fossa uova in Central Italy, near Terracina, which I visited in 1 See above, p. 3i. 2 See Dictiomtaire tiu lilobilier, par Henri Havard, s. v. Armoire, and the passages there quoted. 3 Se abo\ e, p. i I. 4 The Cistercian Customs prescribe the possession of nine volumes at least, chieAy service-boo!"s, before a house can be founded. DOCllllt <( z EAST WALK OF CLOISTER I .. SCALf. I .. , .. , I. . OP ..., Fig. 21. Groundplan of part of the Abbey of Fossa Nuova. To shew the book-room and book-press, and their relations 1.0 adjoining ...tructures: partly from l\1. Enlarr.'5 work, partly from my own me1. . ! . " '. '.. . '. . :V 4ì : APIE" : CHAPEL ':. ' .' ". " ,I : .. '" '...Ð. "'"" ,,, :,,:' ", ,II , ...---- ., --- .. \ : , : ' "ø:: )'IoUs.'E : . : .:" . , ' ti,. ., ,,, '-t .. .' " . SCALE OF FEET I :]I R, III I? 110 2 1 0 o 4[0 o .00 I Fig. . Groundplan of part of Kirkstall Abbey, Yorkshire. A, book-room: B, arllltlriulJl COlllllllllle. seen at Beaulieu, Hayles, J ervaulx, ]'\ etley, Tintern, Croxden, and Roche. The catalogue of the books at the Abbey of Meaux in Holderness', founded about the middle of the 12th century, has fortunately been preserved; and it tells us not only what books were kept in one of these rooms, but how they were arranged. After the contents of the presses in the church, which contained chiefly service-books, we come to the "common press in the cloister (commune allllariltlll claltstri)." On the shelf over the , Chr01zim 1l101lasterii de , lelsa. RoIls Series, Yo\. III. App. p. b.xxiii. II] CISTERCIA BOOK-ROO [ 87 door (ill suprema tfuca' supra ostillm) were four psalters. The framer of the catalogue then passes to the opposite end of the room, and, beginning with the top shelf (suprema theca opþosita), enumerates 37 volumes_ :\'ext, he deals with the rest of the books, which, he tells us, were in other shelves, marked with the Idters of the alphabet (ill aliis thccis distÙzclis per alpha- bt'/lIm). If I understand the catalogue correctly, there were eleven of these divisions, each containing an average of about 25 volumes. The totdl number of volumes in the collection was 316. Again, the catalogue of the House of \\'hite Canons at Titchficld in Hampshire, dated 1400, shews that the books were kept in a small room, on sets of shelves called COlll/Jlpllæ, set against the waIls. The catalogue begins as folIows: There are in the Library at T} chefeld four cases to set books on ; two of which, namely the fir!>t and the second, are on the eastern !>ide. The third is on the south side; and the fourth is on the north side. Each of these has cight shelves [ete.]2. :\lor was this book-closet confined to Cistercian Houses. In the Cluniac Priory at J.luch \\"enIock in Shropshire there is a long narrow room on the west side of the south transept, opening to the cloister by three arche<;, \\ hich could hardl) ha\"e been put to any other purpose, It is obvious that no study could ha\-e gone forward in such places; they must have been intended for security only. . \s time \\ ent on, and further room for books became ne- cessary, it was provided, at least in some Cistercian Houses, by cutting off t\\ 0 rectangular spaces from the \\ est end of the Chapter-House" There is a good example of this treatment to be seen at Furness Abbey, built 1150-1200. The folIowing description is borro\\ed from l\Ir \\'. II. St John Hope's architectural history of the buildings. , The word th ca signified in classical Latin a case or receptacle in which any object wa, kept. In medieval I alin it \\a 'l'ecially u,ed (fide Ducaoge) for Ihe Ch I in whieh the Lodi or bone<; or relics of saini!> \\ere kept. In this calalogue it i" ob\ ious Ihal iI !nay mean eiIher a ,helf or a cupboard. · Sunt enim in libraria de Tychefeld quatuor columpn.c pro lihri, imponendis, unde in orientali fronte due sunt videlicet prima et secunda. In latere vero ausIrali e,1 lerc;a_ n in later" boreali e,1 quarta. Et earum "ingule octo hahent gradu, [etc.]. 88 CISTERCIAN BUOK-ROO:\I [CHAP. From the transept southwards the whole of the existing work is of later date, and distinctly advanced character. The ground storey is pierced with five large and elaborate round-headed doorways with good moldings and labels, with a delicate dog-tooth ornament. Three of these next the transept form a group.... The central arch opened, through a \'estibule, into the Chapter House. The others open into large square recesses or chambers, with ashlar walls, and ruhble barrel-vaults springing from chamfered imposts on each side. In the northern chamber the vault is kept low and segmental, on account of the passage above it of the darter stair to the church....The southern chamber has a high pointed vault. Neither chamber has had doors, but the northern has holes in the inner jamb, suggestive of a grate of some kind, of uncertain date. The chambers just described probably contained the library, in wooden presses arranged round the walls'. To illustrate this description a portion of Mr Hupe's plan of Furness Abbey (fig. 23) is appendçd. Each room was about 13 f t. square. --- -- - ' ---- O ------ l! ---- ------ - ------ ---- --- - - ---- = =õõ=_, -- ö: =- _ . - __ -:. ..._ S TRANSEPT CHAPTER HOUSE LIBRARY I I , LIBRARY :X__-; _ =-=ø::-_ _ ' --=-l I , - ::xr:-_- ------ ------ ------- . ----- ---- EAST WALl( OF" CLOISTER r------_____________________________ ' , : --------------------- - ------- Fig. 3. Groundplan of part of Furness Abbey. Rooms in a similar position are to be seen at Calder Abbey in Cumberland, a daughter-house to Furness; and at Fountains , Trans. Cumb. and If/est. Antiq. and Archæol. Soc. Vol. XVI. p. '259. I take this opportunity of thanking my friend Mr Hope for alIowing me to use his plan ûf Furness Abhey, and also for pointing out to me the evolution of the Cistercian book-rooms" hich I have done my best to describe in the text. , Ca/d'r AMI!}': its Rliins and Jts HistoJ)'_ By A. G. Loftie, :\I.A. , ". "" :--,. ..'. : { .1:t\. ;f' . . .' - . .. ' i -' ... ." ,-- . ( ..-#;. . \ , .... .. ;. " "", fØ :' " ' ... I ?, ' },.. 'I'f - "" ,. "' J- ....... '. . ;, ' -". " . '. I JI .. ..... .. t , . \ . - ,', 'to ,,( .' " -.'.. r ... . . . . - - . ,.- ...,'.1 'f ' :l ' { ' ,., ... · , . .;.. ' ._.P,;.'< t ' l li . ... ".. ' 1'."..' ..; ;. :J.. 'T . :;;;JM., '.- "'. . }/"'./',.. >-" :1f.:"-'. . ^ J' "' . ' ;. -r,' "" .. . ";. . . .;r I . 10. I,,--,",,-,, \ . :,:.. .;.. . -_'W..s. ...: - [- w i . . ,...., .:0 i.,l'ft"'-' , ..': \., ., 1 'i r..,....,.. .. \ "". .. . '!Jr - ;'.'1' " I ..,#" '" '" .......( or,.".. ",::. '_;_' -, ;' :;'f . . . . .. 'it f....:.. - 1 1 "'. ... . \'""'. "-'"' :\"" , /.. '.11. . _.. :..' \.. 'tf.. "':,... I.' 4 .,.{" . -:., ...... . .'t.. :;..,. " A( . '\-. ., . " >t-J- , , - ,""- . ...\. , . '-. J C --':- ,;- ..:, .. . :;. _a. - <';/fi"_ -. , ..Ã , -- '-.. __a .. ILl ----, -.c._ .\- " I 'II .... '. I 11 I ..;- -' I c Fig. 24. Arches in south wall of Church at Beaulieu Abbey, Hampshire. once possibly used as book-presses II] CISTERCI -\X B()OK-ROo r 89 Abbey there are clear indications that the western angles of the Chapter-House were partitioned off at some period subsequent to its construction, probably for a similar purpose. As the Chapter-House was entered from the cloister through three large round-headed arches, each of the rooms thus formed could be entered directly from the cloister, the central arch being reserved for the Chapter-House itsel( The arrangement therefore became exactly similar to that at Furness. :\Ir Hope thinks that the series of arches in the church wall at Beaulieu in Hampshire, t\\O of which are here shewn (fig. 24), may ha\'e been used for a like purpose l . There is a similar series of arches at Hayles, a daughter-house to Beaulieu; and in the south cloister of Chester Cathedral there are six receSSeS of early Xorman design, which, if not sepulchral, may once ha\'e contained books. The use of the Chapter-House and its neighbourhood as the place in which books should be kept is one of the most curious features of the Cistercian life. The east walk of the cloister, into which the Chapter-House usually opened, must ha\.e been one of the most frequented parts of the House, and r et it seems to have been deliberately chosen not merely for keeping books, but for reading them. At Clain'aux, so late as 'ïCXJ, the authors of the Voyage Lilt/mire record the following ar- rangement: Le grand c1oitrc.. .est \"Outé et "itré. Les religieux y doivent garder un perpetud silence. 1 )ans Ie côté du chapitre il y a des livres enchaincz sur des pupitres de bois, dans lesquels les religieu\. peu\ent venir faire des lectures lorsqu'ils \-eulent2. A similar arrangement obtained at Citeaux'. Having traced the development of the Cistercian book-closet, from a simple recess in the wall to a pair of more or less spacious rooms at the west end of the Chapter-House, I return to my starting-point, and proceed to discuss the arrangcment adopted 1 rr rIope tells me that he has lately re-examined the,e recesses, and failed to di'iCO\er traces offumiture or finings of any kind" iIhin Ihem. 2 V"}'ag Lift,.,."ir . Paris, 1717, Vol. I. p. 101. I Cal. dts .lla"uscrils d s Bi6liothb/lles F"bli'l"ts d Fr.mu. J leparIlillenls, Tom. v. C"ltalogue de- 'Ianuscrits de Cileaux. Ku. 6.'1:' II'. 4 0 :,). Panus lio.,r mcathenatu, ad analogiulll Lathedre e" Oppu_iIu capiIuli. 90 USE OF CLOISTER AT DURHAM [nL\,p. by the Benedictines. They must have experienced the incon- venience arising from want of space more acutely than the Cistercians, being more addicted to study and the production of books. They made no attempt, however, to provide space by structural changes or additions to their Houses, but were content with wooden presses in the cloister for their books, and small wooden studies, called carrells, for the readers and writers. The uniformity which governed monastic usage was so strict that the practice of almost any large monastery may be taken as a type of what was done elsewhere. Hence, when we find a full record of the way in which books were used in the great Benedictine House at Durham, we may rest assured that, mil/a/is Illlt/mldis, we have got a good general idea of the whole subject. I will therefore begin by quoting a passage from that valuable work The Rites of Durham, a description of the House drawn up after the Reformation by some one who had known it well in other days, premising only that it repre- sents the final arrangements adopted by the Order, and takes no account of the steps that led to them. In the north syde of the Cloister, from the COrner m-er against the Church dour to the corner over againste the] >orter dour, was all fyndy glased from the hight to the sole \\ithin a litle of the grownd into the Cloister garth. And in every wyndowe iij Pewes or CarrdIs, where everyone of the old Monks had his carrell, severall by himselfe, that, when they had dyned, they dyd resorte to that place of Cloister, and there studyed upon there books, everyone in his carrell, all the after nonne, unto evensong tyme. This was there exercise every daie. All there pewes or carrells was all fynely wainscotted and verie close, all but the forepart, which had carved wourke that gave light in at ther carrell doures of wainscott. And in every carrell was a deske to lye there bookes on. And the carrells was no greater then from one stanch ell of the wyndowe to another. And over against the carrells against the church wall did stande certaine great almeries [or cupbordsJ of waynscott all full of bookes, wherein did lye as well the old auncyent written Doctors of the Church as other prophane authors with dyverse other holie mens wourks, so that everyone dyd studye what Doctor pleased them best, havinge the Librarie at all tymes to goe studie in besydes there carrells'. At Durham the monastic buildings stood to the south of the church, and the library-walk of the cloister was that walk, or alley, or pane, or syde (for all these words are I Th" Rites of Durhtllll, ed. SUTtees Suc. J8ii. p. ,0, II] AT WEST\IIXSTER ARBEY 9 1 used), which had the church to the north of it. The library was placed there partly for the sake of warmth, partly to secure greatcr privacy. .-\t Canterbury and at Gloucester, where the church was to the south of the conventual buildings, the library- walk of the cloister was still the walk next to the church, the other walks, as :\Ir Hope has pointed out to me, being apparently kept clear for the Sunday procession. I propose to explain the system indicated in the above quotation by reference to a plan of the cloister at \Vestminster Abbey, drawn by my friend :'IIr J. T. :\Iicklethwaite (fig. 25)1, w N S Aisle of ChurCh 3 51 ;ï' '; ' '-J:.-I. :r.... / 2 ."tIt =-r=rr-n II .... .. II.'. 11 ..... r.- CLOISTER I IVESTRY GARTH . I .' - : J" O r O PAS T r.- I Uillill' HOUSE _I :I I- I = I- I ' J · :'I'-o rl :-rary ole\.- Ij over thIS reaSUI , E s Fig. 25. The cloister, Westminster Abbey. From III. lIIicklelhwaile's plan ofthe building.. and by quotations from his notes upon it. At Durham every vestige of ancient arrangement has been so completely de- stroyed that it is better to go to another House, where less mischief has becn done, and it happens fortunately that, so far as the position of the cloister with reference to the church is concerned, \\'estminster is the exact counterpart of Durham. I will consider first the last parat;raph of my quotation from the I ,\', tf< on th AM )' RuiUim[s 0/ 11'; rtminster, .\rch. Journ. '\ '\ XIII. PI" I !'- 9' 92 WEST:\IINSTER AUllE\- [CHAP. Rites of Durham, that namely which deals with the presses for books, there called H almeries or cupbords." Mr l\1icklethwaite shews that the two bays at the north end of the west walk of the cloister, and the second bay from the west in the north walk (fig. 25, nos. I, 2,4), were appropriated to the novices, by the existence of several sets of nine holes, evidently cut by boys in their idle moods for the playing of ome game. Similar holes have been found at Canterbury, Gloucester, and elsewhere. ).Text he points out that "the nosing of the walI- bench for six feet of the third bay from the west in the north walk, and in the whole of the fourth and fifth bays, and nearly all the sixth, has been cut away flush with the riser, as if some large pieces of furniture had been placed there (ibid. nos. 5, 5, 5, 5). These were evidently bookcases." Eastward of these indications of bookcases" the bases of the vaulting-shafts are cut in a way which seems to shew that there was a double screen there (ibid. nos. 6, 6), or perhaps there were bookcases arranged so as to form a screen, which is, I think, very likely. Beyond this screen to the right are appearances in the wall [next the cloister-garth] which seem to indicate a blocked-up locker, but they are rather doubtful. And on the left is a large double locker blocked (ibid. ï), and the blocking appears to be ancient. This locker is of the date of the wall (Edw. 1.), and may have been an additional book-closet provided, because that on the other side of the church-door [to be described presently] had become too small, and [was] blocked up when the larger bookcases were made opposite the can-ells]." Lastly, at the risk of some repetition, I will quote a passage from a letter which l\Ir Micklethwaite was so good as to write to me on this subject, as it brings out some additional points, and states the whole question with great clearness. After describing the position of the bookcases, he proceeds: There was thus a space, the width of the bench, between the back of the case and the cloister-wall. which would help to keep things dry. Whether the floor wa boarded we cannot now tell, but there is evidence that this part of the cloister was cut off from the rest by screens of some sort at both ends, which would make it a long gallery lighted on one side, and with bookcases ranged along the other, not unlike Wren's at 1 Notes {)II the Abbey Buildings if HÍ!,tmimter, Arch. Journ. XX:\I1I. pp. 21, 22. II] WEST JIXSTF.R ABBF\' 93 Lincoln. The \\indO\\s must have been glaæd; indeed remains of the glazing existed to the end of the 17th century; and there were \\ ithin my memory marks of fittings along the windows-side which I did not then understand, but \\hich, if they still existed, would I have no douht ten us something of the carre/Is. .\" thorough restoration" has taken away every trace of them. The "bookcase on the other side of the church door" mentioned above was in the northernmost bay of the east cloister. l\lr licklethwaite says of it: "Entering the cloister from the church by the east cloister door (ibid. no. 8), we find on our left hand a very broad bench against the wall, extendin as far as the entrance to the Chapter-House (ibid. 10). In the most northern bay the wall-arcade, instead of being brought down by shafts as in the others, is stopped off at the springing by original bracket , as if to allow of some large piece of furniture being placed against the wall. Here, I believe, stood in the thirteenth century the armarium COlli l1/ltl/C. or common bookcase (ibid. 9). At Durham there is a :'J"orman ,iTched recess in the same place, not mentioned by the writer of the Rites, because before his time its use had ceased, books having become more numerous, and being provided for elsewhere 1 ." These notes enable us to imagine what this library was like. I t was about 80 feet long by 15 feet broad, extending along four L.lYs of the cloister. It was cut off by a screen at one end, and possibly at the other also; the book-presses stood against the wall, opposite to the windows, which were probably glazed, as we know those at Durham were; and there might ha \'e been a wooden floor. Furthcr, the older monks sat in "carrclls," as we learn from the custumary of .\bbat \Vare, who was in office 1258-83. The \\ riter is speaking of the novices, and golYS that after they have attained a certain degree of proficiency they may sit in cloister, and" be allowed to glance at books taken out of the presses (armaria) belonging to the older monks. But they must not be permitted as yet to write or to have carrells 2 ," \Vhatever may have been the di-;comfort of this library 1 Nola Oil Ih Ah"'" BIIlJdillgs of IV(SII/I"u/ r, Arch. JUllrn. xx XIII. p. Jr.. :\ISS. :\l\l . Brit. \ISS. Colton, Olho, C. XI. fnJ. . 94 ROOK CUPBOARD AT R.\YEUX [ CHAP. according to our ideas, there is good reason for believing that it was in use till 1591, when Dean \\'illiams fitted up part of the Dorter as a library for the use of the Dean and Canons'. The practice of placing the book-press in the cloister obtained with equal force in France, for the Benedictines who wrote the Vo}'age Lilllraire, and who would of course be well acquainted with what was usual in their own Order, remark with surprise when they visit the ancient abbey of Cruas on the Rhone, that the press is in the church. On voit encore dans l'cg1ise l'armoire où on enfermoit les lines, contre 1a coûtume des autres monastères de l'ordre, qui avoient cette armoire dans Ie cloître. On y lit ces vers d'un caractère qui peut avoir cinq cent ans : Pastor jejunal qui libros non coadunat Kec panem præbet subjectis quem dare debet 2 . A shepherd starves \\ hose store of books is low: Kor can he on his flock their due bestow. No example of an English book-press has survived, so far as I know, but it would be rash to say that none exists; nor have I been so fortunate as to find one in France, though I have taken a great deal of pains to obtain information on the subject. In default of a press made specially to hold books, I must content myself with representations of two well-known pieces of furniture -both preserved in French churches. The first (fig. 26) stands in the Upper sacristy of the Ca- thedral of Bayeux, over the south transept. The name usually given to it, Ie Char/ria de Ba)lC/{x, implies that it was made to hold documents. 1\1. Viollet-le-Duc does not accept this view, but consiòers that it contained reliquaries, with which he probably would not object to associate other articles of church-plate. It is of oak, very coarse, rough, and massive. It is 9 ft. 3 inches high, from floor to top, 17ft. 2 inches long-(it was originally 3 ft. longer)-and 3 ft. deep. There are two rows of cupboards each 3 ft. 8 inches high, with massive doors that still , See a paper by myself in Camb. Allt. Soc. Froc. .S at OLazine are given. The photograph from "hich my iIIu,tration has been made wa, pecially taken for my u,e Ihrough the I.ind help of my frieHlI Dr Jamc" who had seen the pre" in I R9'J. 9 6 :\IONASTIC CARRELLS [CHAP. The seat of this bench lifts up, so as to form an additional receptacle for books or papers l . The curious wooden contrivances called carrells, which are mentioned in the abuve quutation from the Rites of Durlwm, have of course entirely disappeared. Nothing is said about their height; but in breadth each of them was equal to the distance from the middle of one mullion of a window to the middle of the next; it was made of wainscot, and had a door of open carved work by which it was entered from the cloister. This arrangement was doubtless part of the systematic supervision of brother by brother that was customary in a monastery. Even the aged, though engaged in study, were not to be left to their own devices. I have carefully measured the windows at Durham (fig. 28); and, CLOISTER GARTH e e SCIoL[. t- .à. O 5 Of' FE tT Fig. 28. Groundplan of one of the windows in the cloister of Durham Cathedral. though they have been a good deal altered, I suppose the mullions are in their original places. If this be so the carrells could 110t ha\Te been more than 2 ft. 9 in. wide, and the occupant would have found but little room to spare. There are eleven windows, so that thirty-three monks could have been accom- modated, on the supposition that all were fitted with carrells. In the south cluister at Gloucester there is a splendid series of twenty stone carrells (fig. 29), built between 1370 and 1412. 1 Vio\let-Ie-Duc, tit supra, p. q. I have myself examined this press. My friend Mr Hope informs me that there is a press of this character in the nether vestry at S. Peter l\Iancroft, Norwich, described by him in blvmtories of thi! parish t:hw,:h of S. PetL"- J/allcrifi, Non,'Ù"h, Korf. and Korw. Archæol. Soc. XIV. p. 29. II] !'TO:-iE C.\RRELLS AT GLOUCESTER 97 Each carrell is 4 ft. wide, 19 in. deep, and 6 ft. 9 in. high, lighted by a small window of two lights; but as figures do not give a '>-; .;' --- . "' ' \ "- ., ", ' , \- ' \ , \-- h 1 '\' r t" . ,"' \;.,'\ 1 I , \ \\ 1 '; - . I, -',.. __- I " . . : h 1í: 1 I':' · "';':0 : t\, '" I \. \'1 J I / . J . 1 -';o?T {, \I , <::. - , ./ /; ..... , ' . 'J '. r 1J.'ï, - r"fJ I . I f t !J,.- "f '- ' i!'tr ":,'IJ 1 / 1 1 ' 1 . t i' V ..' , t-4 . \t ï F I ' r i " lifl L ., 1 -/ r I I'i I j I , I :',', ',I . Ii j ,, : -': - -. I II -....L..,- .......ral t. -=-1 Fig, 29, Range of carrells in the south cloister at Gloucester Cathedral. (From IIIr lIIurray's HnNibook to tlu W sÜr" Cnth..d.."s.J very vivid idea of size, and as I could not find anyone else to ùo what I wanted, I borrowed a chair from the church and a fvlio frum the library, anù S.lt dm\ n tu read, as one of the C. r. 7 9 8 STONE CARRELLS AT GLOUCESTER [CHAP. monks might have done six centuries ago (fig. 30), There is no trace of any woodwork appertaining to these carrells; or of any book-press having ever stood near them. The easternmost carrell, howe,'er, differs a good deal from the others, and it may have been used as a book-closet. There is a bench-table along the wall of the church opposite to the carrellS; but it does not appear to have been cut away to make room for book-presses, as at \Vestminster. The south alley appears to have been shut off at the east end, and also at the west end, by a screen l . This drawing will help us to understand the arrangement of the wooden carrells used at Durham and elsewhere. Each carrell must have closely resembled a modern sentry-box, with this difference, that one side was formed by a light of the window ]ooking into the cloister-garth, opposite to which was the door of entrance. This, I imagine, would be of no great height; and moreover was made of open work, partly that the work of the occupant might be supervised, partly to let as much light as possible pass through into the cloister-library. The seat would be on one side of the carrell and the desk on the other, the latter being so arranged that the light would enter on the reader's left hand. Carrells seem to have been usual in monasteries from very early times, not to have been introduced at a comparatively late date in order to ensure greater comfort. The earliest passage referring to them is that which I have already quoted 2, shewing that they were in use at \Vestminster between 1258 and 121)3; at Bury S. Edmunds the destruction of the carrells is men- tioned among other outrages in a riot in 13273; they occur at Evesham between 1367 and 1379'; at Abingdon in 1383-846; 1 See l\Ir Hope's Notes Oil the BazedictÙle Abbey 0/ S. Peter at Gloucl!Sttr, in Records 0/ Glou<"Cster Cathedral, 1897, p. 23. 2 See above, p. 93. 3 ftfemorials 0/ S. Edmtuzd's Abbey, Rolls Series, 11.327. The writer is describing the mischief done by the rioters of 1327: Deinde claustrum ingressi, cistuIas, id est caroles, et armariola fregerunt, et libros et omnia in eis inventa similiter asportaverunt. 1 owe this quotation to Dr James, Oil the Abbey of S. Edmulld at Bur)', Camb. Ant. Soc. Octavo PubI. No. XXVIII. p. 15 8 . , Liber Evesham, Hen. Bladshaw Soc. 1893, p. 196. Abbat Ombresleye (13 6 7-79) built" paginam iIIam claustri contiguam eccIesie ubi carolæ fratrum consistunt." 6 Accoullts of the Obedimtmries of AbÙlgdoll Abbey, ed. Camden Society, 18 9 2 , p. 4i. "Expense circa sedilia cIaustri" is the heading of an account for wood bought and for carpenter's work. The sum spent was t; 2. 15S. 3d. " . , ------ \., '1 t ) f f 'f Fig. 30. A single carrell. Gloucester Cathedral. - -- I II] WORK IN THE CLOISTER 99 and at Christ Church, Canterbury, it is recorded among the good deeds uf Prior SeJlyng (1472-94), that in the south alley of the cloister" novos Textus quos Carolos ex novo vocamus perdecentes fecit"; words which Professor \\ïJlis renders "con- structed there very convenient framed contrivances which are now-a-days called caroIsI." Their use-at any rdte in some Houses-is evident from an injunction among the Customs of S. Augustine's, Canterbury, to the effect that the cellarer and others who rarely sit in cloister might not have carrells, nor in f,\ct any brother unless he be able to help the community by copying or illuminating, or at least by adding musical notation 2 . They were in fact devices to provide a certain amount of privacy for literary work in I louses where there was no ScnþtoriulIl or writing-room. At Durham, according to the author of Rites, they were used exclusively for reading. The above-mentioned Customs of S. Augustine's, written between 13 IO and 1344, give a valuable contemporary picture of the organi.lation of one of the more important cluister-libraries. The care of the presses is to be entrusted to the Precentor and his subordinate, called the Succentor, The former is to have a seat in fIont of the press-which doubtless stood against the wall-and his carrell is to stand at no great distance, on the stone between the piers of the arches next the cloister-garth. The Succentor is to have his seat and his carrell on the bcnch near the press-by which the bench which commonly ran along' the cloister-wdll is obviously meant. These arrangcmcnts are madc 'f in order that thcse two officers, or at least one of them, may always be at hand to satisfy brethren who make any demand upon their time 3 ." In other worùs, they were the 1 An:h. /list. of th COllvmttrn/ Bllildillgs of th.. J/,mnst ry of CllIist Chlt/ch, Cant..rlmry. Dy R. Willi-. 8vo. I oml, 1869, p. 4 ' 2 !\ISS. !\Iu,. Bril. !\ISS. COllon, Faustina, c. XII., fo\. Q9. De \"arulis in daU lro habendi hanc cun,irleradonem hahere ronlm Ecc/. Catll. Dllnelm. Ed. Surtees Soc. 1838, pp. 46- ;9. This catalogue is dated Easter, 1395. 2 Il>id. pp. 10-3... Thi, catalogue i dated '391. 3 Il>id. pp. 34-38. Of the ..ame date. 4 Ibid. pp. 80, 81. The,e volumes are rccorded in the first of the above cahlogues. 5 Ibid. pp. 81-8... The date i.. '39:". For a description of the Spendment see Rites o/l>lIrllalll, ..t supra, p. 7'. · I'rinted in C"ta/Ol, lie K""lra/ du ma1lllJo'its t/,.s Ri1>lif'th,"!II' I'IIMi,/1i ./ /""'''' \.3.\') ..;;1. lO4 ClTEAUX [CHAP. 1200 rss and printed books; but the number of the latter is not great. It is headed: Inventory of the books at Citeaux, in the diocese of Chalons, made by us, brother John, abbat of the said House, in the year of our Lord 1 8o, after we had caused the said books to be set to rights, bound, and covered, at a vast expense, by the labour of two and often three binders, employed continuously during two years'. This heading is succeeded by the following statement: And first of the books now standing (e:rÍ5tencilllll) in the library of the dorter, which we have arranged as it is, because the room had been for a long time useless, and formerly served as a tailory and vestry,...but for two years or nearly so nothing or very little had been put there2. A bird's-eye view of Citeaux, dated 1674, preserved in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, shews a small building between the Frater and the Dorter, which 1\1. Viollet-le-Duc, who has reproduced s part of it, letters" staircase to the dorter." The room in question was probably at the top of this staircase, and the arrangements which I am about to discuss shew beyond all question that the Dorter was at one end of it and the Frater at the other. There were six bookcases, called benches (bill/cite), evidently corresponding to the sedilia or "seats" mentioned in many English medie\'al catalogues. The writer takes the bookcases in order, beginning as follows: ne prima banca inferius versus refectorium (13 \"ols.). In 2" linea prime banche superius (17 vo]s.). In 2" banca inferius de latcre dormitorii (I8 \"ols.). " "superius " " (I vols.). J n 2" banca inferius de latere rcfectorii (IS vo]s.). " " superius " " (18 vols.). I Invental ium lihrorum monasterii Cistercii, Cabilonensis dioce,is, f.1.ctum per nos, frat rem Johannem, abbatem eiusdem loci, anno Domini millesimo cccc octuagesimo, postquam per duos annos continuos labore duorum et sepius trium ligatorum eos,lem libros aptari, ligari, et cooperiri, cum magnis sumptihus et expensis fecimus. 2 Et primo Iihrorum existencium in librm a donuitorii, quam lIt est disposlIimns, cum Jocus ipse prius diu fnisset inutilis et dudnm arti sntorie et 'e,tiario serviebat, sicut per aliquas annexas armariorumqne dispo itiones app:>rebat, sed a 110 annis vel circa nichil aut pal"Um ibi fuerat. 3 Dictio1l1laÙ.e ,-aisOlm( de I'Architecture, I. 2jJ. He ùoes not give the date, hut, "hen I examined the original in the Riblioth.'que . \ atiollale, I fonnd it plainly dated 16j4. It is a most valuable record, a, it shews the monastic buildings, which were greatly altered at the heginning of Ihe last century, in their primiti,'e state. III] CITEAUX 10 5 The third and fifth ballche, containing respectively 75 volumes and 68 volumes, are described in identical language; but the descriptions of the 4th and 6th differ sufficiently to make quotation necessary: In quarta banca de latere dormitorii (24 vols,). " " " refectorii (16 \ oIs.). In se"ta hanca de latere dormitorii (25 \"ols.). Libri sequentcs sunt in dicta seJ\.ta banea de laterc dormitorii inferius sub analogio (38 \"Ols.). It seems to me that the first banca was set against the Dorter wall, so that it faced the Frater; and that it consisted of t\\'o shelves only, the second of which is spoken of as a line (linea)'. The second, third, and fifth bt11/che were detached pieces of furniture, with two shelves on each side. I cannot explain why the fourth is described in such different language. It is just possible that only one shelf on each side may ha\'e been occupied by books when the catalogue was compiled. I con- jecture that the sixth stood against the Frater \\ all, thus facing the Dorter, and that it consisted of a shelf, with a desk below it, and a second shelf of books below that again. Be<;ides thcse cases there were other receptacles for books called cupboards (armaria) and also some chests. These are noted in the following terms: Sccuntur libri existentes in armariis librarie. I n primo armario de latcTl n rsus refectorium (36 ,'ols.). In secunda armario (53 \"ols.). In tertio armaria (24 \"ols.). Sequuntur lihri existentes in cofro seu archa ju'\ta gradus a cen us .1<1 \"e!>tiarium in libr.uia (46 \015.). In quadam cista juxta analogium de laterc rdecturii (9 \"015.). The total of the :\ISS. stored in this room amounts to 509. In addition to these the catalogue next enumerates" Books of the choir, church, and cloister (53 "015.); Books taken out of the library for the daily use of the convent (29 voI5.); Books chained on desks (slIpcr alm/tJgiis) before the Chapter-House (5 ,'ols.); on the second desk (5 vols.); on the third desk (4 "015.); on the fifth desk (4 vols.); Books taken out of the library partly to be , ,,'j,h this use of the \\on] Iill a may he comparerl the \\ "nl rnJ'l'II, no\\ " "allv "-Ctl in France for a hclf, e'pecially a Look-,helr. 106 CITEAUX, CANTERBURY [CHAP. placed in the cloister, partly to be divided among the brethren (27 vols.); Books on the small desks in the cloister (5 vols.); Books to be read publicly in convent or to be divided among the brethren for private reading (99 vo]s.)." These diffcrent collections of l\1SS., added together, make a total of 740 volumes, which seem to have been scattcred O\:er the House, wherever a spare corner could be found for them. The inconvenience of such an arrangement, or want of arrangement, is obvious; and it must have caused much friction in the House. \Ve can imagine thc officcr in chdrge of the finances resenting the intrusion of his brother of the library with an asperity not wholly in accordance with fraternal charity. And yet, so strong is the tendency of human nature to put up with whatever exists, rather than be at the troub]e of changing it, no effectual steps in the way of remedy were taken until the fifteenth century. In that century, howcver, we find that in most of the large monasteries a spccial room was constructed to hold books. Reading went forward, as heretofore, in the cloister, and I concei,,'e that the books stored in the ncw library were mainly intended for loan or for reference. As at Durham, the monks could go there when they chose. These conventual libraries were usually built ovcr some existing building, or ovcr the cloistcr. Sometimes, especially in France, the library appears as an additional storey added to any building with walls strong enough to bear it; somc- times again as a detached building. I will cite a few examples of libraries in thcse different positions. A t Christ Church, Canterbury, a library, about 60 ft. long by 22 ft. broad, was built by Archbishop Chichele between 1414 and 1443, over the Prior's Chapel], and \ViIliam Sellyng (l)rior 1472-1494) "adorned [it] with beautiful wainscot, and also furnished it with certain volumes chicfly for the use of those addicted to study, whom he zealous]y and generously encouraged and patronised 2 ." 1 Godwin, De PræslIlj{",s AlZgliu, ed. Richardson, I. 126. 2 Anglia Sacra, I. qS. Librariam etiam supra Capelbm Prioris situatam perpulcrâ cælaturâ adornavit, quam etiam nonnullis libri inslaurari fecit, ad usum ma"imè literarum studiis deditorum. quos mira Mudio et bene,'olent;" nutri,il et fovit. III] DURHA I, GLOUCESTER 10 7 .-\t Durham Prior \\Tessyngton, about thoroug-hly repaired and refitted a room over the old sacristy, between the Chapter-House and the south Transept, or, a<; the Rites say, "betwixt the Chapter House and the Te Deum wyn- dowe, being well replenished with auld written Docter<; and other his- tories and ecclesiasticall writers I." \\Tessyngton',> work must ha,,-e been extensive and thorough, for it cost, including the repairs of the books, J;go. 16s. od,2-at least J;IIOO or J;1200 at the present \.alue of money. The position of this library will be understood from the illustration (fig. 3]). The room is 44 ft. 10 in. long, by ] 8 ft. wide, with a window at each end, J 3 ft. wide, of fi ve lights, and .1 very rough roof of oak, resting on plain stone corbels. .-\ t Gloucester the library is in a similar position, but the date of its construction i<; uncertain, [t has been described as follows by l\Ir Hope: '446, either built or ,ñ . · :;j, \ I \1 ' I" .. 0>- ..J "'- J H I , I ..-- ..... r"t' I 1- A'Ji A " I ., .. .... -. .... I --...;;;., The library is an intcresting room of fourteenth century date, retaining much of its original open roof. The Fig. 31. Library at Durham, built by north side ha., e1e\en \\ indows, each Prior Wessyngton about '44 6 . of two !>quare-headed lights and per- fectly plain.._ [There are no windo\\s on the south side.] The large end \\ indows arc late perpendicul.\r, each of SCRI1 lights with a transom. There are other alterations, such as the beautiful wooden corbels from I Rites of Dw'halJl, p. 26. 2 IIr m .trucIura ij fene,trarum in Lihraria lam in opere Iapideo, ferrario et \itriario, ac in reparacione leeli de..corum el ij o.liorum. necnnn reparaLione Iihrorum <;e cxlendiI ad ilijU",. nj'. cl uhr,l. I/i.t. Dlilldlll. Scri/,Ion< Iru, F.J. Surlce, Soc, p. cd",,;;i. 108 WINCHESTER, ST ALllANS, ETC. [CHAP. which the roof springs, which are probably contemporary with the work of the cloister when the western stair to the library was built, and the room altered. At \Vinchester a preciseJy similar position was seJected bctween the Chapter-House and the south transept, above a passage leading from the cloister to the ground at the south- east end of the church. At the Benedictine House of S. Albans the library was begun in 1452 by John \Vhethamstede, Prior, and completed in the following year at the cost of J;1501-a sum which represents about 1,2000 at the present day-but the position has not been recorded. At \Vorcester, also Benedictine, it seems probable that the library occupied from very early times the long, narrow room over the south aisle of the nave to which it was restored in 1866. This room, which extends from the transept to the west end of the church, is 130 ft. 7 in. long, 19 ft. 6 in. wide, and 8 ft, 6 in. high on the south side. It is lighted by twelve windows, eleven of which are of two lights each, and that nearest to the transept of three lights. The room is approached by a circular stone staircase at the south-west angle of the cathedral, access to which is from the outside only2. At Bury S. Edmund's abbat William Curteys (1429-45) built a library, on an unknown site: but his work is worth commemorating, as another instance of the great fifteenth century movement in monasteries for providing special rooms to contain books. At S, Victor, Paris, an Augustinian House, the library was built between 1501 and 1508, I believe over the sacristy; at Gröncndaal, near Brussels, al<;o Augustinian, it was built O\'er the whole length of the north cloister (a distance of 175 feet), so that its windows faced the south. The Franciscan House in London, commonly called Christ's Hospital, had a noble library, founded 21 October, 142 I, by Sir Richard \\'hittingtol1, mercer and Lord Mayor of London. By 1 R gist. AbbatiæJohawlis fVkethalllstede Abbatis 1Ilona.rtnii sOlidi A/balli it "11111 S1isceptle: ed. II. T. Riley, Rolls Ser. Vol. I. p. 423. 2 lIist. lllld Allt. of fVorcest r. By V. Green, 4to. Lond. 1;96. Vol. I. p. ;9. The mea'lIrements in the text Were taken hy myself in 1895' It "."" s..... ..w: --- - 1/1 "-"'(.... '" .;;;... 1- '\...... . .. ...-...... _ 1ii . 1 .. .\ ",ì '1' r; I . (". ,,' I'.' .' n)r}:' 1. lili l ìf . li: .8 1 , IS , I I ,"" " f ' f-' +; /+:1' --- .. I, ," ! II I r , :' t " J . It It.1 ;4-1 f, oF ..of . - / of' f .' ., ì' I'" - .. L. : ,. a _ If +' I'{ ti ' Fig. 32. Library of the Grey Friars House, London, commonly called Christ's Hospital. From Tro\l()pe' IIisl()r}. III] LIBRARY AT CITEAUX 10 9 Christmas Day in the following year the building was roofed ill ; and before three years were over it was floored, plastered, glazed, furnished with desks and wainscot, and stocked with books. The cost was ;[556. 16s. 8d.; of which ;[400 was paid by Whittington, and the rest by Thomas \Vynchelsey, one of the brethren, and his friends I. It extended over the whole of one alley of the cloister (fig. 32). Stow tells us that it was 129 ft. long, by 3 I ft. broad ; and, according to the letters patent of Henry VIII., dated 13 January, 1547, by which the site was conveyed to thc City of London, it containeù "28 Desks and 28 Double Settles of \\'ainscot3." I have recountcd the expedients to which the monks of Citeaux wcre reduced when thcir books had become too numerous for the cloister. I will now describc their pcrmanent library. This is shewn in the bird's-cyc view dated 1674 to which I have already referred, and also in a second similar view, datcd 17 I 8, preserved in the archives of thc town of Dijon \ where I had the gooù fortune to discover it in 1894. It is accompanied by a plan of the whole monastery, and also by a spccial plan 5 of thc library (fig. 35). The buildings had by this time bcen a good deal altercd, and partly rebuilt in the classical style of the late renaissance; but in thcsc changes the library had been respected. I reproduce (fig, 33) the portion of the view containing it and thc adjoining structures, together with the corresponding ground-plan (fig. 34). The authors of the Voyagl." LittÙaz're, Fathers l\Iartène and Durand, who visited Citeaux in 1710, thus describe this library: I lIIollil/llelittl FIOIlCÙralltl, ed. J. S. Brewer, Rolls er. \'01. J. p. 319, from a document called .. Prima fundatio fratrum minurum Londoni.c," l\I S. Cotton, V itelIius, F. xii. " Stow's Survey, ed. StrYl'e, fol. Lund. I ï 20, Book 3, p. 130. · History of CI,rist's Hospital, hy Rev. \Y. rrollol'e, ..tu. Lond. 1H3", ApI'. p. xxiii. The view uf the library (fig. 32) is borro\\ed from this work. · I have to thank 1\1. Jo eph Gamier, .c\rchivi,tc du Déparlement, fur hb great I-indncss, not only in allo\\ing me 10 examine these precious relics, but in having them conveyed to a photographer, and personally superintending a reproduction uf them for my use. S This plan is not dated, but, from internal evidence, it forms part of the set to which the bird's-eye view and the general ground-plan belong. They were taken when .. des projets," as the heading call- them, Were being discussed. One of Ihese was an increase of the library by the additiun uf a lung gallery at the e3,t end at right angles to the uriginal constluctiun. 110 LIBRARY AT CITEAVX [CHAP. Citeaux sent sa gran de maison et son chef d'ordre. Tout y est grand, beau et magnifique, mais d'une magnificence qui ne blesse point la simplicité religieuse.... - . . .:. ;1 oj '* )" -. i' rJr(f\ ' '- \., I. ., '. . . ' '.l- ' -jJ. "I! !J Çl __L - B , _ 1I11 11111: II!" ill I'J11 ! ' I "f. ". . '> 1- -lL' fl. I . / ,. 1 1 '" .1. 'l! · , / Lf! ' : -;;1;,-;- ÏÏÍ!1l" "lfrW 1 r æ ' (, ; -;' ,1-;; W I....L tr,-- " , , f . I ....... .'''t ,,' , , , ' ' / ' 7 "! " ." r {.: It 'i 'I It" f 11'1 II ll I I. íl( ">. ., Þ., . }u,..11 :"'UII, . ' ..r" " Y 51- :..'-;-: -Ì. , ' .,'\0' ....."''''",''' ........""'.'...."'" "'" .!!,..C",- "1- 1_. ",-." "'-" ... " t ,. t ... Fig. 33. Bird's.eye view of part of the Monastery of Citeaux. From a drawing dated 1718. A, library: B, farmery. Les trois cloîtres sont proportionnez au reste des bâtimens. Dans l'un de ces cloîtres on voit de petites cellules comme à Clervam., lju'on appelle les écritoires, parce que les anciens moines y écrivoient des lines. La bibliothèque est au dessus; Ie vaisseau cst grand, voûté, et bien percé. II y a bon fonds de livres imprimez sur toutes sortes de matières, et sept ou huit cent manuscrits, dont la plupart sont des ouvrages des pères de l'église '. The ground-plan (fig. 34) shews the WrIting-rooms or scrip- loria, apparently six in number, eastward of the church; and the bird's-eye view (fig. 33) the library built over them. Un- fortunately we know nothing of the date of its construction. It occupied the greater part of the north side of a cloister called 1 Voyage Litt.raire de deux Reli,gieux BClldictÙlj, +to. Paris, 171 i, I. 1 9 8 , 22 I. III] LIBRARY AT CITEAUX III "petit cloitre" or Farmer)' Cloister, from the large building on the --------., =- .7Vt3e3 'd", tJ '..9:..,d. " r - þ l ;... Jð ....Ol-'C.-' de. 1 Jl-c.d.s et dc. 1 nJ Fig. 34. Ground-plan of part of the Monastery of Citeaux. From a plan dated 1718. east side originally built as a Farmery (fig. 33, B). It was ap- proached by a newel-stair at its south-west corner (fig. 35). This .-:? l /' (:I... . .. ',. : ; i '. i ' : ; ! ". . f: !, /W'w. ". .: i " '. '. i =-- ?_ 1.'/_,.. . Fig. 35. Ground-plan of the Library at Citeaux, -r'r-+ 6Z!-l'f{;'---.J IJ2 CITEAUX, CLAIRVAUX [CHAP. stair gave access to a vestibule, in which, on the west, was a door leading into a room called small library (petite bibliothèqltc), apparently built over one of the chapels at the east end of the church (fig. 34). The destination of this room is not known. The library proper was about 83 feet long by 25 feet broad" vaulted, and lighted by six windows in the north and south walls. There was probably an east window also, but as explained above, it was intended, when this plan was drawn, to build a new galIery for books at this end of the older structure. I proceed next to the library at Clairvaux, a House which may be called the eldest daughter of Citeaux, hdving been founded by S. Bernard in J I 15. This library was built in a position precisely similar to that at Citeaux. namely, eastward of the church, on the north side of the second cloister, over the Scriptoria. Begun in 1495, it was completed in J 503; and was evidently regarded as a work of singular beauty, over which the House ought to rejoice, for the building of it is commemorated in the following stanzas written on the first leaf of a catalogue made between 1496 and J 509, and now preserved in the library at Troyes': La construction de cette librairie. 'adis se fist cette construction .Par bons oU\Tiers subtill: et plains de sens L'an qu'on disoit de l'incarnation Nonante cinq avec mil quatre cens. Et tant y fut besongnié de courage En pierre, en bois, et autre fourniture Qu'après peu d'ans achevé fut louvrage 1\Iurs et piliers et voulte et couverture. Puis en apres l'an mil v" et trois Y furent mis les lines des docteurs: Le doux Jésus qui pendit en la croix Doint paradis au" dévotl: fondatcurs. Amen. \Ve fortunately possess a minute description of Clairvaux, written, soon after the completion of the new library, by the secretary to the Queen of Sicily, who came there 13 July, 15 1 7, 1 I ha\'e taken I toise=6'39 feet. " I have to thank 1\[. Léon Dorez, of the Bibliothèque Kationale, Paris, for kindly lending me his transcript of this catalogue, and for continual help in all my researche . III] LlRRARV AT CL\IRVAUX 113 and was taken, apparently, through every part of the monasteryl. The account of the library is as follows: Et de ce même costé [dudit cloistre] sont xiiii estudes où les religieulx escripvent et estudient, lesquelIes sont très belIes, et au dessus d'icelIes estudes est la neufve librairerie, à laquelIe I'on va par une vis large et haulte estant audict cloistre, laquelIe librairie contient de longeur Ixiii passées, et de largeur xvii passées. En icclle y a quarante huic banctz, et en chacun banc quatre poulpitres fournys de livres de touttes sciences, et principallement en théolugie, dont la pluspart desdicts livres sont en parchemin et escript à la main, richement historiez et enluminez. L'édiffice de ladicte librairie est magnificque et massonnée, et bien esclairé de deux costez de belIes grandes fenestres, bien vitrés, ayant regard sur ledict c10istre et cimitière des Abbcz. La couverture est de plomb et semblablement de ladite église et c1oistre, et tous les pilliers bouttans d'iceulx édiffices couverts de plumb. J e devant d'icelIe librairie est moult richement orné et entaillé par Ie bas de collunnes d'estranges façons, et par Ie hault de riches feuilIaiges, pinacles et tabernacles, garnis de grandes ymaiges, qui décorent et embclissent ledict édifice. La vis, par laquelIe on y monte, est à six pans, larges pour y monter trois hommes de front, et couronné à I'entour de c1eres voyes de massunerie. Ladicte librairerie est toute pavée de petits carreaulx à diver es figures. It will be interesting to place by the side of this description a second, written nearly two hundred years later, by the authors of the Voyage Litkraire, who visited Clairvaux in the spring of 1709: Le grand c1oÎtre.. .est voûté et vitré. Les religieux y doivent garder un perpétuel silence. Dans Ie côté du chapitre il y a des livres enchaÎnez sur des pupitres de bois, dans lesquels les religieux peuvent venir faire des lectures lorsqu'ils veulent.... I)u grand cloître on entre dans Ie c10ître du colloque, ainsi appellé, parce qu'il est perm is aux religieux d'y parler. 11 y a dans ce c10Ître dOULe ou quinze petites cellules tout d'un rang, où les religieux écrivuient autrefois des livres; c'est pourquoy on les appelIe encore aujourd'hui les écritoires. Au-dessus de ces cellules est la bibliothèque, dont Ie vaisseau cst grand, voûté, bien percé, et rempli d'un grand nombre de manuscrits, attache7 avec des chaÎnes sur des pupitres, mais il y a peu de livres imprimez 2 . The plan of the substruction of this ncw library, as shewn on J Printed in Didron, AllIlales An:nt!ologitjlles, lR. 5, 11[. 218. The article is entitled: VII gralld II/ollastère all XVI"'" siède. I 0\\ e this reference to my friend "Ir W. II. St John Hope, A__i_tant Se::cretary to the Society of Anti'luarie::s. 2 Voy. Lit(. I. 101, 102. c.!. 8 114 LIBRARIES AT CLAIRVAUX, S. GERMAIN DES PRÈS [ClIo the ground-plan of Clairvaux given by Viollet Le Duct, is exactly the same as that of Citeaux (fig. 33) but on a larger scale. The library itself, as there, was approached by a newel stair at its south-west corner. This stair was hexagonal, and of a diameter sufficient to allow three men to ascend at the same time. The library was of great extent-being about 206 feet long by 56 feet broad-if the dimensions given in the above account be correct, and if I am right in supposing a pace (Passle) to be equivalent to a modern mètre; vaulted, and well lighted. The Queen's secretary seems to have been specially struck by the beauty, the size, and the decoration of the windows. The floor was paved with encaustic tiles. It will be interesting to note how, in some Houses, the library slowly expanded itself, occupying, one after another, every coign of vantage-ground. An excellent example of this growth is to be found in the abbey of Saint Germain des Près, Paris; and fortunately there are several views, taken at different periods before the Revolution, on which the gradual extension of the library can be readily traced. I append a portion of two of these. The first (fig. 36), dated 1687, shews the library over the south walk of the cloister, where it was placed in 1555. It must not, however, be supposed that no library existed before this. On the contrary, the House seems to have had one from the first foundation, and so early as the thirteenth century it could be consulted by strangers, and books borrowed from it. The second view (fig. 37), dated 1724, shews a still further extension of the library. It has now invaded the west side of the cloister, which has received an upper storey; and even the external appearance of the venerable Frater, which was respected when nearly all the rest of the buildings were rebuilt in a classical style, has been sacrificed to a similar gallery. The united ]engths of these three rooms must have been little short of 384 feet. This library was at the disposal of all scholars who desired to use it. \Vhen the Revolution came it contained more than 49,000 printed books, and 7000 manu- scripts 2 . 1 Dictiomzaire de r Ardlitecture, I. 26 7. 2 For the history of this library see Bouil\art's work cited at the foot of Fig. 37 ; and Franklin, A1lcienms Bib/iothèurmitorium. JO Aulæ Ho"pitum. 12 Refectorium. 8-2 116 S. GER'IAIN DES PRÈS [CHAP. . ., :." ''i:.", .,;" "' '.. '!- ,:. L \. -' Fig. 37. Part of the Abbey of S. Germain des Près. Paris. From a print in Histoire de r Abhaye Royale d Saillt Germaill des PreE, par Dom Jacques Bouillart, fol. Paris, 1724. lettered ., ]'Abbaye...telle lJu'elle est présentement." A. Porte Extérieure. B. !lIaisons de ('enclos. C. Parvi. de l'Eglise. D, L'Eglise. F. Sacl istie. G. Petit Cloitre. H. Grand Cloitre, I. Bibliothèque. K. Dortoir. L, Réfectoire. 1\1. Cuisine. Z. Do>>toir des Hôtes. I now pass to Cathedrals, which vied with monasteries in the possession of a library; and, as might be expected, the two sets of buildings throw light on each other. I regret that it has now become impossible to discover the site or the extent of such a library as that of York, which was well stocked with books so early as the middle of the eighth century; or of that of Notre Dame de Paris, which was a centre of instruction as well as of III] LlXCOLK CATHEDRAL 1I7 learning; but some good examples of capitular libraries can be found in other places; and, like those of the monasteries, they were for the most part built in the fifteenth century. I wiI] begin with the library of Lincoln Cathedral, part of which is still in existence 1 . The Cathedral of Lincoln was founded at the close of the eleventh century, and in the middle of the twelfth we find the books belonging to it kept in a press (armarium). \Ve learn this from the heading of a list 2 of them when placed in the charge of Hamo, Chancellor 1150-1182, written on the first page of a copy of the Vulgate, the first volume in the collec- tion: Quando Hamoni cancellario cancellaria data fuit et librorum cura commissa, hos in armario invcnit libros et sub custodia sua recepit, scilictt ; Bibliothecam in duobus voluminibus [etc.]. The list which follows enumerates 42 \.olumes, togethcr with a map of the world. To this small collection there were added in Hamo's time, either by his own gift or by that of other benefactors, 3 I volumes more; so that before his death the press contained 73 volumes, probably a large collection for that period, Besides thcse, there were service-books in the charge of the bursar (thcsallrarius), and song-books in that of the precentor. The three collections wcre probably kept in the church. The first indication of a separate room to contain books is afforded by the gift of a volume by Philip Repyndon, Bishop 1405-1419, in which ycar he resigned. It is given after his resignation, "to the new library to be built within the Church of Lincoln." Again, Thomas Duffield, formerly Chancellor, who dicd in 1426, bequeathed another book" to the new library of the aforesaid church." The erection of the new library may thcrcfore be placed betwecn 1419 and 1426. A catalogue, now in the muniment room at Lincoln, which, on internal cvidence, may be dated about 1450, enumerates 107 1 For the bi,torical information contained in this narrati\ e, \\ hich originally appeared a, a paper in the Call1b. Allt. Soc. Proc. alld C0111111. I)\.. 3; for 18 February, 189 , I am indebted to an article in Th,' BUIlder, 1 April, 1892, Pl" 159-163, by my friend the late Rev. E. Yenahle" Canon and Precentor of Lincoln. " TI1i, list has been printed in the .\ppcndix to Gira/.llts Ca/ll/>/,wis (Rulls Scrie,), \ 11.165-1;1. 118 LINCOLN CATHEDRAL [CHAP. works, of which 77 (more or less) have been identified as still in the Jibrary. The heading, which I will translate, refers to a chaining of the books which had rccently taken place, possibly after the construction of the cases which I shall describe in a subsequent chapter. It is to be noted that in this indenture are enumerated all the books in the library of the church of blessed Mary of Lincoln which have lately been secured with locks and chains; of which indenture one part is stitched into the end of the black book of the aforesaid church, and the other part remains in,..'. The library-a timber structure-was placed over the northern half of the east walk of the cloister. At present only three bays at the north end remain; but there were originally two bays more, at the south end, between the existing structure and the Chapter-House. These were destroyed in 1789, when the following Chapter Ordcr was made (7 l\Iay): That the old Library adjoining to the Chapter House shall be taken dO\\n, and the part of the Cloysters under it new leaded and the \\alls com pleated, and the Stair case thcrto removed, and a new Stair Case made, agreable to a plan and estimate of the Expence thereof. I will now briefly describe the room, with the assistance of the plan (fig. 38)2, and the vicw of the interior (fig. 39). The walls arc 9 ft. 8 in. high, from thc floor to the top of the wall-plate. They are di\'ided into bays, each 7 ft. 9 in. wide, by vertical shafts, from which, at a height of 5 ft. 9 in. from the ground, spring the braces which support the tiebeams of the roof. These are massive bcams of oak, slightly arched, and molded on their under-surface. Their position is indicated by dotted lines on the plan (fig. 38). The whole roof is a splendid spccimen of fifteenth century work, enriched with carving in the finest style of execution. There is a bold ornament in the centre of each tiebeam; and at the foot of the central joist in each bay, which is wider than the rest, and molded, while the others are , Memorandum quod in ista indentura continentur omnes libri existentes in libraria ecclesie beate Marie Lincoln de novo sub selUris cathenati, cuius quidem indenture una pars consuitur in fine nigri libri dicte ecclesie et altera pars remanet in... The rest of the line is illegible. I have to thank the Rev. A. R. Maddison for kindly lending me his transcript of this valuable MS. 2 For this plan I have to thank my friend T. D. Atkinson, Esq., of Cambridge, architect. - > ,'- , '... "- --- " " "- \, - - " , - 11 ï ,.... I' . 1 1 J - ..=-, -- I ' ... , ".- "I" /r . .... - --' 'IJI Fig. 39. Interior of the Old Library, Lincoln Cathedral. I"h" "pCII du"r 1l' OLD II I ii, II === I I, " II IJ wt, S , . DESTROYED ::e . r r L I a R A R Y B CLOISTER BELOW ''-....\ / ./j .......... CHAPTER HOUSE L . o to IØ I 50ALE OF fEET Fig. 38. Plan of the Old Library, Lincoln Cathedral 120 LINCOLN CATHEDRAL [CHAP. instrument-a bird-a rose-a grotesque figure-and the like. Below the wall-plate is a cornice, 12 in. deep, ornamented with a row of quatrefoils above a row of battlements. Beneath these there is a groove, which seems to indicate that the walls were once panelled or plastered. It is probable that there was originally a row of equidistant windows in the east and west walls, one to each bay on each side; but of these, if they ever existed, no trace remains. There must also have been a window at the north end, and probably one at the south end also. The present windows are plainly modern. The room is known to have suffered from a fire, which tradition assigns to 1609; and probably the original windows were changed during the repairs rendered necessary at that time. I t is not easy to decide how this library was approached. I t has been suggested that the stone newel stair at the north- west corner of the Chapter-House was used for this purpose; but, if that be the case, how are we to explain the words in the above order "the Stair Case thereto removed"; and an item which occurs in the Cathedral Accounts for 1789, "taking down the old stairs, strings, and banisters, 14s."? It appeared to me, when examining the building, that there had been originaIly a door on the ea!>t side, now replaced by a window, as shewn on 100 CLOISTER OARTH 50 o 100 200 , I SCALE OF FEET Fig. 40 Plan of the Cloister, etc., Lincoln Cathedral. III] SALISBURY CATHEDRAL 121 the plan (fig. 3S). Possibly the staircase destroyed in 1789 led to this door, which was conveniently situated in the centre of a bay. The staircase built in 1789 is the one still existing at the north-east corner of the old library (fig. 40, A). At Salisbury Bishop Osmund (1078-99) is stated to have "got together a quantity of books, for he himself did not disdain either to write books or to bind them after they had been written "I; but the library, as elsewhere, was a work of the fifteenth century. The foundation is very clearly recorded in an act of the Chdpter, dated 15 January, 1444-45. The members present decide that as it is desirable, "for divers reasons, to have certain schools suitable for lectures, together with a library for the safe keeping of books and the convenience of those who wish to study therein-which library up to the present time they have been without-such schools and library shall be built as soon as possible over one side of the cloister of the church, at the cost of William [AyscoughJ now Bishop of Salisbury. the Dean, and the Canons of the aforesaid church .' Accordingly, a building was erected, extending over the whole length of the east cloister, conveniently approached by the staircase at the south-west corner of the south transept, which originally led only to the roof. This library \\as curtailed to its present dimensions, and otherwise altered, in consequence of a Chapter Order dated 25 November, 1758, part of which I proceed to quote: That the southern part of the library be taken down as far as the partitions \\ ithin which the manuscripts are placed, the whole being found much too heavy to be properly supported by the Cloysters, which were never designed originally to bear so great a \\ eight. That the roof of the northern part of the library (where the Theological lecture antiently used to be given by the Chancellor of the Church) be taken dO\\ n; the walls lowered, and a new and lighter roof be placed in its room; and that the same be fitteù up in a neat and comenient manner for the reception of the prescnt books and any others which shall hereafter be added to them. I William of :\Ialmesbury, Gesttl POlltijiWI1l, Rolls Ser. p. 18 3. 2 Ex eo quod visum est eis vIi Ie et necessarium iliuersis cau i eos moventihus hahere quasdam scolas competentes pro lecturi uis vna cum libraria ad conseruacionem librorum et vtilitatem inibi studere volencium qua hactenus caruenmt sIatuerunt... quod uper vna parte claustri eiusdem ecclcsie huiusll1o
  • , .. :J .t:O UJ ë;j rn >, .. .t:O ...J G.I -5 ... o .. o .;: G.I [iJ ': }. '.t '\- !, þ ., , -' ï- -. t- ( L .- - I J J l -- JI.... '. ... -' .... .- -- -- -!. - ..., -..!J .L Ì& - _ :::=..,..., . "4 -- -- I ...:..- , ( " '1- ) , I , ) --1 ._,. - !! . - , 'J , . . >. .. tIS .. .c ..J OJ -5 "" t: tIS " I - OJ OJ .. 'in OJ -5 E a .t: OJ u t: t: OJ '- a OJ 'c; b/) OJ -5 b/) t: . OJ ,t; II) t: OJ ::I a D:: . ....; .., ..J OJ -5 '- a .. o .;:: OJ ë - ,:.. ... bÌJ CHAPTER IV. THE FITTlXGS OF IO ASTIC LIBRARIES AXD OF COLLEGIATE LIBRARIES PROBABLY IDEXTICAL. AI\ALYSIS OF SOME LIBR.-\RY-ST.-\TUTES. IOXASTIC IKFLUEXCE AT THE UXI\'ERSITIES. I\U [BER OF BOOKS O\\'I\ED BY COLLEGES. THE COLLEGIATE LIBRARY. BISHOP COBHA I'S LIBRARY AT OXFURD, LIBR.-\RY AT QUEEI\S' COLLEGE, CA IRRIDGE. AT ZUTPIIEK. THE LECTERX YSTE:\L CIIAIXIKG OF BOOKS. FURTHER EXA:\IPLES AND ILLUSTRATIO S. OW were the libraries mentioned in the preceding chapter fitted Up? For instance, what manner of bookcases did Archbishop Chichele put into his library at Canterbury in 1414, or the" bons ouvriers subtilz et plains de sens" supply to the Abbat of Clairvaux in 1496? The primitive book-presses have long ago been broken up; and the medieval devices that succeeded them have had no better fate. This dearth of material need not, however, discourage us. \Ve have, I think, the means of discovering with tolerable certainty what monastic fittings must have been, by comparing the bookcases which still exist in a more or less perfect form in the libraries of Oxford and Cambridge with such monastic catalogues as give particulars of arrangement and not merely lists of books. The collegiate system was in no sense monastic, indeed it was to a certain extent established to counteract monastic influence j but it is absurd to suppose that the younger com- munities would borrow nothing from the elder-especially when we reflect that the monastic system, as inaugurated by ill I . f . . . 9- 2 13 2 LOANS OF BOOKS AT OXFORD [CHAP. S. Benedict, had completed at least seven centuries of success- ful existence before \Valter de Merton was moved to found a college, and that many of the subsequent founders of colleges were more or less closely connected with monasteries. Further, as we have seen that study was specially enjoined upon monks by S. Benedict, it is precisely in the direction of study that we might expect to find features common to the two sets of com- munities. And, in fact, an examination of the statutes affecting the ]ibrary in the codes imposed upon some of the earlier colleges at Oxford and Cambridge, leads us irresistibly to the conclusion that they were derived from monastic Customs, using the word in its technical sense, and monastic practice. The resemblances are too striking to be accidental. I shall therefore, in the next place, review, as briefly as I can, the statutes of some of the above colleges, taking them in chronological order 1 ; and I shall tr;:mslate some passages from them. But first let me mention that the principle of lending books to students under a pledge was accepted by the University of Oxford many years before colleges were founded. It is recorded that Roger L'Isle, Dean of York, in the early part of the thirteenth century, o as,>umed that any book or books representing a given class, if not represented in the lending library, as Astronomy, Arithmetic, lusic, etc., would be chained for rt'ference. The number of this class, 220, if added to the 160 of the other class, gi,'es the required total, 380. In addition to these tables it will be interestin to construct a third, containing the subject and number of the books repre- sented in both collectiuns: Chained Lent Theology 61 63 Xatural Philosophy 26 1 :\retaphysics 3 I 19 :\roral Philol;ophy 5 logic 5 I 15 ( ;rammar 6 l Poetry 4 J 13 :\[edicine 15 3 Ci\il Law 9 20 Canun Law 18 19 15 2 15 2 The subject,> of the book'> included in this latter table represent, in a very clear and interesting way, the studies pursued at Peterhouse in the 14th and 15th centuries. It is prescribed by the statutes, dated 1344, that the scholars are to study Arts, Aristotelian Philosophy, or Theology; but that they are to apply themselves to the course in Arts until, in the judgmcnt of the i\laster and Fellows, or at least of the larger and wiser portion of that body, they are sufficiently instructed to proceed to the study of Theologyl. Two may study Ci,.il Law or Canon La\\', but no more at the same time; and one may study 1IIedicinc.. For both these lines of study special leave is required. The course of Arts comprised Grammar, Logic, 1\ri,>totle, Arithmetic, l\I usic. Geometry, and Astronomy. I n the first of these, including Poetry, the lending library contained more \'olumes than the reference library; in Logic it had three times I C mmi . r>" ( . (t ".'''''.ri,lgd, \'o\. I. p. I. t..,. '-I' " '''id. p. 22. 10- -2 14 8 WINDOWS OF COLLEGE LIDRARIES [CHAP. as many; in Philosophy (Aristotle and his commentators) it was well supplied; but, on the other hand, Music, Geometry and Astronomy were wholly wanting. Theology is represented by 63 volumes as against 61 in the reference library; Civil Law by 20 ,'olumes against 9 in the reference ]ibrary; and Canon Law by 19 against IR. In Medicine, however, there were only 3 against 15. Bya curious coincidence the number of volumes in the two collections dealing with the subjects represented in both is the same. The subject most in request, as might ha,'e been expected, was Theology. Next to this come Civil Law and Canon Law. Medicine was evidently unpopu]ar. I have no explanation to offer for the curious fact that Arithmetic, Music, Geometry, and Rhetoric are represented by only a single ,'olume apiece in the library of reference 1 . These examples, which there is no reason to regard as exceptional, are sufficient to shew that an ordinary chamber would be large enough to contain all the volumes possessed by a coIlege, even after some of the more generally useful books of reference had been chained to desks for the resort of students. It has been already shewn that what Professor \Villis calls " a real library-that is to say, a room expressly contrived fur the purpose of containing books 2 "-was not introduced into the plan of colleges for more than a century after their first foundation. I Ie points out that such rooms can be at once recognised by their equidistant windows, which do not, as a rule, differ from those of the orùinary chambers, except that they are separated by much smaller intervals. Examples of this arrangement are still to be seen at S. John'" CoIlege, Jesus College, and Queens' CoIlege, Cambridge; but perhaps the most characteristic specimcn of all is that which was built O\'er the Hall at Pembroke College in the same University, by Laurence Booth C\laster 1450-1480), the aspect of which has been preserved in Loggan's print, here reproduced (fig. 48)". The UpplT chamber (solarillm) which Thumas Cobham (Bishop of \V orcester 13 I 7-27) began to build o\'er the old I This analy is of the catalogue uf l'eterhou_e Library is horrowed from the IntroI _ ,",' ' \ . 'I'ã:" T ,I I .. '. ,,! 11'-- : I , II ,- - r-"-' t:"i d ,, ? . f;;;': 'j; '" r.;, I" - r iI' J t,';:; _ ';:'; .J: r :' - I I .' - f ...tr=:::::"I: l!':-- r.'i=3' . . , ' I "3 .I- i - _ -=o_ ... ' ,. .. I.... -1::::::::=;) . 1 I '--\Jê '.. I I -r :"'r: I , "rc-- " r=:-" . I I; , " I ø .'-" I 1{jÌf1l); iL = "C, : I Jij IF !. ,.!., I, "--" .' "","" .. Iii... \.. _ - .;;;;:J ,_'. ' I"ii - ' .- .... . =': ';'j;; .,' I ' ...' II III. y 1 :-- \- 1- _J % 149 @ , 0:; "" '" ;; M 'E :; " 0 ;;; .&> " cu ,. ."! j:;: c; Q) :.. .:0: ë -- E " " .t: -e A. " c;; II> " j:;: . cu Þ.O " Þ.O ;;0 0 ...J S " " 0 " .r:; 'CJ :;;: Q) u ,.; 'CJ .- Q) " ... "" "" .; oS Þ.O :;! - ... .&> ... S ;;0 cu U - .; .. Þ.O -;:; ::r: Õ U u .. OJ .:0: t: 0 ... -" .&> ;J S Q) - P- o:; "* .r:; v u t>Ð ..: t;: COEH.nI'S LIBRARY, O'XFORII 15 0 [ CHAP. Congregation House on the north side of S. Mary's Church, Oxford, about J 320, for the reception of the books which he intended to present to the University, IS the earliest of these ,f , < -!! 't 1 ? -, -I i ') 1ã! ' . þ' \ 1 t J '-' r,. -- ,:'$/ ;/y / ,1 1 . . , 'f 1 , r to till - Ç) .c 0 II) bD " u " 0 :ë u 'E .;: ê .E :;: >< 0 -ð " 6 ..... Ó .J:J ;j >. '0 .D " "i ... " '" .. " a 0 :r: " Eo .g : ... ... bD bD t> " 0 0 "" '0 v; Õ ... 0 .., " I: - " "" u " ... en "" bD f.,; " E 0 0 .:I Ö. ... bÕ t;: libraries in existence. It still retains uO the south side part of a range of equidistant single-light windows of the simplest character, which, as just stated, mark the destination of the o -.-:; - 11---- <::>"" ,g fo " J 9 1\'] QUEENS' COLLEGE LIBR.-\RY, CA 'fBRIDGE IS I apartment. This room is about forty-five feet long by eighteen feet broad, and, in its original state, had probably seven single- light windows on each side, and a window of two lights at the east end 1 (fig. 49). A long controversy between the University and Oriel College rendered the benefaction useless for more than forty years; and it wa<; not until 1367 that the (;" niversity passed a statute directing that Bishop Cubham's books are to be chained, in proper order; and that the Scholars who wish to use them are to have free access to them at con- venient hours (tclIlporibus opportllllis). Lastly. certain volumes, of greater ,'alue, are to be sold, to the value of forty pounds, or more, if a larger sum can be obtained for them, for the purpose of purchasing an annual rent-charge of sixty shillings, to be paid to a chaplain, who is to pray for the soul of the aforesaid Thomas Cobham, and other benefactors; and who is to take charge of the books given by him and them, and of all other books heretufore given, or hereafter to be given, to thl:: University2. The passing of this statute may probably be regarded as the first in titution of the office of University Librarian. Notwithstanding this statute, however, the Univer- sity did not obtain peaceful possession of their library until 14 10 , \\ hen the controversy was finally extinguished by the good offices of their Chancellor, Richard Courtenay!. As a type of a collegiate library I wiH select the old library of Queens' College, Cambridge. This room, on the first floor of the north side of the quadrangle, forms part of the buildings erected in 1448. It is 44 ft. long by 20 ft. wide (fig. 50), and is lighted by eleven windows, each of two lights, six of \\ hich arc in the south wall and five in the north wall. The windows in the south wall have lost their cusps, but they are retained in those in the nurth wall-and the library has in all points suffered less from modern interference than almost any other \\ith \\hich I am acquainted. The bookcases have been alterl::d I I have to thank my fricnd !\I r T. G. Jackson, architecl. for kindly lending mc thb ,ection lOf Bi,hop Cobham's Lihrary. For his history of thc huilding. see hi" Church of St .J/ary tlz lïr..I,"'", Oxford, ..to. 189;' Pl" 1)0-106. With regard to the numbcr lOf \,indo\\s he note, (po (02): Thcre \\lOuld have been cight, h\o to bay, \'ert; it nut that the tower buure"ses occupy half the western bay. .\n tey. Ibm. .-l,aJ. I. 22;. J a< I,.',' lit mIra, p. 9 R . QUEENS' COLLEGE LIBRARY, CA:\IBRIIJGE [CHAP. '52 and patched more than once, In order to provide additional shelf-room; but at the bottom of the more modern super- G F c C LIIIRAIllY L M m m E To F\rlsIDIN.., ,",0001 .... H I K m m : Þ . " z << . . oJ ; 1t . i o A _ MacL.... O......,NQ H ill o " " , c.III..e o. fL&T o .10 Fig. So. Ground-plan of the Library at Queens' College. Cambridge. I O structure part at least of the original medieval desk may detected. I f this fragment be carefully examined it will found that there is on the inside of each end uf the bookcase a groove which evidently once supported a desk 6 ft. 6 in. long, and of a height con- venient for a seated reader to use l (fig. 5 I). The books lay on their sides on this desk, to which they were chained in a way that I shall explain directly, and a bench for the reader was placed between each pair of desks. In the plan (fig. 50) I have added the half- desk which once stood against the west wall; and I have lettered all the desks according to the catalogue made in 1472 by Andrew Docket, the first President. be be o Fig. 51. Elevation of book-desk in Library of Queens . College, Cambridge'. 1 The total height of this desk-end is 66 in.; from the ground to the beginning of the groO\'e 31 in.;. each slit is 19 in. long. " For scale see fig. 62, p, 163. 1\] THE LECTERI\-SYSTE\1. LIBRARY AT ZUTPUEK 153 It should be carefully noted, when studying this plan, that the distance between each pair of windows is not more than 2 feet, and that the end of the desh covers the whole of this space. If this fact be borne in mind when examining libraries that are now fitted up in a different way, it becomes possible to detect what the original method was. I propose to name this system of fittings the lectern-system; and I shall shew, as we proceed, that it was adopted, with "arious modifications, in England, France, Holland, Germany and Italy. Fortunately, one example of such fittings still exists, at Zutphen in Holland, which I visited in April, 189-1-. Shortly afterwards I wrote the following description of what is probably a unique survival of an ancient fashion I. The library in which these fittings occur is attached to the church of SS. Peter and \Valburga, the principal church of the tonn. .-\ library of some kind is said to have existed there from very early times"; but the place where the books \\ ere kept is not known. In 1555 a suggestion was made that it would be well to get together a really good collection of books for the use of the public. The first stone of the present building was laid in 1561, and it was completed in 15 6 3. The author of the Thea/rulIl CrbiulIl Bc/gicæ, John B1aeu. whose work was completed in 1649, describes it ciS .< the public library poorly furnished with books, but being daily increased by the liberality of the Senate and Deputies 3 ." The room is built against the south choir-aisle of the church, out of which a door opens into it. In consequence of this position the shape is irregular, for the church is apsidal, and the choir-aisle is continued round part of the apse. It is about 60 feet long, by 26 feet broad at the west end. In the centre are four octagonal columns on square bases, supporting a plain quadripartite vault. The room is thus divided longitudinally into two aisles, with a small irregular space at the east end. The diagrammatic ground-plan, here subjoined (fig. 52), will 1 Call1b. .,/r,I. Soc. Proc. mtd COttlttl. Vol. VIII. pp. 3i9-388, i 'lay, 189... 2 The existing Library is stilI call d the Xew Library. 3 .\,(>'iJtt1ll flC Jlfl;,lttltt' Thea/l1w, UrbÙw, Belglc,c, fol. Am_lerdam. I6..'J' s. v. lutphania. ror Ihese historical facts I have to thank my friend l\lr (;imherg, Ar,hiva,.ius at Zutphen. 154 LIBRARY AT ZUTPlIEN [ CH.-\P. help to make this description clear. It makes no pretensions to accuracy, having been drawn from notes only 1. , , I '. . '::... ;>- -:.:4-:;, . 7,,-2 ::..:" ;E. :. I --" $ -. f_ t ' iIII , ;;;- ,. ' -. ---. - ..... .-., .... Fig. 52. Ground-plan of the Library at Zutphen. There arc t\\ 0 windows, each of three lig-hts, at the west end of the room, and four similar windows on the south side, one to each bay. There is a fifth window, now blocked, at the south- east corner. Some of these windows contain fragment;; of richly coloured stained glass-among which the figure of a large green parrot is conspicuous; but whether these fragments were brought from the church, or are part of the glass originally supplied to the library, there is no evidence to shew. Most of these windows are partially blocked, having been damaged, it is said, in one of the numerous sieges from which Zutphen hds suffered. The position of the church, close to the fortifi- cations, as maeu's bird's-eye view shews, makes this story ] I havc to thank :\Ir T. D. Atkinson, architect, for drawing thb plan. , It 1 1 I T"" ' '5. { . ....... , Fig. 53. General view of th!: north side of the Library attached to the church of S. Walburga at Zutphen. 1\] I IBR.-U:'\' AT ZUTPHEN 155 probable. The floor is paved with red tiles. The general appearance of the room will be understood from the view of the north aisle reduced from a photograph (fig. 53)1. There are eighteen buokcases, or desks; namely, ten on the south side of the room, and eight on the north side (fig. p). The material is oak; the workmanship very rude and rough. I will describe those on the south side first. Each is 9 feet long by 5 feet 5f inches high, measured from the floor to the top of the finial on the end; and the lower edge of the desk on which the books lie is 2 feet 6ì inches above the floor; but the t. ' , I -)- , .. ". , I --) " If , I ,. ì " " "W{Irf/Nr. , I ,- 1,,- ..... ........ " ... ',I " " I, I ..l !:' II Fig. 54. Desk and reader on the south side of the Library at Zutphen. From a photograph. general plan, and the relative dimensions of the diffcrent parts, will be best understood from the photograph of a single desk at which a reader is seated (fig. 54), and from the elevation of one of the ends (fig. 55, A), beside which I ha\c placed the elevation I I have again to than\" J\Ir Gimberg for this l'hot"glaph. It \\a a work of no >mall difficulty o\\ing: to Ihc imperfect light. 15 6 LIBRARY AT ZVTPHEN" [CIUP. of one of the desks at Queens' College (B). The photograph she\\'s that in fixing the height of the desk above the ground o A B Fig. 55- Elevation of (A) one of the bookcases in the Library at Zutphen: (B) one of those in the Library at Queens' College, Cambridge'. the convenience of readers hdS been carefully considered. The iron bar that carries the chains is lucked into the ornamental upright, passes through a staple in the middle of the desk, and into the upright at the opposite end, which is left plain. This bar is half an inch in diameter, and one inch above the level of the top of the desk. It is prevented from bending by pas5ing through a staple fixed in the centre of the desk. A piece of ornamental iron-work is fixed to the upright. It is made to represent a lock, but is in reality a mere plate of metal, and the tongue, which looks as though it were intended to move, is only an ornament, and is pierced by the l-eyhole. The lock is sunk in the thickness of the wood, be- hind this plate, and the bar, which terminates in a knob, is provided with two nicks, into which the bolts Fig. 56. End of iron bar, Zutphen. 1 For scale s e fig. 62, p. 163' IY] LIBRo\RY AT ZUTPHEN 157 of the lock are shot when the key is turned (fig. 56). Between each pair of desks there is a seat for the reader The desks on the north ,>ide of the room differ slightly Fig. 51. End of one of the desks on the north side of the Library, Zutphen. from those on the south side. They are rather larger, thc end are of a different shape and devoid of ornament (fig. 5ï), and there is a wider interval between the bar and the top of the desk. It seems to me prubdble that the more hig-hly ornamented desks are those which were put in when the room was first fitted up. dnd that the other.. were added from time to time as new books had to be accommodated. The books are attached to the desk by the following proces,>. A chain was taken about 12 inches long, more or less, consisting of long narrow links of hammered iron. These links exactly resemble, both in shape and size, those of a chain \\ hich may still be seen in the library of the Grammar School at Guildford, Surrcy]. This chain, of which d piece is I I have tle...cnbed thi, library in C"",l>. AliI. .Si.,. Pro.. all.! Co"'",. \oJ. \ III. Pl" II ,K 15 8 LInRARY AT ZUTI'HEN here figured (fig. 58), was probably made years after the building of the library at Zutphen. It terminates, like those at Zutphen (fig. 59), in a swivel (to prevent entanglement), attached to the ring which is strung upon the bar. The attachment of the chain to the book was effected by means of a piece of metal bent round so as to form a loop through which the last link of the chain was passed. The ends of the loop, flattened out, were attached by nail or rivet to the edge of the stout wooden board which formed the side of the book. This modc of at- tachment will be best seen in the volume which [ figure ncxt (fig, 60) -a collection of sermons printed at N urcmberg in 1487. It is belicved to havc oncc belonged to a Dominican House at Bamberg, in the library of which it was chained '. The iron loop in this specimen (fig. 60) is fastened to what I call the right-hand board of the book; by which I mean thc board which is to thc right hand of a reader when the book lies open before him; but thc selection of the right-hand or the lcft- hand board depended on indi\'idual tastc. Further the mode of attach- ment is never the same in two exam- ples. The iron and ri\.cts are often clumsy, and do considcrable damagc to the leavcs, by forcing them out of shape and staining them with rust. I n this method of chaining no pro- vision is made for removing any book [CHAP. 111 1586, or only 23 ... / "', ,\ I, \ Î \ I c I' I I I I , I I I I I 'I:II J " Fig. s8. I-'iece of chain, shewing the ring attached to the bar. the swivel, and one of the links, actual size. Guildford. I Thi book is now in the Univer,ity Lihrary. Cambridge. 1\] LIBRARY AT ZUTPIIEN 159 from the desk when not ,,"anted, and p]acing it on a shelf beneath the desk, as was done in some Italian mo- difications of the system. = _ _ Each volume must lie on the desk, attached by its chain, like a Bible on a church-lectern. The smallest number of volumes on any desk at Zutphen is six; the largest, ele\'en; the total, 3IÚ. Most of those on the south side of the room were printed during the first half of the sixteenth century; those on the north side are much later, some as late as 1630. I did not see any manuscripts, ",..- " , , '\ __cc '- __ : F j \\ ....... Fig. 59. Piece ofthe iron bar, with chain, Zutphen. 1- Fig. 60. Chained book, from a Dominican House at Bamberg, South Germany. I f we now reconsider the indication'i preserved at Queens' College, it wiIl, I feci sure, be recognised that the desks at 160 LIBRARIES AT PE:\IBROKE AND S. JOlIN'S COLLEGES [CII. Zutphen explain them, and enable us to realise the aspect of what I conceive to ha\'e been the most ancient method of fitting up a collegiate or a monastic library. \Vhen such a room first became necessary in a monastery, and furniture suitable for it was debated, a lectern would surcly suggest itself, as being used in the numerous daily services, and proving itself singularly convenient for the support of books while they were being read. Another example of such fittings was once to be seen at Pembroke College, Cambridge, in the library above the hall (fig. 48). In Dr Matthew \\'ren's account of that library already quoted there is a passage which may be translated as follows: I would have you know that in the year 1617 the Library was completely altered and made to assume an entirely new appearance. This alteration was rendered necessary by the serious damage which, to our great sorrow, we found the books had suffered-a damage which was increasing daily-partly from the sloping form of the desks, partly from the inconvenient weight of the chains (tl111' ex declà'i plll/eO/lllll fabriclÎ, Imll ex Ù'ep/â mole ca/marlil/l)'. These desks were copied at S. John's College in the same University. A contract dated 20 June, 1516, prO\-ides that the contractor shall make all the Desks in the Library wythin the said college of good and substanciall and abyll Tymber of Oke mete and convenient for the same Library, aftir and accordyng to the Library within... Pembroke Hall'. The Library here referred to was on the first floor to the south of the Great Gate of the college. It is now divided into chambers, but its original extent can be readily made out by its range of equidistant windows. The wall-spaces dividing these are 2St inches wide, practically the same as those at Queens' College. At Peterhouse also a similar arrangement seems to have subsisted when the catalogue of 141 S was made. The \.ery first book, a Bible, is said to stand" in the sixth lectern on the , Arc/.. IIist., The Library, III. .P9. It is obvious that these heavy chains must have been attached to the lower edge of one of the boards, and that the bar must have been below the desk and not above it. See ahove, p. I.W. , Arch. Hist. II. 2.J.J. 1\'] CA:\IllRIDGE -\r\D 1)\ LIr\COLX CATHEDRAL 161 \\ est side (lectrÙIO 6 0 ex parte oeeÙfelltali)." The word IcctrÌ1Ut111 is unusual, but it emphasizes the form of the desk more clearly than any other. '\ : t I' I 1 i II' I' I '-\ .. '""! "'j ..... ,\\ - \ .... Fig. 6. Single desk in the old Library, Lincoln Cathedral. . \ splendid example of this type of case is to be seen dt I incoIn (fig. 61), \\ here three" stalls" or desks, belonging tu the c.L. I I IÓ2 LIBRARY IN LIKCOLN CATHEDRAL [CHAP. old library already describedt, are still preserved. Each is about 7 ft. long, 3 ft. broad, and 4 ft. 4 in. high to the top of the sloping portion. At each end, and in the centre, is a massÏ\'e molded standard, 7 ft. 2 in. high, terminating in a boldly carved finia]; and these three standards are connected together by a band of open-work. of a design similar to that of the cornice of the library. Half way between this band and the top of the desk is the bar to carry the chains, now of wood, but formerly of course of iron; and below this again is a shelf 18 in. wide, projecting slightly beyond the sloping portion of the desk. The edge of the desk is protected by a ledge, as usua], and under it is a secund shelf extending the whole width of the piece of furniture. \Vhat was the use of these shelves? As the bar is above the desk, not below it, the books must have reposed, as a general rule, upon the desk, instead of being laid on their sides on the shelf below it when not wanted by a reader. The chains would not have been long enough to aBo\\' of any other arrangement. I think, therefore, that the lower shelf must have been a constructional contrivance, to assist in keeping the standards in their places. The narrow upper shelf, on the other hand, \Vas probably intended for the com'enience of the reader. He might place on it, temporarily, any book that he was not using, and which got in his way while he was reading one of those beside it; or, if he was making extracts, he might set his inkstand upon it. These desks evidently stood in the old library against the shafts of the roof, for one of the end<; has been hollowed out in each to receive the shaft; and the finial, which is left plain on that side, is bent over slightly, to admit it under the brace (fig. 39). As I have now described three varieties of the lectern- system, I will place before my readers, side by side, elevatiuns uf each of the three (fig. 62) drawn to the same scale. It will be seen that they resemble each other exactly in essentials. The differences observable are accidental, and may be referred to individual taste. That this form of desk wa,> recognised on the continent as I See aoove, pp. Ili-121. 1\'] \" -\RIETII:" OF THE LECTERN-SYSTF I 16 3 typical of library-fittings is proved b} its appearance in a French translation of the first book of the Consolatioll of Philosoph)' of A B c feet Fig. 62. Elevation of A' one of the bookcases in the Library at Zutphen: (B) one of those in the Library at Queens' College. Cambridge; (C) one of those in the Library of Lincoln Cathedral. l . , o " ---I .1 I Boethius, \\'hich I had the good fortune to find in the British :\Iuseum I (fig. 63). This manuscript \\'as written in Flanders towards the enò of the fifteenth century. I n such a work the library shewn requires what I may term generalised fittings. An eccentric peculiarity would have been quite inadmissible. In the Stadtbibliothek of N'uremberg some of the oldest works on jurisprudence still preserve their chains. Each has I !\ISS. lIar\. 4335. The picIure hanging on lhe wall represents Philo. o ... u; OJ 'tJ o c '" I I I I Z 1 Q/) I ! OJ -5 I õ I è 01 ... .D. J "1 I \ ... (J .... '" oÎJ - r. .. ., . - :. \ IV] LIBRARY OF TIlE COLLÈGE DE .-\"Al{RE 16 5 two separate collections, which formed, so to speak, two distinct libraries. The first, called the grcat library, or the common library, contained the books most frequently studied. They were chained, and could only be taken out under the most exceptional circumstances. .-\. statute, dated 13.2 I, the provisions of \\ hich recall the collegiate statutes summarised above, directed that the best book the society possessed on each subject should be thus chained. The second division of the library, called the small library, contained duplicates, books rarely consulted, and gcnerally all those of which the loan was authorised under ccrtain conditions). The following description of this library has been given by Claude Héméré (Librarian 1638-43) in his 1\IS. history. This I proceed to translate: The old library was contained under one roof. It was firmly and solidly built, and was 120 feet long by 36 feet broad..-Each side was pierced \\ ith 19 \\ indows of equal size, that plcnty of daylight both from the east and the West (for tbis was the direction ofthe room) might fall upon the desks, and fill the \\hole length and breadth of the library. There \\ere 28 desks, marked \\ ith the letters of the alphabet, fi\-e feet high, and so arranged that they were separated by a moderate interval. They were loaded with books, all of which \\ere chained, that no sacrilegious h.md might [carry them off. These chains were attached to the right- hand board of every book] so that they might be readily thrown aside, and reading not be interfered with. 1\Ioreover the volumes could be opened and shut \\ ithout difficulty. . \ reader who sat do\\ n in the space between two desks, as they rose to a height of five feet as I said above, neither sa\\ nor disturbed anyone else who might be reading or \\ riting in another place by talking or by any other interruption, unless the other tudent \\ ished it, or paid attention to any question that might be put to him. It wa<; required, by the ancient rules of the library, that redding, \\Titing, and handling uf bouks should go forward in complete silence". This description indicates desks similar to those of Zutphen. Even the height is the same. .-\. librdry \\hich viddly recalls the above account, with 19 windows on one side and probahly the same number on the other, was built in 1506 for the Collège de X avarre, l'aris, now the Écolc 1'0lytechnique B l\Iy illustration (fig. 64) is from a ) This account is, in the main, a tr:mslation of that given by M. Delisle, trl sltpra. Bib\. XaI. Par. !\ISS. Lat. ;;"I). . I'or the history of thi. library see Delisle, lit ."pra, pp. 142-208; Franklin, . [IlCÙIlIII:S Bibliolh.'qlI 18 DO 18 \)J }\) 19 E 17 F:E 21 EEE 17 F 20 FF 17 FFF 29 ( 18 <;C 18 (;( G 24 H 16 HH [ 7 HHH 29 I 16 [I 23 III 25 K. 17 KK 21 KKK 29 L 22 LL 21 LLL 23 I 21 l\I I 20 II\DI 26 N 18 NN 20 0 q no 13 26 9 P 19 PI' 23 Q 22 QQ 27 R q RR 26 S 14 SS 28 T 21 IT 24 334 3 8 5 These totals give a general total of 988 manuscripts, which, dividerl by 50, makes the average number for each desk, as <;tated above, 19'76. Further, my theory is supported by the positive e\'idence uf a description of this library (unfortunately without date) quuted by :\1. Delisle: ilLes livres estoient couchez et enchaisnez, sur de longs pupitres, et une allée entre deux 1 ." It is obvious that the English system of placing each lectern between a pair of windows could not have been maintained here. .\t Queens' College, Cambridge, the catalogue, dated 147 2 , enumerates 19 volumes, divided over IO desks and 4 half-desks, each called a step (gracilis). There were (avoiding fractions) 8 books on each half-desk, and 15 on each complete desk; so 1 ndi lc, 1'. 22 , Ilolt!. 168 LIBRARY OF TRIXITY H.\LL, C.UII3RIDGE [ ClL\I'. that by comparing the plan (fig. 50) and ele,mtion of a desk (fig. 51) with the views of the library at Zutphen, a good idea of a college library in the fifteenth century can be obtained. Before I leave the lectern-system, I ",.ill describe two eccen- tric specimens of it. The first is still to be seen at Trinity Hall, Cambridge; the second once existed at the University of Leyden. The library of Trinity Hall is thoroughly medieval in plan, being a long narrow room on the first floor of the north side of the second court, 65 feet long by 20 feet wide, with eight equidistant \\ indows in each side-wall, and a window of four lights in the western gable. It was built about 1600, but the fittings are even later, having been added beh,'een 1626 and r' 'J I ' . \;- ,,1 ... , --- '" , ! ;' III I i ì . . -..:......,-"1 . 1If-' ''''--'- I' . " ! .sCALE t INCH TO 1 FOOT. - ').-- .. ')-- A. B. I: f! , : f, C. Fig. 66. Elevation of a book-desk and seat in the Library of Trinity Hall. Cambridge. I I' \ r Inn .... 1111111'1 un' ' . '- I . ' \ . l - Fig. 65. General view of the Library at Trinity Hall, Cambridge. I \ ..... .JL. ;; \} , l .- - - II - - ,. 7' Fig. 68. A French Library of 1480. rrom :\15. 16.f in the Fitzwilli:uu :\hr-cum, Camùridge. - I 1\'J LlIJRAH. \' OF TRI '\'IT\' lULL, C.UIBRIDGE 16g 16-1-5 durulg the mastership of Thomas Eden, LL.D. They are therefore a deliberate return to ancient forms at a time when a different type had been adopted else\\ here. There are five desks and six seats on each side of the room, placed, as usual, at right angles to the side-walls, in the inter- spaces of the windows, and in front of the windows, respectively. Their arrangement, and the details of their construction, will be understood from the general view (fig. 65), and from the elevation (fig. 66). These lecterns are of oak, 6 feet 7 inches long, and ï feet high, measured to the top of the ornamental finiaL There is a sloping desk at the top, beneath which is a single shelf (fig. 66, A). The bar for the chains passes under the desk, through the two vertical ends of the case. At the end far- thest from the wall, the hasp of the lock is hinged to the bar and secured by two keys (fig. 67). Beneath the shelf there is at either end a slip of wood (fig. 66, B), which in- dicates that there was once a moveable desk which could be pulled out when required. The reader could therefore consult his convenience, and work either sitting or stand- ing (fig. 65). For both these positions the hei hts are very suitable, and at the bottom of the case was a plinth (fig. 66, C), on \\ hich he could set his feet. The seats between ed-ch pair of desks were of course put up at the same time as the desks themselves. They shew an ad\-ance in comfort, being divided into two, so as to allow support to the reader's back. Similar desks occur in a beautiful miniature (fig. 68) from -t L "ib!P 'iidjJ / / / I J l .(;- <:0" o ()o o () Fig. 67. Lock at end of book-desk, Trinity Hall. 17 0 UKIVERSITY OF LEYDEN [CHAP. IV a manuscript (now in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge') written in France about 1480. They appear to be solid- possibly fitted with cupboards for books under the sloping portion. I\ 0 seats are shewn, and, as a reader is standing between them consulting a book, it may be concluded that they could only be used by students in that position. Lastly, I reproduce (fig. 69) a print by Jan Cornelis \\ oudanus, shewing the library of the University of Leyden in 1610'. The bookcases were evidently contrived with the \"Íew of getting the largest number possible into the room. Each contained a single row of books, chained to a bar in front of the shelf; and, also for the purpose of saving the space usually occupied by a seat, readers were obligcd to consult them standing. There are elevel1 bool:-cases on each side of the room, each containing from 40 to 48 volumes. At the end of the room are t\\'o cupboards, probably for manuscripts; and to the right of the spcctator is a third press, marked Lcgatu/Il JosljJlti Scaligcri. He died in January, 1609. Further, as an illustration of the usual appliances for study found in libraries at this period, and often mentioned in catalogues and account-books, I would draw attention to the globes and maps. I present these bookcases at this point of my researches with some diffidence, for thcy can hardly be said to represent the lectern-system. On the other hand, they do not exactly I epresent any other; and I therefore submit thd.t they may be looked at here, as transitional specimens, bridging over the interval betwcen the desks we have latcly been considering, and those which we shall han to consider in the next chapter. 1 The !\IS. (:'\0. 16..) is by Frère Jehan de CasteL " This reproduction is from a copy of the print now in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Camhridge. It abo occms on a reduced scale in Lu Arts t/lIl1IoYt:1l Ag et à r Eþoqlle de {a R,.,,,,issllIue par Paul Lacroix, ..0. Pari_, ,869, p. "9 2 ; and in IIll1strilllll lIollmt.iiae d IVestflisiae Villi/Will etc. ..0. Lngl\. Bat., ,6.... at "=' cO ..; 3 :J' n .. ::s it . ... õ' ... -< 0 '- .., 5 ;. (') n 0 t" :; c:;: ., ;;;' Þ> ., .... '< --: 0 c ;: .., ., ;. g n r c:: ., ::s <' ã. n ., 2!. '" -< 9 0 .., t" n '< 0- " ? . 1::\1 'r:s 0n : I ' <:: f " <" . - I N r '1' } '; t r----- j !. I I I It II i ) I -...( L ""' - .... . , I ". , ,1)1 { /';J I l l .1 , ' 1 ' Q. 1 , C , . '- 'I . J I T:, , ,: I I .1 I. L_ ,0" l.. r Q -,,' . . -' -' ..... -'0,,,", , \ .' I I '- 'h., , .. - ... \ , A....... \ r e. " "" 'if .. .. - --......., - =.-=- :' - ........, - -. ... .... .. . .. ...&..... '. ...... a &' .a;.....J. ._ ' .. ",.' . ........ '. .. .... :..& -_.... _. ..... .. ............._"..:...a ' -.......: a . - - - - ... --. - - .o .....'. ., .-{f " , f i' j 't. 1- ' II . , - -;;;; '" ..r í '1 " - J c: ,t . r] = \, - t ..,-4Þ' . . ,. '" .JJ,,;_ / . ..-' ""'" .'.. " .. - .:.. " " ... 3 ... !' "--J. - - . - ... IU .., ., . ::-..J.-__ . .. . -.... -"'----"'- ... - k> .... . "" r - f.1 :' . ;., - m.. ....,..., , . a..-\, ...............;:-... ..... - -'- .-. ., '- 4 .- - '11!1!11!-" - ' "'I!!!II!P< : .. - -. -__ .. r- - ' .-. --, C o Ö ---tc Z o .,.. . I u' -=( - I . . -4 ' 1 - f>J , r S;.. :-.. () .. - :: -0 I) ). :.- =- , " . . .... :.,.. .o=.. I '-: . I -"u:- . :.:. ,---,."..; . I :- ;- _ I p r - I I _ r 2 J t ..... . - - ... .... ;;;" f"'I- I 'J i j _J . - :- - I I I L --;..' ." I f I ...... t J- 1Jr- .q- . d ,.. 1'-- ,<- I -- ""'...- ..... :::. --+ :- """ -<] .. ß ... =-! . I ., .. -I - --- - '" !'- Ð . iI"'."W' -- ... '"GIIIIiW - .' -, . .....;..;._6. ..a-:' w:....-.-. .. ..'- , "':"h> L. - ,.-.,. ............ -' . -h L! - . ;x "\..\,. ,, -", ".. ..0"'\1{ " ..' .. .-.:: .:.>. r ::'.\ -::' ..>\ :'I. .. ::..:- *. ' ". . _ þ, \}..- 'I. .;,.......:.'..r . h .... 1 \ t:::' - ::::I l' - ot!'II o .., - ... t'!'J Q . rn n c p c:: "'C - -i - (J) ""Ì > ;::1 (') - en <: I -- ,.. ,> ,-- - >< z o j - > CHAPTER V. RECAPITUL.\ TlON. IN\'ENTION OF TIlE T ALL- \ TEM. LIBR.\RY OF CORPUS CHRISTI COLLEGE, OXFORD, TAKEN AS A TYPE. SY TEJ\1 OF CIL\INING IN HEREFORD CATHEDR.\L. LIBRARIES OF IERTON COLLEGE, OXFORD, AND CLARE COLLEGE, CA IBRIIJGE. TIlE ST.\LL- YSTBI COPIED AT WEST IINSTER ABBEY, WELLS, AND DURHX\I CATHEDRALS. TIIIS SYSTDI POSSIBLY l\ION.\Snc. LIDRAIUES AT CAN- TER,BURY, DOVER PRIORY, CLAIJ{VAUX. . F the evidence brought forward in the last chapter be accepted, the Library which a l\Ionastery or College built in the fiftecnth century \\ as a long- narrow room lighted by rows of equidistant win- dows. Occasionally, if ncighbouring buildings allowed, therc was a window at thc end of the room also. The fittings were lecterns of wood. On these the books were laid, each volume bcing fastened by a chain to a bar usually placed over the desk, but occasionally, in all probability, in front of it or beneath it. The readers sat on benches immoveably fixcd opposite to each window. It is obvious that reading was convenient cnough so long as the students were few, but if they wcre numerous and the books chained too closely together much annoyance must have bcen caused. \Vhen the University of Oxford pctitioned Humphrey Duke of Gloucestcr in 1444 to help them to build a new library, they specially dwelt upon the obstacles to study arising from the overcrowded condition of thc old room. "Should any studcnt," thcy said, .. be poring over a singlc volume, as often o . . f 17 2 TilE STALL-SYSTE:\[ [CHAP. happens, he keeps three or four others away on account of the books being chained so closely together 1." Further, the lectern-system was so wasteful in the mattel' of space, that, as books accumulated, some other piece of furniture had to be devised to contain them. The desk could not be dispensed with so long as books were chained; and it therefore occurred to an ing-enious carpenter that the required conditions would be fulfilled if the two halves of the desk were separated. not by a few inches, but by a considerable interval, or broad shelf, with one or more shelves fixed above it. Thus a case was arrived at containing four shelves at least, two to each side of the case, which could be made as long as the width of the library permitted. I propo e to call this system u the stall- system," from the word slaululIl (sometimes written sIal/a, sIal/us, or slal/ulIl), which is frcquently applicd to a case for books in a medieval library. There are at least five fine examples of this system at Oxford -none, I am sorry to say, at Cambridge. There was a set at Clare College, supplied to the old Library about 1627, but they have since been altered by the removal of the desks. fhose at Oxford are at Corpus Christi College (1517), S. John's College (159 6 ), Sir Thomas Bodley's library (1598), l\lerton College ( 162 3). Jesus College (1677-79), Iagdalen College (of un- certain date). As a type of this system I shall take the library of Corpus Christi College, founded in 15 16 by Richard Fox, Bishop of \Vinchester. The library was ready for thc fittings by the end of l\Iarch in the following year, as we learn from a building açcount preserved by I Iearne : 8 Henry YIII. This boke madc from the xvth day off l\Iarch unto the xxxti day off the same ::\[oneth (30 March, 15 I7]. :\ld. couenauntyd and agreid wyth Comell Clerke, for the makyng off the dðtis in the liberary, to the summe off xvi, after the maner and formc as they be in l\1agdaleyn college, except the popie heedes off the seites, thes to be workmanly wrowght and denly, and he to have all maner off stooff fonnd hym, and to have for the makyng off on dexte xs the sum off the hole viii. li. 2 1 l\[acray, Allllals of the Bodlâall Library, p. i. The words used are: Jam enim si quis. ut fit, uni libro inhærcat, aliis s.ludere volentibus ad tres vel qllatuor pro vicinitate colligationis pr, cllldit aCCCSSllm. " Hearne's GlL , . .I" ;' U" I . I' I .. " I ,-'.' :\ ;: \ I.' I t' r ' t t t j l. I .'. I ' I ,t j l ' ..f, !. I . l" " ...I.."I ,.\r,, ' II ': II ' { II .i.. 'I' ' ' ..l:J,.,"',"':f:';.,!I...., ' i,::, L ,I. · . . , 1 , . I .. _ II L I . ,I I ' J I, I' . I...' ì , I I I r -l II -' I, 'I" , · r , I , 1/ ,'... 1 , I '1 1 ',,:i ! .' ..' '.- ,A, ',.,.., l :,' ", "-, , !- r f I I 1 "" Fig. 73. Part of a bookcase in the Chapter Library, Hereford. \'] CHAPTER UHR \RY, HFRFFORD 175 the accompanying illustrations the first (fig. ï2) gives a general de\\' of the most complete case, that which now contains the ---- J Ii . j t .', -) - '.,r 1.:! ..II,S.---: _. \ . i.: : ::l j': uJ _ _ :'i . r: -. . j 1 1 _ ': ..- þ ../ . i... -=-=--::-;:- - _._ --_.... - - ." - -- --- -- -- ----=-- - - -- - --- --- - - ---- ----- ---- Fig. 7" Bookcase in the Chapter Library. Hereford Cathedral. From a sketch laken in 1876. manuscripts, and the second (fig. 73) shews one compartment of the same case \\'ith the boo s, chains, desk etc. This case is 9 ft. 8 in. long, 2 ft. 2 in. \\ ide and 8 ft. high, exclusive of the cornice. The material is unplaned oak, very rough: the ends are 2-3 in. thick, made of three planks fastened together with strong wooden pegs. The desk has been a good deal altered, and is no\\' inco1l\'eniently lo\\', but, as the books were chained, it is evident that there must al\\'ays have been desks on each case, and moreover the hook \\'hich held them up is still to be seen in several places. The frames to contain the catalogue, which closely resemble those at Ox- ford, are known to have been added in the 17th century by Thoma" Thornton, D.D., Canon Residentiary. As the books \\'ere to stand upright on a shelf, not to lie on their sides on a desk, it was necessary to attach the chain in a diff rent manner. A narrow ---- - - , 0 """ " - /, ."" ( "- /// ./ Fig. 74. Part of a single volume, shewing the clasp. the ring for the chain, and the mode of attaching it: Hereford. Ii 6 [CHAP. CIIAlr.;Ir.;G IK TilE strip of flat brass was passed round the left-hand board (fig. i4) and riveted to it, in such a manner as to Icave a loop in front of the edge of thc board, wide enough to admit an iron ring, an inch and a quarter in diameter, to which one end of the chain was fastened. The book is placed on the shelf with the fore-edge turned outwards, and the other end of the chain is fastcned to a second ring, rather larger than the furmer, which plays along an iron bar (fig. is). For the two upper shelves thesc bars, which are t in. in diameter, are supported in front of the shelf, at such a distance from it as to allow of easy play for the rings (fig. i3). Each bar extends only from partition to partition, so that three bars arc needed for each shelf. For the lowest shelf thcrc are also three bars, sct two inchcs behind the edge of the shelf, so as to keep thc rings and chains out of the way of the desk. The bars for the upper <;helves rest in iron sockets screwcd to the woodwork at the juncture of thc hori- zontal shelves with the ver- tical divisions and ends re- spectively. The socket fixed to the end of thc bookcase Fig. 76. Iron bar and socket, closed to prevent removal of the bar: Hereford. which was intended to stand against the wall is closed b) an iron plate (fig. 76), so that the . 'l.?............"'.. ' ... v J I I f;... _ I l I ' I --If:fr I 1 1 ,""i . f. IUlj Fig. 75. A single volume, standing on the shelf, with the chain attached to the iron bar: HerefOJ d. íJì 110, I o v] CH -\PTER LIBRARY, HEREFORD 1ï7 bar cannot pass beyond it. At the opposite end, that which would usually face the alley between the two rows of bookcases, the bars are secured by lock and key in the following manner. A piece of flat iron is nailed to the end of the bookcase, just above the level of the uppermost shelf (fig. 77). Attached to this by a hinge is a hasp, or band of iron, two inches wide, and rather longer than the interval between the two shelves, Opposite to each shelf this iron band expands into a semicircular plate, to which a cap is riveted for the reception of the head of the socket in which the bar rests (fig. 7í); and just below the middle shelf it drops into a lock and is secured by a key (fig. 73). A second hasp, similarly constructed, secures the lowest of the three bars; but, as that bar is behind, and not in front of, the shelf to which it belongs, the arrangements described above are reversed. One lock and key serves for the ironwork belonging to the three shelves. The chains are made of links of hammered iron as shewn in the sketch (fig. 78) which represents a piece of one of the actual size. There is usually a swivel in the centre, probably to prevent twisting. They vary somewhat in length, and in the length of the links, according to the shelf on which the books to which they belong are ranged, it being ob,-iously necessary to provide for the convenient placing of a book on the desk when a reader wished to consult it. The most usual dimensions are 3 ft. 4 in., 3 ft. 6 in., 4 ft. 3 in. The removal of any of the volumes, or the addition of a new one, must have been a tedious and inconvenient operation. The bar would have to be ,\ ithdrawn, and all the rings set free. :\Ioreover, if this change had to be effected in one of the compartments remote from the end of the case which carried c. L. {) \() 41 \ .. ) "' .1 I III p I j Fig. 77. Iron bar, with part of the iron plate or hasp which is secured by the lock and keeps the bar in place: Hereford. 12 17 8 LIBRARY OF [CHAP. the lock, the bar belonging to each of the other compartments \vould have to be withdrawn before the required volume could be reached. If the views (figs. 70, 71) of the book- cases at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, be attentively examined, it will be seen that the ironwork exactly resembles that at Hereford. \Ye find similar sockets to contain the bars at the junction of the horizontal shelves and vertical uprights, and a similar system of iron hasps to prevent the bars from being withdrawn, The desk for the reader would of course vary according to individual taste. As a general rule it was attached to the ends of the case by strong hinges, so that it could be turned up and got out of the way when any alteration in the ironwork had to be carried out. Iron hooks to hold it up were not unfrequently pro- vided. One of these, from the Bodleian Library, is here figured (fig. 79), It was also usual to provide a slit in this desk, about 2 in. wide, as close as possible to the shelf, for the chain attached to the book in use to pass through. This is well shewn in the view of a single book- case in Merton College, Oxford (fig. 83). I will next describe the library of Merton College, Oxford. There is still considerable doubt respecting the date of some of the bookcases, but the appear- ance of the library is so venerable, so unlike with which I am acquainted, that it must admiration, and deserve study 1. Fig. 78. Piece of chain, shew- ing the swivel: Hereford. Actual size. any similar room always command 1 For the historical facls in the following account I 3'11 indebted to Mr Hender- son's History, to the merits of which I have already drawn attenlion. I have also made copious extracts from the College account-books. Further, I have carefully studied the library on several occasions, and have had the benefil of the professional assistance of my friend I\Ir T. D. Atkinson, Archilect. I I I I I L-_ '1 \ 7 f\' . .. .-,..- . - '\ '5 I '\ '. " .\:...:!.::i 1,.. ,- -- . ( If If \ . " \ ,\\ \ "-1-1. \ ' \ .... \-..:..:. "-W. 'f1if f ' ::; I - - W:: 0 ...- .; ...- bI) - õ È u ..c s:: ::l. H '"' .... tn Q) 0 :E { <: >> ê .... C'II .... .... .c -'-< J Q) -5 ... 0 .... 0 ï: >: Ò co bÌJ c;: \'] JIIERTON COLLEGE, OXFORD 179 The library occupies the whole of the first floor of the south side of "::\Iob Quadrangle" and the greater part of the same floor of the west side (fig. 80). It is entered through a doorway in the south-western angle of the court, whence a staircase leads up to the vestibule (fig. 81). This room is separated from the two divisions of the library by lofty oak screens, elaborately carved and ornamented in the style of the early renais- 'I ' I J ' lil I :' 0 I I 1/,.f " I I sance. The two rooms into which the library is divided have a uniform width of 20 ft. 6 in. The west room, called by tradition Old Li- brary, is 38 ft. 6 in. long (.-\, B, fig. 81); the south room, or K ew Fig. 79. Hook to hold up the desk. Library, is 56 ft. 6 in. long (C, D, Bodleian Library. Oxford. fig. 81). The west room is lighted by seven equidistant lancet windows in each of the west and east walls, and by two dormer windows of peculiar design on the side of the roof next to the court. The south room is similarly lighted by ten lancets in each of the north and south walls, and on the side next to the court by two dormer windows like those in the west room. This room more- over has an open space at the east end, about 10 ft. long, lighted by a window of two lights in each of the north and south walls respectively, and by an oriel of five lights in the east wall. In both rooms there is a waggon-roof of five cants boarded, and divided into panels by molded ribs with little bosses at the intersections (fig. 82). The blank wall at the north end of the west room is panelled with oak of an elaborate and beautiful design for a height of about 12 ft. (fig. 8 ). The space above this is decorated with panels of plaster-work. The large square central panel contains the arms of the college; the circular panel to the west those of John \\"hitgift (Archbishop of Canterbury 1583-1604); and I2-;! 180 LlBRo\R\ OF [CHAP. the similar panel to the east those of Sir Henry Savile (\\'arden 1585-1621). E N 8 W >- c: <( c: CD -' :I: I- ::;) o en WEST LIBRARY FEET ' p cr 10 , Fig. 81. Ground-plan of the Library at Merton College, Oxford. The east end of the south room is similar]y treated, but the oak panelling is less elaborate. In the pla ter-work above it the arms of the college are flanked on the north by those of George Abbot (Archbishop of Canterbury 1611-1633) and on the south by those of Sir Nathaniel Brent (\Varden 1621- 16 5 I). J. .. 1 '" \ ...... - "'"- t:... I 1 I I ; I / /, __.B \ " "'- it=:" --- . "....:. .. '., r J _ ' !I _,c:-...- l' . .:;;:; ,-. A r l" -' --= ... ..J . ,_. \ T !r I ( -ë .... >: 0 oJ bD Õ '" U :0-- >0 t: B .... '" c;: :E t-< ::: :>, . .... 01 .... .c E J E g,n Q) S -E 3- .... '" o .... ::: o .ê "I: ..:... '" i:: - '" OJ I - --------- --- ... -- , - \ IlltII II,Jlm 1I1111111 IU'I\\\\\j\mlllll! ,: ,, :1 \\ n":: lil\ :.i I!I IIIIIII OO I lli 11\ r . , ;I!!I\:IIIII :]\1\\ t IJI ' 'I 11/ 111111 i 1 1 : 11 !I ( . ; i , . f I'ln j lIJ. i. 'i, r t , r....1... ,. ... k - . '- t t - I I , I Fig, 8- I " Book<,, in ,h ' . e west Librar }o.ul11 " I Y of Merton C 1 . P 1ot""l"a l J I1 1 0 le g e 0 f ., . J) II. \\' T ' x ord. . .Hlnt, I I)'.I' - '- v] rERTON COLLEGE, OXFORD 181 Both rooms are floored with rough oak planking. On this are laid four sleepers, each about 5 in. square, parallel with the side-walls. The two central sleepers have their outside edge roughly chamfered. Into these the bookcases and the seats are morticed. The central alley, 5 ft. wide, is in both rooms paved with encaustic tiles. In the west room there are twelve complete cases and four half-cases; in the south room there are twenty complete cases and two half-cases (fig. 81); in both rooms arranged in the usual manner with respect to the walls and windows. I n order to present as vivid an idea as possible of these beautiful cases, I reproduce here a photograph of a single compartment from the west library, with a seated reader at work (fig. 83). The case is made to look rather higher than it really is, but this distortion can be easily corrected by comparing the height of the standard with that of the seated figure. In the west room each case (figs. 82, 83) is 7 ft. 5 in. long. I ft. 5 in. wide and 6 f1. high from the top of the sleeper to the top of the cornice. The material is oak. The ends are nearly 2 in. thick, and next the wall are shaped roughly with an adze. Each case is separated into t\"O divisions by a central partition; and originally there was a desk I ft. 3 in. wide on each side of the case. These desks were immoveable, and nailed to rough brackets. There were two shelves only to each case: one just above the level of the desk, and a second about half-way be- twecn it and the cornice (fig. 84). The system of ironwork by which the books were secured can be easily recovered by studying the scars on the ends of the cases next the central alley, At the lower end of the standard, two feet from the ground, was an iron bar which carried the chains of all the books which stood on the shelf just above the level of the desk, without reference to the side from which they were to be consulted. This bar \\'as secured by a separate hasp and lock. The bars for the upper shelf, one on each side of the case, were obviously secured by a system similar to that described abo\'e at Ilereford and Corpus Christi College. The whole system has been indicated on the elevation (fig. 84), which should be compared with the reproduction of one of the cases in the west room (fig. 83). Origind.lly no books stood below the 182 LIBRARY OF [CHAP. desk. The comfort of readers was considered by the insertion of a bar of wood to rest the feet on, between the seat and the bookcase (fig. 84). /- n....,h.lf ^ -. ( OrUJlna.l .1 I"OOV' f-or .h.ll f>KT7J'>), the selection of the bookcases may with much probability be ascribed to him. His own college has still bookcases which once must have been excellent specimens of the stall-system. There are eight bookcases at \Vells, of plain unpainted deal, projecting from the west wall between the windows (fig. 42). 1 Scr;n;a1"eserala: a MemoriaL.of John \\ïIli:>ms, D.D....By John Hackel. Fol. Lond. 1693, Pl" -f6, -f7. I I , '\ II : \1\\ . tm..tIUlI' . ... . , I ....... .. 4 I ' t I . ) I I "100. oO tt I - , . t nj , . f I - : JUr- J '1 I I . " I i_ c Fig. 87. Bookcases in the Library of Durham Cathedral. Frum a photograph, v] LIBRAR\ AT DURHA:\I CATHEDRAL 18 9 They are 8 ft. 6 in. long, 8 ft. I in. high and 3 ft. broad. Seven of them have desks on both sides, but the last-that placed against the partition at the south end, which screens off a smalI room for a study-has a desk on one side only. There is no shelf below the desk, but two above it. They are fitted with the usual apparatus for chaining. Between each pair of bookcases, in front of the window, is a seat for the reader. These cases resemble so closely those at Corpus Christi ColIege, Oxford, that the source from which they were derived cannot be doubtful. Was this library ever chained? A Walton's Polyglot, 1657, had evidently been pre- pared for chaining, and in a novel fashion, the plate to carry the chain being attached to the left-hand board dose to the back of the volume (fig. 86)-so that it was evidently set on the shelf in the ordinary way, and not with the fore-edge turned to the spectator, as is usual in chained libraries. But with this Fig. 86. Ring for attachment of chain, Wells. exception I could not discover indications of the attachment of a plate on any of the volumes. If I am right in concluding that the books in this library were never chained, the cases are a curious instance of the maintenance of fashion. Dean Bathurst ordered a bookcase, and it was supplied to him with alI its fittings complete, whether they wcre to be used or not. :\Iy last example is from Durham Cathedral, where John Sudbury, dean from 1661 to 1684, fitted up the ancient Frater as a library. The room is about 115 feet long by 30 fect wide, with nine windows in each side-wall. Thcir silIs are ten feet from the ground. The cases (fig. 87) are evidcntly the work of a carpenter who WdS thuroughly cunversant with the stalI-system. They / .) , 'II! }' / r 19 0 LIBRARY AT [CHAP. had originally two shelves only above the desk, the entablature, now visible on the ends only, being carried along the sides. The shelf below the desk is also modern. These cases are tcn feet apart, and between each pair, instead of a reader's seat, is a dwarf bookcase terminating in a desk. Attached to it on each side is a seat conveniently placed for a reader to use the desk on the side of the principal case. I have shewn that the stall-system made its appearance at Oxford early in the sixteenth century, but I have not been able to discover who introduced it. My own impression is that it was monastic in its origin; and I can prove that it fits at least two monastic libraries exactly. This theory will aJso explain the prevalence of such cases at Oxford, and their almost total absence from Cambridge. where monastic influence was never exercised to the same extent. I will begin with Canterbury, where, as I mentioned above" the library was over the Prior's Chapel. The construction of this chapel is described as follows by Professor \Villis: Roger de S. Elphege, Prior from 1258 to 1263, completed a chapel bctween the Dormitory and Infirmary.... The style of its substructure shews that it was begun by his predecessor.... [It] is placed on the south side of the Infirmary cloister, between the Lavatory tower and Infirmary. Its floor was on the level of the upper gallery, and was sustained by an open vaulted ambulatory below. This replaced the portion of the original south alley [of the cloister] which occupied... that position.. ..But, as this new substructure was more than twice as broad as the old one, the chapel was obtruded into the small cloister-garth, so as to cover part of the façade of the Infirmary Hall, diminish the already limited area, and destroy the symmetry of its form 2. Above this chapel Archbishop Chichele built the library which Prior Sellyng fitted up. It stood east and west, and of course must have been of the same size as the chapel beneath it, namely, according to Professor \\'illis, 62 feet long on the north side, 59 feet long on the south side, and 22 feet broad. The door was probably at the south-west corner, at the head of a staircase which originally led only to the chapel beneath it. 1 See above, p. 106. 2 Arc/,. Hist. of..lIIollastery of Chr. Ch. Callt. 8vo, 1869. p. 6 . This chapel was pulled dO\\ n at the end of the 1 ith century and the present library, called the Howley library, built in its place. \] CHRIST CHURCH, CANTERBURY 19 1 From these measurements I have constructed a plan of the room (fig. 88), and of the bookcases which I am about to describe. The windows are of course imaginary, but, I submit, justified by the uni- form practice of medie\ al libraries. I am able to reconstruct this library because I have had the good fortune to come across a very curious docu- ment l which gives sufficient data for the purpose. It is contained in a MS. volume, now the property of the Dean and Chapter of Can- terbury, composed of several quires of paper stitched into a parchment cover. They once belonged to, and were probably written by, Brother \\ïlliam Ingram, \\"ho was ClIstos martirii in 1503; and in June 151 1 was promoted to the office of Pitancer. The accounts and memo- randa in the book are of a very miscellaneous character. The part which concerns the library consists of a note of the books which were re- Fig. 88. Conj ctural plan orth Libraryov rth" paired in 1508. This is Prior's Chap 1 at Christ Church. Cant rbury. headed: t----H IIf=:==3 II ----H I . . 10 5 0 1"..1",,\ Scale 10 I feci Repairs done to the books contained in the library Over the chapel of our lord the Prior, namely, in new byndyng and bord) ng with COVers and claspyng and chenyng, together with sundry books of the gift of the I I h:lVe to thank my friend Ir W. II. St John Hope, A,sislanI Secretary of the SocieIy of Antiquaries, for first drawing my attention to it; and the Dean and C.hapler of Canterbury for leave 10 use it. 19 2 LlBRAR Y AT [CHAP. aforesaid Prior, namely, in the year of our Lord 1508, and the year of the reign of King Henry YII., 23'. The writer goes round the room, beginning at the west end. He proceeds along the north side, and returns along the south side, to the point whence he started, enumerating on his way the bookcases and their sheJves, the volumes removed, and, occasionally, a note of the repairs required. For my present purpose I will content myseJf with his account of a single bookcase, the first on the list. The writer begins thus: "From the upper shelf on the east side in the first seat (de sllPcriori lexlu 2 EX oríellii parlc ill prima (sic) sedilc)." Three volumes are enumerated. "From the lower shelf (de Ùifcriori lexllt)," two volumes. "From the upper shelf on the other side of the same seat (de sll/,criori lexllt ex allcra parle cillsdcm sedilis)," seven volumes. "From the lower shelf (de Ùifcriori lexllt)," five volumes. In this way eight seats, i.e. bookcases, are gone through on this side of the room. The writer next turns his attention to the south side, and goes through eight more seats, beginning with: "From the east side of the upper shelf on the south side (de lexllt supcriori cx parlc altslrali Ùlcipimdo. hi parle orimlali)." The examination was evidently thorough, and, as the same number of seats is enumerated for each side of the room, we may, I think, safely conclude that all were examined, and that the whole number in the library was sixteen. The passages I have quoted shew that each of these book- cases had an upper and lower sheJf on each side, on which the books stood, so as to be conveniently consulted by readers on each side; the books were chained; and, in consequence, there must have been a desk, presumably below the shelves on each side; and a seat for the reader. I have embodied these require- ments in the accompanying sketch or diagram (fig. 89), which indicates a bookcase of the same type as those at Corpus Christi 1 Reparaciones facte circa libru, qui continentur in libraria supra capellam domini prioris videlicet in Ie new byndyng and bordyng cum coor-ertoriis and Ie claspyng and chenyng eciam cum diuersis libris ex dono eiusdem prioris videlicet Anno domini :\10 ccccc o viW and Anno Regni Regis henrici vijO xxiii. This word seems to have been used at Canterbury to denote any piece of joinery. We have already seen it applied to a carrell (p. 99). \] CHRIST CHURCH, CAXTERBURY 193 College, Oxford. If we may suppose that each of these cases \\as two feet wide and eight feet long like those at l\Ierton --=- Fig.8g. Sketch of the probable appearance of a bookcase, and a reader s seat, in the Library at Christ Church, Canterbury. College, we can accommodate eight cases on each side of the room (fig. 88), \\ith the same interval between each pair as at that college. Let us no\\ consider whether the library as thus arranged \\ ould ha\"C had sufficient shelf-room. Each bookcase being 8 feet long would contain 32 feet of shelving, and the 16 ca-;es a total of 512 feet. The catalogue made in the time of Prior Henry of Eastry (1285-1331) enumerates 1850 volumes!. If we allow two feet and a half for every ten of these we shall require 462 feet; or in other words we can arrange the whole collection in 14 stalls, leaving 2 O\er for the additions which must have been made in the interval between the middle of the 14 th century and the date of Brotl1t:r Ingram's researches. I f the sketch here given of the probable aspect of the library elt Christ Church, Canterbury, be compared with the view of the I See above, p. !O . The catalogue has been printeù by 1<" of Iib1. Prime partis primi analogii primus liber signatur per .-\. a. I, secundus pt:r A. a. 2, tercius per . \. a. 3, et consequenkr. St:cunde partis primus liber signatur pt:r _\. b. I, secundus per .\. h. 2; et de conscquentibus similis est ordinatio. Tereie partis primus liber signatur per .\. c. I, secundus per .\. c. 2; et const:qut:ntcr. ( uarte partis primus liber signatur per A. d. I, seeundus per A. d. 2; et consequenter. [In this way five" analogi a " are enumerated] Et eadem est disciplina et ordinacio de ceteris analogiis prout hahetur in no\issimo quaterniont: eiusdt:m tabult:, immo et in fronte cuiuslibet analogii in tabella eidt:m appendt:nte. Hanc tabulam seu repertorium scripsit quondam frater Petrus mauray de Arecis oriundus. \'ivus vel dt:functus requiescat in bona st:mpcr pace. Amen. The most important passage in the abo\'e nute may be tl1Us translated: Read For the right understanding of the present table or method of finding hooh (Iahtle SlIi rl'j>er/tJrLÏ) , } ou must know that on tht: north .,iùt: are ranged those books \\ hereof the capital letters are black; on t!1t: south side those whereof the capital Idkrs arc red. .\11 ,1re 'iet dO\\n in alphabetical order. I9 8 LIBRARY AT CLAIRVAUX [CIIAP. ,. On each side thc first desk (mzologi1l1J1) is markcd by the lettcr A; the second by the letter ll; [and so forth]. Each desk has four divisions, the first of which is marked by the letter a, the second by the lettcr b, the third by the lctter C, the fourth by thc lettcr d. The first book on the first shelf of the first desk is marked. \. a. i; the second A. a. ii ; [and so forth]. The catalogue as weII as the description makes it perfectly clear that each desk, that is to say, each bookcase, had four shelves; and further, as the authors of the Voyage Littérairc (I708) mention chainsl, it may be concluded that there were desks, and seats for readers, betwcen each pair of bookcases. If \\'e place two shelves on each side of the case we get a piece of furniture precisely similar to that in use at Canterbury. 1 loyage Litt(ra;re, ed. lili. Part I. p. 102. . CHAPTER VI. THE LECTERN-S\'STE I IX ITALY. LIBRARIES AT CESEI'\A, AT THE C()I'\YENT OF S. IARK, FLORENCE, AND .\1' I\IOI'\TE . OU\"ETO. VATIïAN LIBRARY OF SIXTUS IV. DUCAL LIBRARY AT URIHNO. I\Iï.DICE.-\N LIBRARY, FlORENCE. SYSTE I OF CIf \INING THERE USED. CHAR \CTERISTICS OF IL:DIE\".\L LlBR.\RIES. NAI\IES OF I\IEDIE\'AL nOüK- C.-\sES AI'\D BÜOKSII EL YES. HILE the "stall-system" was being generalIy adopted in England and in France, a different plan was being developed in Italy. It consisted in a return to the "lectern-system," \\ ith the addition of a shelf below the lectcrn, on which the books lay on their sides when not wanted; and an ingenious combination of a seat for the reader with the desk and shel( The earliest library fitted up in this manner that I ha\"e been able to discover is at Cesena, a city of north Italy between Forli and Ravenna. It is practically in its original condition. I n the fifteenth century Cesena was governed by the powerful family of Malatesta, one of whum, Domenico Malatesta :'\ovello, built the library in 1452, and placed it under the charge of the convent of S. France"co" T\\'o burghers were associated \\ ith the Friars in' this duty. The library was always public. It was designed by l\Iatteo Xuzio of Fano, a celebrated architect of the day, as we learn from an inscription originally inserted into the waU on the right of the door of entrance, but now placed inside the library: MATHEVS. NVTIVS . FANENSI EX \'RBE. CREAT\'S DEDAL\"S ALTER. OI'VS . T.' '\ T\"" . DE,I>\')I.!T. AD \',\[(;\"E\1. 200 LIBRARY AT [CIIAP. The general plan and arrangement will be readily understood from the ground-plan (fig. 90), and the longitudina] section - , þ . "- It -- Þ þ. << It t , , ! , , . '. . t ': ><. d P-'" ',,' ... , " .... , ".. .. / ) ./ ' . , ,. / '<, ' r 'I :[S:7 ,r- , ... ,.I' t .. '. r ,'. -- ' , " : ".. , . : ." ''''...... !::: :::::: c:3 !;J ,D ="" ".""" , "'d ' - . ' .c- .'- I.!-T; . _ t " 4 i': ! --"'=---='"=-" - - - - I _:r --=- r...r_ :" ?- .' _ -= ._ .' 1-..--.-._ - :-;.:-: .r=--r- .- . e '" OJ e "" n ::,III II : ::I' ; : , .,..... : ' , :b_=:1';ï -r:;....... '-riHfI Sj .5 ., a. '" 6 o cr o j;i I = -- -' Q ::j ..... C) '"'-' c:ì '-l.. ';:s --> c:ì c.>) D01..ble Ine Sl3e of Plð.n Figs. 90. 91. Ground-plan and section of Library at Cesena. (fig. 91), copied on a reduced scale from those given by the learned Giuseppe Maria Muccioli, who published a catalogue of , '"J . -. .... - i> .... ",- 1 \ I 'Ii" = I I , I , I J I I - r ,. . I á' ... .g , , , , \ \ v-- , ... - \ - ....-............ ... ... I' '4. I I - --------, -; I I I I OJ UJ OJ U -c;; I t' 03 .... . .c ..<:: J IV .c .s - c ..... ..c o :::.. '" OJ ::: ":; Ë OJ - .... OJ c:: OJ o '" 0\ bD . _. I \I] CESENA 201 the :\ISS. in the library in lï801, and al'io from the gcneral view of the interior (fig. 92). It is a long narrow building, 133 ft. 4 in. long, by 34 ft. broad 2 , standing east and west, so that its windows face north and south. It is on the first floor, being built O\'er <;ome rooms which once belonged to the convent, and is cntcred at the west end through a lofty marble doorway. Internally it is divided into thrce aisles, of which the central is the narrowest, by two rows of ten fluted marble columns. Against the side- walls and partly engaged in them, are two rows of similar columns. The aisles are divided by plain quadripartite vaults, resting partly on the central columns, partly on those engaged in the side-walls, into elevcn bays, each lighted by two windows (fig. 9 I). These aisles are about 12ft. wide. The central aisle, 8 ft. 3 in. \\ iùe between the columns, has a plain barrel vault, extending from end to end of the building. The inAuence of the Renaissance may readily be detccted in the ornamentation of the columns, but traces of medie,"al forms still linger in the room. If the central alley were wider it might be taken for the nave of a basilica. I '. L/ -- Fig. 93. Bookcases at west end of south side of Library, Cesena. There are 29 bookcases in each aisle. Between each pair of ca<;es there is a wooden Aoor, raised 3! in. abo\"e the general level of the room; and there is an inten"al of 2 ft, 3 in. between the cases and the wall, so that access may be rcadily obtained to them from either end. The room is paved \\ ith unglazed tiles. The westernmost bay is empty (fig. 90), being used as a I Çatalogu Codicum Ianui"tance from desk to desk .) ft. I 111. .\ngle of slope of desk . 45 0 . The books are still attached to the desks by chains. The bar which carries them is in full \'iew just under the ledge of the desk (fig. 94), inserted into massi\'e iron stanchions naileò to the underside of the desk. There are four of these: one at each end of the desk, and one on each side of the central standard. The bar is locked by mean, of a hasp attacl1l:d to the standard in which the lock is sunk. The chains are of a novel form (fig. 95). Each link, about 2! in. long, consists of a solid central portion, which looks as thuugh it were ca'it round a bent wire, the ends of which project beyond the ,olíd part. The chain is attached to the book by an iron hook screwed into the lower edge of the right-hand board ncar the back. The \'olume which I figure next (fig. 96), entitled LlI1IJC1J a1li1lJflc sell fiber 11loralitatu11I, ",---=;,-:- 7 } ) ' <>o' .. ,-" , "1 - :"1 ;<"},'<, ,.,; j ,,' .... \ ) ) 1 \ .' Ó Fig. 95. Piece of a chain, Cesena. 2 0 4 CHAINED nOOK AT GHENT [CHAP. was printed at Eichstädt in Bavaria, in 1479. :\1. Ferd. Vander Haeghen, librarian of Ghent, bought it in Hungary a fcw years since, and gave it to the library which he so ably directs. The chain is just 24 in. long. The links, of which there are ten, are slightly different from any which I ha\"e figured, each link being , - --. . - .. Fig. g6. Chained book at Ghent. compressed in the midd]e so that the two sides touch each other. There is no ring, but a link, rather larger than the rest, is passed round the bar. It will be observed that the chain is fastened to the left-hand board, and not to the right- hand board as in Italy. The presence of a title written on \ I] S. I'-\J{K, FLORFt\CE: \lO TE OLI\"ETO 20 5 parchment kept in place by strips of leather, and five bosses of copper, shew that the left-hand board was uppermost on the desk. The position of the chain shews that when it was attached thc book was intended to lie on a desk, where the bar must ha\"c bcen in front of, or below, the desk; but there is also a scar on the upper edge of the right-hand board, which shews that at some prcvious period it lay on a desk of what I may call the Zutphcn type, where the bar was abo\'e the sloping surface. \\ïth the library at Cesena may be compared that at:achcd to thc Dominican Convent of S. Mark at Florence, built in 144 1 for Cosmo dei l\Icdici-the first public library in Italy. It is on the first floor, and is approached by a staircase from the cloister. It is qX ft. long by 34 ft. 6 in. wide1, dividcd into thrce ais]es by two rows of eleven columns. The central aisle, 9 f1. wide between the columns, has a p]ain barrel vault; thc sidc aisles, I I ft. wide, have quadripartite vaults. In each of the side-walls there are twelve windows. In all these dctails the library re- sembles that at Cesena so closely that I cannot help suspecting that l\Ialatesta or his architect may have copied it. The original fittings have been removed, but wc learn from the catalogue 2 that the books were originally contdined in 64 balldÚ, half of which were on the cast side and half on the west side of the room. There was an avcrage of about sixteen books to each blwclms. The catalogue also mentions a Greek library, which had sevcn ballclti on each side. This was probably a separate room. There is a similar library at the Benedictine Convent of :\Ionte Oliveto, near Siena, but it is on a much smaller scale. Like the others, it is divided into thrcc aisles by two rows of six columns. The central aisle has a barrel vault, and the side aisles quadripartite ,"aults. It is 5 ft. long by 32 ft. bWdd. There are seven windows on one sidc only. At thc cnd of the library, dpproached by a flight of thirteen stairs, is a room of the same \\idth and 21 ft. long, "hich may have been used as an inner 1 These measurements \\erc taken by my,clf with a tape, in April 1898, and \crified in April 1899. ! Thi, catalogue i, in the State Archives at )'Iodcna. 206 LIBRARY .-\.T THE CONVENT OF [CHAP, library. An inscription over the door of entrance records that this library was built in 15 161 . \\'hile discussing the arrangements of Italian libraries, I must not omit that at the Convent of S. Francis at Assisi". The catalogue, dated I January, 1381, shews that the library, even at that comparatively early date, was in two divisions: (I) for the use of the brethren; {2) for loans to extraneous persons. This cdtalogue, after a brief preface stating that it includes" all the books belonging to the library of the Holy Convent of S. Francis at Assisi, whether they be chained, or whether they be not chained," begins as follows: In the first place we make a list of the books which are chained to benches (ballchi) in the Puhlic Library as follows, and obsene that all the leaves of all the books which are in this catalogue, whether they are in quires of 12, 10, S, or any other number of lea\es larger or smaller, -e\ery one of the:--e books contains the denomination of the quire:--, as appears in the first quire of each book on the lower margin: all the quires being marked at beginning and end in black and red with the figure here she\\ n, and the number of the quire within it. loreover, the letters of the alpha- bet that are placed on the top of the cmers ought all to be fairly large and entirely black, as marked below [in this catalogue] at the end of each hook". ( .. ..... - -.: t\-[':n- r-- f' m . <} t e:H. ---...---' . J . f . . .. . .. .. This introduction is succeeded by the list of books. They are chained to nine benches on the west side of a room, and to the same number on the east side. The total is 170. ] I vi,ited Monte Oliveto 19 April, 18 99' 2 See Ueber Jlittdaltcrlid,e Bib/iotl,d.:m, v. T. Colllicb. ,ho, 1890, p. 181. I have twice ,i,ited .\"bi a1ll1 cxamined the Catalogue herc refcrred to. l\Iy Lcst than\.., arc due to Professor Alcssanòri for gÏ\ ing me every assistance in my rcscarchcs. J Inprimis facimus inventarium de liL.is in liLraria puLlica ad Lancos cathenatis in hunc n\OdulU. Et nota, quoò omnia folia omniulU liLrorum, ljui sunt in isto inuentario sive per sextemos vel quintelnos aut quaternos seU qucnl\is per alium numerum maiorem vel minorem omne, quotljnot sunt, nomina quaternorum lcnt,nt, ut apparel in quolihet libro in primo quaterno in margine inferiori; quare OIlmes sunt ante et retro de nigro et rubeo per talem figuram intus cnm suo numero signati. Item lictere alphaLeti, qui desuper postes ponuntur, omnes deLent esse aliquanWlum gro"e ct totaliter nigrc, sicut infcrius in fine cuiuslibet Iibri signatur. The spots round this ligure are alternately Llack and reÒ. \ I] S. F}{ANCIS AT .-\.SSISI 20 7 The second part of the catalogue has the follo\\ ing heading: In the name of the Lord, .\mel1. Here begins the list of all the books which are in the Reserved Library (/ibrarÙz secreta) of the Holy Coment of S. Francis at .\ssisi, appointed to be lent to prelates, masters, readers, bachelors, and all other brethren in orders, according as the amuunt of knowledge or line of study of each demand them. This part of the collection is contained in cleven presses (for which the unusual word so!arÙi1Il l is used) arranged along the east and west walls of a room, but whether the same as the last we are not informed. The number of manuscripts is 530. A considerable number of the manuscripts here registered still exists. They are well taken care of in the To\\ n Hall, and a list of them has been pri\'dtcly printed. Se\erdl are in their original condition, bound in boards about a qual ter of an inch thick, cO\-ered with white leather. The title, written on a strip of parchment, is pasted on the top of the right-hand buard. It usually begins \\ ith a capital letter in red or black, denoting the desk ur press in which a given MS. would be found, thus: I ..... PostiIlJ. IJ.gistri -1 Nicobi de I}ra Super psalmos reponatur uersus orientem in bJ.nco \t. I n the next place I will tell at length the story of the establishment of the Vatican Library by Pope Si tus I V., as it is both interesting in itself and useful for my present purpose2. 1 Ducange s, v. solariulIl shews that occasionally it=arl/lariul/l. 1 I have to thanJ" F.\Iher C. J. EhrIe, ,!): J., I'refect of the Vatican I ibrary, for the very rcat J"il1llne 3 with which he ha, a si ted me in the e re earches dUTIng three ,i_it> to Rome in 1 !; 8, I 91), 1900; and also the officials "ho allm, ed me to examine parts of the palace not u_ually acce ,ible to trangers. Further, I wi h it to he clearly and di,tinctly under tood Ihat my researches are I.a_ed upon an es ay by L Paul Fabre, l.a Vaticcllle d.:!>ï.J.tt! lV., \\hich had appeared in the .J1.7a11ges ,f.Jrdl/ologle d d'HlStoir. of the E,ole F"mraise ,ie ROllle for December I8 .::, but of the exi tence of \\hich I had ne'er heard until Fo.1ther EhrIe he'\t,d it to me. On reading it. I found that L Fabre had completely anticipated me; he had done exactly what I had come to ROllle to do, and in ueh a mæ.terly f""hion that I could not hope to improve upon hb worJ". After ollle consideration I determined to verify his conclusions by carefully examining the locality, and to maJ"e a fresh ground-plan of it for my o\\n u e. I ha'e also tudi(,d the authorities quoted by 'L Eugène hinIz (/.l's Arts Ii la Cour des Fapu) from my 0\\ n point of view. I"hcre are t\\O worJ"s to which I hall frequently refer: La Arts à la Cour des "Iy paper, of "hieh an abstract only is here given, has been publishc<1 in the Camb. ..lIlt. Soc. l'roc. allii COllllll. 6 l\Iarch 1899, Vu\. x. pp. 11-61. I This document, dated 17 December, "'71, has been printed by :\JiintL, p. 120. I am afraid that this order can have but one meaning: viz. the excavatiun and destfllction of ancient buildings. " This is the date assigned by I'latina hinlself. See below, p. 23 1 . 3 :\IS. Vat. Lat. 39..7, fol. 118 b. Notatio omnium librofllm llibliothecæ Plllatinæ Sixti quarti Pont. l\Iax. tam qui in banchis quanl qui ir Armariis et capsis sunt a Platyna Bibliothecario et Demetrio Lucense eius alumno custode die xiiii. mensis Septemb. !II.CCCC.L XXI facta. Ante vero eius deccssum dicrum octo tantummodu. This I\'otatÏo has been printed. l\liintz et Fabre, p, 1 0, but without the catalogue to "hich it fomb an appendix. This, so far a I know, still remains Imprinted. -- '%j . \0 !'" Q '"1 o c: ::r P- I "0 r:;" ::r 8, :i- n> u " Ie '"1 o o 3 If) 5' I- e :i- n> <: ;:;' 0> " "C ., õ) () ", ;!' ;; P- c: "::I õ' '"1 I,,,, o . ,,0 cr '"1 0> '"1 '< , "0 c: '"1 "0 o If) cr '< x ë If) ,Þt o .... <: ..... õï o ::I C) <> B .,. :J Q- uo '" r :t1 aI o ::c o > ::c en > z en õ (') 0 :u -i r rrI 0 >11 rrI r "U > "U > C) > r r 0 g :t =. ':. 1. OJ c:: c.. =' TORRE ("; Ø- L ('!'\ 'JI ,or:. , 11 1 I \ .1 r \, '\\! -(,} CD' " ;Ø . ' , ' \ lÞ ' i '" ' ::IJ ""r,'":' ' ", I ' i " ' - . -< I , , ; ; , ; !, ' _ \ en ' ::::::ï:L \ .... __ III IU..UU-:.....:....J.' \l --.;; n-t , I I : I :I: .1"10 liliiii , : 1 "')> , -t '" ' I _..-----;--J U) r1 ,'; , ' ....' '" __ -t )> m : . ' " ... to. ,' r ' , \r ,> M " 2 , \ , , ,.., ; ,; , , " > :t1 c. > :t1 "' W--L "' , I ' c: Þ 1 3: t1' ...LC..- u Ø'> õ If) CD .. I -.. L- 1,111 \ ; I Li BORGIA = . \ 'Ì-- -., II I . ' ", ' ,- . +-- ...;. -ì- .: -- 11 . /' "," . , , I , I i"- II \ , \ J I r r! r I ! I '" I : I , I 1"/ --.- ' Jill I II - , , - \ , , ø ,:0 rrI "'M .L- ;:0: '" --.J r- .[jj ,,:0 Ò>> ,:0 ..."<< , II l ' CD en '" . c.> '" f III III :r- ;Õ ..... :I :J: .1"1 :0 )> "tJ o .2 = . .., Õ , )> ::: '" .- ï :::I: (') o C :0 -I :JC. , , o "'TI CD f'TI r- < M o r'1 :c 1""1 ::r , , \ Co 1101 I I '""'1 I I :E lø 'J - -- II .- );00-. VI] SELECTIOJS" OF A SITE 209 It IS evident that the Library had suffered considerably from the negligence of those in whose charge it had been. Many volumes were missing, and those that remained were in bad condition. Platina and his master set to work energetically to remedy these defects. The former engaged a binder, and bought materials for his use l ; the latter issued a Bull (30 June) of exceptional severity!!. After stating that "certain ecclesiastical and secular persons, having no fear of God before their eyes, have taken sundry volumes in theology and other faculties from the library, which volumes they still presume rashly and maliciously to hide and secretly to detain"; such persons are warned to return the books in question within forty days. If they disobey they are zpso facto excommunicated. If they are clerics they shall be incapable of holding livings, and if laymen, of holding any office. Those who have knowledge of such persons are to inform against them. The effect produced by this document has not been recorded; nor are we told what the extent of the loss was. It could hardly have been very extensive, for a catalogue which Platina prepared. or perhaps only signed, on the day of his election, enumerates 2527 volumes, of which 770 were Greek and 1757 Latins. The number of the ]atter had more than doubled in the twenty years that had elapsed since the death of Nicholas V., an augmentation due, in all probability, to the activity of Sixtus himself The place selected to contain this extensive collection was the ground-floor of a building which had been erected by l\'"icholas V. and subsequently used as a provision store. The position of it, and its relations to neighbouring structures, will be understood from the accompanying plan (fig. 97), which I borrow from 1\1. Fabre's paper. In order to shew how the building was arranged when it was first built, before other structures abutted against it, I have prepared a second plan (fig. 98) drawn from measurements taken by myself The floor is divided into four rooms by party-walls which are probably older than 14ï5, but which are proved, by the catalogue of 1481, to have been in existcnce at that period. 1 I\Iiintz et Fabre, pp. q8-I 50, passim. 3 Ibid. p. 141. The catalogue is printed pp. I 9-250. c. L. 2 Ibid. p. 3 2 , I4 210 VATICAN LIBRARV OF SIXTUS IV. [CHAP. r \\ . , \ \ \ \ . , \\ \- del Co-M.\le \" 30 11 30 9 30 \\0 , ,,,/ ,r"F','/}"', Tour Cortile d.el Portoncin di Ferro .:ßorg ia . Corlile basso del Belvedere ..... ':f!f$ ::...... . . 'h ....\ .... '1o\\o\>''''\ "... ,"", .' -\.0 ""'- ", f,e'C"f 0 ,/ . '. ;,'.'.' , . --;'.. . , -- - ....:: ." "'. "'"4: _ þ,: \/' . ,.ru.0 ''o\\O,-\le.. ç ß\ .{'. c \e ....\"\.'Ü '. O.. II ,./" .,:':. / , '\ -- ,", ,I , " III '--;::::2;' \. ' %::= CortiJt' S Damaso þ .... Fig. 97. Ground-plan of part of the Vatican Palace, shewing the building of Nicholas V., as' arranged for library purposes by Sixtus IV., and its relation to the surrounding structures. From Letarouilly. Le Va/iran, fol. Paris, 1882 1 as reproduced by 1\1. Fabre. \ I] FOURFOLD DIVISIO:-J OF LlHRARV II The first of these rooms, entered directly from the court, con- tained the Latin Library; the second, the Greek Library. These two, taken together, formed the Common, or Public, Library (Bib/iotheca comlllllllis, B. publica, or merely Bibliothcca). Xext to this room, or these rooms, was the Bibliotncca secreta or Reserved Library. in which the more precious :\JSS. were kept apart from the others. The fourth room, which was not fitted up till 1480 or 1481, was called Bibliothcca þOlltificia. In addition to :\ISS. it contained the papal archives and registers (Regesta). In the catalogue dated 1512 it is called Illtima et ultima secretior bibliothcca, and seems to have contained the most valued treasures. This quadripartite division is com- memorated by Aurelio Brandolini (Epigram xn.)I. After alluding to the founders of some of the famous libraries of antiquity, he says in conclusion: Bibliotheca fuit, fateor, sua cuique, sed vna. Sixte pater vincis: quatuor vnus habes. Thanks to the care with which Platina set down his expenditure,' we are able to follow step by step the gradual transformation of the rooms. His account-books!!, begun 30 June 1475, record, with a minuteness as rare as it is valuable, his transactions with the different artists and workmen whom he thought proper to employ. It was evidently intended that the library should be beautiful as well as useful, .and some of the most celebrated artists of the day were set to work upon it. The ]ibrarian prudently began in August, 1475, by increasing the light, and a new window was made" on the side next the court." It seems to have been impossible to get either workmen or materials in Rome; both were supplied from a distance. For the windows, glass, lead and solder were brought from Venice, and a German, called simply Hormannus, i.e. Hermann, was hired to glaze them. For the internal decuration two well-known Florentine artists-the brothers Ghirlandajo-werc engaged, with 1 :'Irs. Val. ooS. , These accounts, now preserved in the State Archives at Rome, have been printed \\ ith great accuracy (so far as I was able to judge from a somewhat haSly collalion) by :'IhinIz, Les Arts à la Cour des Paþes, Vol. III. 1882, p. 121 5<1-; and Ly :\hinlz and Fabre, La Bibliotlzb/llc ,ill Vatican all.J.V Sijcle, 18t!j, p, q8 sq. 14-2 212 VATICAN LIBRARV OF SIXTUS IV. [CH AP. l\1eJozzo da Forli. who was painting there in 1477'. In 147 6 the principal entrance was decorated with special care. Marble was bought for the doorcase, and the door itself was studded with 95 bronze nails, which were gilt, as were also the ring and knocker, and the frame of trellised ironwork (collcellus), which hung within the outer door. The building is entered from the Cortile del Paþagallo' through a marble doorway (fig. 98, A) in the classical style surmounted by the arms of Sixtus IV. On the frieze are the words SIXTUS PAPA nn. The doorcase is doubtless that made in 1476 j but the door, with its gilt nails and other adornments, has disappeared. \\ïthin the doorway there has been a descent of three steps at least to the floor of the Library3. The four rooms of which it was once composed are now used as the Floreria or Garde-lIleublc of the Vatican Palace; a use to which they have probably been put ever since the new Library was built at the end of the sixteenth century. The Latin Library, into which the door from the court opens directly, is a noble room, 58 ft. 9 in. long, 34 ft. 8 in. wide, and about 16 ft. high to the spring of the vault. In the centre is a square pier, which carries the four plain quadripartite vaults, probably of brick, covered with plaster. The room is at present lighted by two windows (B, C) in the north wall, and by another, of smaller size, above the door of entrance (A). That this latter window was inserted by Sixtus IV., is proved by the presence of his arms above it on a stone shield. This is probably the window" next the court" made in 1475. The windows in the north wall are about 8 ft. high by 5 ft. broad, and their sills are 7 ft. above the floor of the room. Further, there were two windows in the west wall (b, c) a little smaller than those in 1 The entries referring to these purchases are given in full, with translations, in my paper above referred to. 2 The name is derived from the frescoes with which its external walls were decorated during the reign of Pius IV. (I559-1 65). They represented palm trees, on which parrots (Papagalli) and other birds were perching. Fragments of these frescoes are still to be setn. The court beyond this" del Portoncin di Ferro" was so called from an iron gate by which the passage into it from the Cortile del Papagallo could be closed. 3 The difference of level between the floor of the court and the floor of the library is eighteen inches. An inclined plane of wood now replaces the steps. VI] DECORATION OF LATIX LIBRARY 213 the north wall, and placed at a much lower level, only a few feet above the floor. These were blocked when the Torre Borgia was built by Alexander VI. (1492-1503), but their position can stilI be easily made out. This room must have been admirably lighted in former days. The room next to this, the Greek Library, is 28 ft. broad by 34 ft. 6 in. long. It is lighted by a win July, I..7=" and this date. 218 VATICAN LIBRARY OF SIXTUS IV. [CHAP. with Giovannino dei Dolci, one of the builders of the Sistine chapel. The most important entry referring to him is the following: Master Giovannino, carpenter of Florence, had from me Platyna, librarian of His Holiness our Master, for making the desks in the inner library, for the great press, and the settle, in the said room-all of which were estimated by Master Francis of Milan at one hundred and eighty ducats-he had, as aforesaid, sixty-five ducats and sixty groats on the 7th May, 1477 1 . The last payment on this account was made 18 March, 147 8 , on which day he also received eight ducats for three frames" to contain the names of the books," and for some repairs to old desks . These frames were painted by one of l\Jelozzo da Forli's workmen 3 . In February, 1481, 12 book-chests were supplied 4 . The desks for the fourth room or Bióliotheca pOlltificia were ordered in 1480-81. The workmen employed were Giovannino and his brother Marco. Master Giovannino of Florence and Master Marco his brother, a carpenter, received xxv ducats in part payment for the desks which are being made in the library now added by His Holiness our :\Iaster, 18 July, 14 80 ". These workmen received 100 ducats up to 7 April, 14 81 , but the account was not then settled. Up to this period the bookcases had cost the large sum of 580 ducats or, if the value 1 Magister Joanninus faber lignarius de Florentia habuit a me Platyna s. d. n. blbliothecario pro fabrica banchorum Bihliothecæ secretæ, pro Armario magno el Spaleria ejusdem loci, quæ omnia exlÎmata Cuerunt centum et octuaginta ducat' a magistro Francisco de Mediolano; habuit, ut præfertur. ducatos sexaginta quinque et bononenos sexaginta die VII maii qjj. l\liintz, p. 130. There were 100 bononeni in each ducat. . Habuit ultimo ducatos octo pro trihus tabu lis ex nuce cornisate (?) ad continenda nomina Iibrorum e per Ie cornise de tre banchi \"echi ex nuce die supradicta; nil omnino restat habere ut ipse sua manu afflrmat, computatis in his illis LX bononenis qui superius scribuntur. liintz, p. 13 0 . 3 Dedi Joanni pictori famulo m. !\Ielotii pro pictura trium tabularum ubi descripta suntlibrorum nomina carlenos XVIII die x Octobris qjj. Ibid., p. 13 1 . 4 Item pro XII capsis latis in bibliothecam secretam. !\Iüntz et Fabre, p. 1;;8. . Magister Joanninus de Florentia et m. Marcus ejus Crater Caber lignarius habuere ducatos xxv pro parte solucionis banchorum quæ fiunt in bibliotheca addita nunc a sm.. d. nostro. die XVIII Julii q8o. l\hintz, p. 13... VI] CHAINS, IRONWORK, CATALOGUES 21 9 of the ducat be taken at six shillings and sixpence, .l188 IOS. of our money. The purchase of chains began in January 1476 1 . It is worth notice that so simple an article as a chain for a book could not be bought in Rome, but had to be sent for from 1\Iilan; where, by the way, the dues exacted by the government made the purchase irksome and costly. The total number of chains bought was 1728, and the total cost 102 ducats, or rather more than .l33. The rings were found to be too small, and were altered in Rome. Nothing is said about the place from which the rods came (ferra1/lCllta quiblts catmæ ÙlIlit1tlltltr). In 1477 (14 April) "John the chain-maker (]oa1l1lesfabricator catmar1t1ll)" supplies "48 iron rods on which the books are strung on the seats'" and also 48 locks, evidently connected with the same number of rods supplied before. In the same year a key-maker (magister clavilt1/l) supplies 22 locks for the seats and cupboards in the Bibliotltcca secrcta S ; and in 1480, when the Bibliotltl'ca pOlltijicia was being fitted up, keys, locks, chains, and other ironwork were supplied by Bernardino, nephew of John of Milan 4 . For further information we must turn to the catalogues. For my present purpose the first of these ð is that by Platina, of which I have already spoken, dated 14 September, 1481. It is a small folio volume, written on vellum, with gilt edges, and in plain binding that may be original. The first page has a lovely border of an enlaced pattern with the arms of Sixtus IV. in a circle at the bottom. The compiler of the catalogue goes through the library case by case, noting (at least in the Latin Library) the position of the case, the subjects of the books contained in it, and their titles. This is succeeded by an enumeration of the number of volumes, so as to shew, in a couple of pages, how many the I liintz. pp. U,,-I26. · Magi ter Joannes fabricator catenarum habuit a me die XlIII arrili ...77 ducatos decem, ad summam centum et quinque ducatorum quos ei debebam pro tribu miliaribus et lihris oCIingentis ferri fabrefacIi ad u,um bihliothecæ, videlicet pro quadraginta octo virgis ferreis ad quas in banchis libri connectuntur [etc.]. :'Iliintz, p. uS. 3 Ibid., p. Uj. 4 Ibid., 1" 13;:" ð :\ISS, Vat. 39..7. 220 VATICAN LIBRARY OF SIXTUS IV. [CHAP. whole Library contained. 1\1:\1. Müntz and Fabre print this enumeration, but, so far as I know, the catalogue itself has not as yet been printed by anyone. For my present purpose I shall combine the headings of the catalogue, the subjects, and the number of the volumes, as follows: Inventarium Bibliothecæ Palatinæ Divi Sexti Quarti Pont. Max. [I. LATIN LIBRARY.] Ad sinistram ingredientibus In primo banco. [Bibles alld Commf1ltaries] 51 In secundo banco. Hieronymus. AugustillUS 55 In tertio banco. A ugllstimls. A mbrosÙls. Gregorius 47 In quarto banco. Ioannes Chrysostomus . 50 In quinto banco. TllOmas 4 7 In sexto banco. In Theologia. in divino o/Jicio 54 In septimo banco. Ius canonicum 43 In octauo banco. Ius canonicum 4 1 In nono banco. Ius ciz'ile 4 2 43 0 In primo banco ad dextram ingredientibus. Philosoplu' 53 In secundo banco. Astrologz: In .AfedicÙza 4 8 In tertio banco. Poe/æ 4 1 In quarto banco. Ora/ores 43 In quinto banco. Historici 33 In sexto banco. Historici ecclesias/ici 4 8 In septimo banco. Grallllllatici 47 3 1 3 [II. GREEK LIBRARY.] In primu banco Bibliothecæ Grecæ. Tes/ameli/llm 7'etus et nO'l'Ul11 . 4 2 In secundo banco. Auctores clariores [.R,/hers] 3 1 In tertio banco. Auctores clariores . 4 6 In quarto banco. Auctores clariores . 49 In quinto banco. Ius ci7'ile et canonicllm . 58 In sexto banco. In Pllilosoplúa 59 In septimo banco. Oratores et Rhetores . 57 In octauo banco. Historici. Poetæ et Gramma/ici . 58 4 00 VI] SU;\nIARV OF CATALOGUES [III. I:-lNER LIBR-\RY.] [A. B.\NCHI.] In primo banco Bibliothecæ Secretæ. [Bibles, Fathers, et ] 29 In secundo banco. In Tkologia 37 In tertio banco. In PhilosoPhia 4 1 In quarto banco. Ius canom"cum 20 In quinto banco. Concilia 34 In sexto banco. In Astrologia. In Hebrazco. In Dalmatico. bl Arabico 29 [B. AR\IARIUM.] In primo armario Bibliothecæ Secretæ. Libri sacri et ill di1'Ìno officio 173 In secundo armario. Ius tanOlliC1lm. Ius ciz'ile 14 8 In tertio armario. Expositiolles. In sl'1ltentiis. Poetæ. Grammatici et Historici Greci 24 2 In quarto armarlO. In medicina. Alathematici et Astrologi. Ius canonicum et cil'lle. Oratores et Rktores. Platonis Opera. In PhilosoPllia 186 In quinto annario. A uclores clariores 18 9 [CO CAPSÆ.] In prima capsa primi banchi Bibliothecæ Secretæ. In Theologia 1 0 7 In secunda capsa pnnu ban chi. DÍ'l!ersa facultas [J:liscellilnea] 66 In prima capsa secundi banchi. [PrÙ'Ìleges and Royal Letters in 3 volumes] . 3 In secunda capsa secundi banchi. [AliscelI011ea] 12 4 In prima capsa tertii banchi. Philosoph;. 9 0 In secunda capsa tertii banchi . [00] In prima capsa quarti banchi. Historici. 65 In secunda capsa quarti ban chi [00 ] In prima capsa quinti banchi. [Official forms] 43 In secunda capsa quinti banchi. III Arabico . 23 In prima capsa sexti banchi. In flistoria ecclesiastica. Ceremonialia 67 In secunda capsa sexti banchi. Libri sine nomine ad fjuÍ11fjuaginta parvi et 11IOdici fjuidem valoris 50 [D. SPALERA.] In prima capsa spaleræ Bibliothecæ Secretæ. In Poesi. Oratores Rhetores In secunda capsa. In dl7.'ino officio et ser11Wnes In tertia capsa. ConCtlia et Canon. De potestate ecclesiastica . In quarta et ultima capsa. In JIedicina. In Astrologia 221 19 0 93 8 63 8 69 59 54 3-1 216 222 VATICAN LIBRARY OF SIXTUS IV. [CHAP. [IV. RIBLlOTHECA PONTIFICI-\.] [A. R.\NCHI.] In primo banco Bibliothecæ Pontificiæ. Testamelltu1ll 1Jetus et novltlll 19 In secundo banco. Expositores 22 In tertio banco. Allgllstinlls 14 In quarto banco. Hieronymlls, 23 In quinto banco. In Theologia 22 In sexto banco. In Theologia . 1 8 In septimo banco. Tl1011Ias 23 In octavo banco. In Plzilosoþma 29 In nono banco. [Greek and Latill Classics] 25 In decimo banco. Ius canollim1ll 28 In undecimo banco. [Ci1'il Law] 17 In duodecimo banco. [-. .... <eats cost '30 ducats, each palm cost ! '& ducah=! uf a ducat nearly. A tbe total paid wa 300 ducab, this lir t payment, viL. '30 ducats. left 170 ducats still due for the 15 remaining seats. As each palm cost a third of a ducat, I 70 ducat would buy 510 palll1s 11.\'73 mètres=H77 inchc:, (nearly) = 373 feet. Js --2 228 VATICAN LIBRARY OF SIXTUS IV. [CHAP. passdge from door to door, and leaves a short interval between the ends of the desks and the opposite wall. flllll'r Librar)', In this room space has to be provided for (I) six seab, each holding on an average about 30 volumes; p) a press {armarium) with five divisions, and holding 938 volumes; (3) a settle (spa/era); (4) 12 chests or coffers (cap.sæ). I have placed the armarium at the end of the room, opposite the window. In this position it can be allowed to be 20 ft. in width with 5 divisions, each, we will suppose, about 4 ft. wide. Let us suppose further that it was 7 ft. high, and had 6 shelves. If we allow 8 volumes to each foot, each shelf would hold 32 volumes, and each division six times that number, or 192" This estimate for each division will give a total of 960 volumes for the five divisions, a number slightly in excess of that mentioncd in Platina's catalogue. After allowing a space 5 ft. wide in front of the press, there is plenty of room left for 6 desks, each 2 I ft. long. I have placed the sþaIIÙ'1'a, with its four coffers (capsæ) under the seat, below the window. This piece of furniture, in modern Italian spalliaa, Frenëh tþlwlière, is common in large hOllses at the present day. It usually stands in an ante-room or on a landing of one of the long staircases. A portion at least of the spa/licrc used in this Library are still in existence. They stood in the ,"estibule of the present Vatican Library until a short time ago, when the present Pope had them removed to the App.lrtamento Borgia, where thcy stand against the wall round one of the rooms. There are two distinct designs of different heights and ornamentation. The photograph here n:produced (fig. 100) was taken specially for my use. The spalliae have evidently been a good deal altered in the process of fitting up, and moreover, as it is impossible to discover whether we have the whole or only a part of what once existed, it is useless to make any suggestion, from the length of the portions that remain, as to which room they may once have fitted. They are excellent specimens of inlaid work. That on the right, with the row of crosses along the cornice, is 6 ft. 2 in. high, and 66 ft. long. That on the left is 5 ft. 10 in. high, and 24 ft. 7 in. long, The t:apsæ project from the wall I ft. 4 in., and are 2 ft. high. Their lids vary a little in length, from 3 ft. I I in. to 4 ft. 10 in. cÜ - ---- -. 'b'o oro - ... J 0 j -- - -- ro Il 0 l c ... -- - 5 - ---- . c> ... . c a ... S -5 .... , , .!: .... t 1 I .., "1\ . -.' . ... "- I. en " J-" ' ... () c: 0 --- , . I .1 ."v -- , .I;;! '.:\ I_ , 1 _.1. . .. l 't -s. 'y J" , I '- ' I' en q;:.;;; I \ . 'I t;' .' ... en =- __- J d I >> : : ... cre quute, an eXlract in pmi'e of the mal' and gloI.L' fF'1Il a leller \\ rillen from Rume in 1505. fa 1(11;,,111, d Six/ 1 r. 1'_ ..i I Ilot . . f Ùi. · :\1 imlz, p. 13 0 . 23 0 V \ TICA LIBRARY OF SIXTUS IV. [ CHAP. atque libros claudat et in locum percommode reponat. Ubique volet perlegerit. Secus qui faxit foras cum ignominia mittetur atque hujusce loci aditu deinceps arcebitur 1 . Before concluding, I must quote an interesting description of this Library by l\Iontaigne: Le 6 de Mars [I 58r] je fus voir la librerie du Vatican qui est en cinq ou six salles tout de suite. II y a un grand nombre de lines atachés sur plusieurs rangs de pupitres; il y en a aussi dans des coffres, qui me furcnt tous ouverts; force lines écris à mein et notamment un Sencque et les Opuscules de Plutarche. J'y vis de remercable la statue du bon .Aristide' à tout une bele teste chauve, la barbe espesse, grand front, Ie regard plein de douceur et de magcsté: son nom est escrit en sa base très antique..." J e la vis [la Bibliothèque] sans nulle difficulté; chacun la voit einsin et en extrait ce qu'il vcut; et est Ouverte quasi tous les matins, et si fus conduit partout, et com ié par un jantilhomme d'en user quand je voudrois'. Sixtlls IV. intended the library attached to the Holy See to be of the widest possible use. In the document appointing Demetrius of Lucca librarian, after Platina's death, he says dis- tinctly that the library has been got together" for the use of all men of letters, both of our own age, or of subsequent time 5 "; and that these are not rhetorical expressions, to round a phrase in a formal letter of appointment, is proved by the way in which manuscripts were lent out of the library, during the whole time that Platina was in office. The Register of Loans, beginning with his own appointment and ending in 1485. has been printed by I\Hintz and Fabre, from the original in the Vatican Library6, and a most interesting record it is. It is headed by a few words of warning, of which I give the general sense rather than a literal translation. \\"hücver writes his name here in acknowledgmcnt of books re- ceived on loan out of the Pope's library, will incur his anger and his curse unless he rcturn them uninjured within a vcry brief period. 1 Bib\. at. Paris, I\ISS. Lat. 13123, fo\. 220, quoted by I\Iiintz et Fabre, p. 1..0. , This statue. found in Rome in tbe middle of the sixteenth century, represents Aristides Smyrnæus, a Greek rhetorician of Ihe second century after Chri,t. It is still in the Vatican Library, at the entrance to the Iuseo Cristiano. 3 In the omitted passage l\Iontaigne describes a number of hooks shewn to him. · /01111101 dll 'lJ())'ag ,Ü lIIichcl de 1I101ltaigne m .'talie, ed. Prof. Alessandro d' Ancona, 8vo. Citt:r di Castello, 189;;, p. 269- I owe this quotation to l\I. Fabre. 5 l\Iiintz et Fahre, p. 299. 6 Ibid., pp. 269-298. I\ISS. Vat. Lat. 396... \"I] LOAN OF BOOKS 23 1 This statement is made by Platina, librarian to his Holiness, who entered upon his duties on the last day of February, 1475]. Each entry records the title of the book lent, with the name of thc borrower. This entry is sometimes made by the librarian, but more frequently by the borrower himself. \Vhen the book is returned, Platina or his assistant notes the fact, with the Jate. The following entry, taken almost at random, will serve as a specimen: Ego Gaspar de O/ino sapientissimi domini nostri cubicuJarius an no salutis ICCCCLXXV die vero XXI Aprilis confiteor habuisse nomine mntui a domino 1'Iatina Lecturam sive com mentum in pergameno super libris x Etticorum Aristotc1is, et in fiùem omnium mea propria manu scripsi et supscripsi. Liber autem pavonatio copertus est in magno volumine.-Idem Gaspar manu propria.-Restituit fidditer librum ipsum ct repositus est inter philosoph os die x"- VIII April q 7 5. It is occasionally noted that a book is lent with its chain, as for instance: Christoforus prior S. Balbine habuit Agathium Historicum ex banco VIU o cum cathena...Restituit die xx Octobris post mortem Platyne. \Vhen no chain is mentioned are we to understand that the book was not so protected, and that there were in the library a number of books without chains, perhaps for the purpose of being more conveniently borrowed? A few words should be added on the staff of the library. At first-that is during the year 1475-Platina had under his orders three subordinates, Demetrius, Sahoatus, and John. These are called writers (scrip/ores) or keepers (ClIs/odcs); and Sakatus is once called librarian (librarills), but it will be shewn below that this ,,"ord means a .....riter rather than a librarian, as we understand the word. The position of these persons was ex- tremely humble; and Salvatus was so indigent that his shoes were menJed at the Pope's expense, and a decent suit of clothes provided for him at the cost of eight ducats 2 . Besides these I Qui'qui, es qui tuum nomen hic inscrihis ob acceptos commOtIo lihro e hihliotheca pontificis, scito te indignationem eju et execrationem incursufllm ni,i pcropportune integros reddideris. IInc tihi denuntiat I'latyna, S. suæ bihliothecariu-, qui tantæ rei curam su..cepit pridie Kal. l\Iartii q 75, 2 Dedi die XIII Septemhris qi;\ ducatum unum Salvato scriptOli pro cmcndi, calligi,. Item expendi pro veste una Salvati scriptoris seminudi et algenti, ducatos \ III de man(lato sandi domini no tri. ì\liintz et Fahre. p. qR. 23 2 VATICA LIBRARY OF SIXTUS IY. [CHAP. there was a bookbinder, also called John. In the following year t\\'o keepers only are mentioned, Demetrius and Josias. The ]atter died of the pla ue in 1478. The salary of the librarian was at the rate of ten ducats a month, and that of each of his subordinates at the rate of one ducat for the same period. This arran ement appears to have been confirmed by a BulI of Sixtus IV. before the end of 14ïï'. These officers and Platina appear to ha\"e lived together in the rooms adjoinin the Latin Library, as shewn by the accounts for the purchase of beds, furniture, and the like"; and when Josias falIs ill of the plague, Platina sends away Demetrius and John the bookbinder, "for fear they should die or infect others 3 ." AII articles required for the due maintenance of the library were provided by Platina. The charges for binding and lettering are the most numerous. Skins were bought in the gross-on one occasion as many as 600-and then prepared for use. All other materials, as gold, colours, varnish, nails, horn, clasps, etc., were bou ht in detail, when required; and probably used in some room adjoining the library. Platina also saw to the illumination (lIlilliatio) of such 1\1SS. as required it. Comfort and cleanliness were not for otten, There are numerous charges for coals, with an amusing apolog") fi)r their use in winter" because the place was so cold"; and for juniper to fumigate (ad SlIffllllli,g-mllllllll). Brooms are bought to clean the library. and fox-tails to dust the books (ad togcl/{lm lihros 4 ), It should further be mentioned that Sixtus assigned an annual income to the library by a brief dated 15th July, '4ïï. It is thercin stipulated that the fees, paid accorùing to custom , I1ahui ego Plat}"na sanctissimi ,Iomini nostri hihliothecarius ducatos triginta pro salario meo. quod est decem ducatnrum in mense, ah idihus Julii usque ad idus Octobris qjj, quemadmodum apparet in bulla de facultatibus officiis et muneribus a sancti,simo domino nostm papa Sixl" IIII facta. INd. 1" , o. 2 'Hintz, PI'. 129, 133. 3 Item dedi ducatns <(uin'1ue pro <(unlibet Demetrio et Johanni hgatori librorum quos ex 111andato c10nlini nostri foras nlisiJ Inorhl0 ex peste eOnllll socio, ne ipsi quoque eo loci interirent vel alios inlÌcerent. die VIII junii I.fj1;. Münlz et Fabre, 1" '53. · The entriLs alluckd to in this accuunt \\ ill all be found in 'fUnt7 and Fabre, PI" I.fS-, 8. n] LIBRARY OF DUKES OF URBIKO 233 by all officials appointed to any office vacated by resignation, should thcnceforward be transfcrred to thc account of the library'. \Vhile Sixtus IV. was thus engaged in Rome, a ri\'al collector, Federig-o d,1 :\1 on tefel t ro, Duke of Urbino (1444-qX2), ....-as devoting such leisure as hc could snatch from warfare to similar pursuits. Thc room in which he stored his trca"urcs is practically llIMltered. It differs materi;lllr in arrangement from the othcr lihraries of the same pcriod. This differcnce is perhaps due to its position in a rcsidence which was half palacc, half castle. I t is on the ground floor of a huilding which separatcs the inner from the outer court. It measures 45 ft. in lcngth, by 20 ft. 9 in. in width. The wall" are about 14 ft. high to the spring of the barrel-vault which covcrs the whole space. Therc arc two large windows at the north cnd of the room, and one at the south cnd. Thcse arc about ï f1. from thc ground. The original entrance was through a door into the inncr court, now blockcd. In the ccntrc of the \';lult is a large cagle in relief with F.D. on each side of its head; round it is a wrcath of cherubs' heads: and outside of all a bro.ul band of flames and rays. Thc vault is furthcr decorated with isolatcd flames, gilt, on a whitc ground 2. The books arc said to have occupicd cight presses, or scts of shclvès, sct against the cast and wcst walls, but our information on the suhjcct oÎ the fittings is provokingly mcagre. It i'i chicfly containcd in the following passage of a dcscription written by Ikrnardino Baldi, and datcd 10 Junc, 1587. H.ddi, as a nati\'e of U rbino, and in later lifc attached to thc scn-ice of the l>uke, must h,,\'e been \Veil acquainted with the rool11 and its contcnts, La stanm destinata a questi ]ihri è alia mano sinistra di ('hi entra nel 1',11.1110 contigu,1 al vestiho]o, 0 andito.. .le fcni'stre ha \'olle a Tramont,IIl.I, Ie quali per esser alte dal pa\ imento, cd in te t,1 dd!.l st,\l1/.I, e \'0111' a parte di cielo chi' non ha sole, f,lIlno un certo ]um1' rimesso, il quaIl' pare eol non distra.'r ]a vi ta con la sover..hia ahhon- rl.ln/a dell.1 ]uce, dll' im,iti cd inciti coloro ..he \"' entrano a studian:. I a slale è freschissima, l' invcrno IL'mperatamentl' ealda. 1 l' scanLÏe dc' librj sono ac'eost.lte aile mura, c disposk con molto hell' ordine. In questa fra gli altri lihri sono due Bihhil', una latina scritta a penn.1 e miniata per mana di eccellcntissimi ,lrtdici, e l' altr.1 Ehrea I fhe documenl i prinkd hy ?liinlz and Fabre, p. .1 00 . 1 vi,ile,1 LTrhillo fUI Ih" I'urpo,,, (If 'Iud}"inr: Ihi, lilnary '2R \p,il, ''Joo. , 234 I\IEDICEAN LIDRARV, FLORENGE [CIIAP. antichissima scritta pure a mano...Questa si po sa sopra un gran leggi\'o d' ottone, e s' appoggia all' ale d' una grandc aquila pur d' ottnne che aprendolc la sostiene. Intorno aile eornici che circondano la libreria si leggono scritti ne! fregio questi versi I. In the preface to the catalogue of the library published at Rome in 1895, the author, after quoting the above passage, adds " There were eight presses each containing seven shelves'. The architectural decorations have alI disappeared, \\'ith the excep- tion of a fragment of a pediment at the south end of the room, on which F. E. DVX is stiII visible, The ]ectern is in the choir of the cathedral. The Biblioteca Laurenziana, or Medicean Library, at Florence, is the last Italian library which I intend to describe. After the death of Pope Leo X. in 152 I, his executor Cardinal Giulio dei Medici, afterwards Pope Clement VII.. restored to Florence the books which their ancestors had got together, and commissioned Michelangelo to build a room for their reception. The work was frequently interrupted, and it was not until I57! (I I June) that the library was formalIy opened. The great architect, supported by the generosity of the Pope, constructed an apartment which for convenience and for appropriate decoration stands alone among libraries. It is , raised high abO\'c the ground in order to secure an ample supply of light and air, and is approached by a double stair- case of marble. It is 151 ft. 9 in. long, by 34 ft. 4 in. broad, and was originalIy lighted by 15 windows in each of the side- walls at a height of about 7 ft. G in. from the floor. There is a flat roof of wood, carved; and a pavement of terra-cotta con- sisting uf yellow designs on a red ground. \\'hen the room was first fitted up there were 44 desks on each side, but when the reading-room was built at the beginning 1 ,I/ell/(".ie cOl1cerl1t:1lti la Citta di UJbÙl0. Fo\. Rome, 1;2.., p. 3i. See also Vespasiano, F,.dt-rigo Duea d' Urbino; aI" l\Iai, Spicilt:fiÙt1J1 RomaJl1ll1/, I. PI" 12,,-128; Dennistoun, lI/<"1JlOirs of the Dukes of UrbÙu>, 8vo. IRSI, I. PI'. IS. -IIÍO. The duties of the Iihrarian, which reminò us in many particulars of those of the monastic arll/aYÏlts, are translated by Dennistoun (I" 1 9) from Vat. Urb. l\ISS. :;'I: o. 12..8, f. S8. , Codices Urbinait's Graeci Bibl. rat. ..to. Rome, 189 , p. 12, For this statement, the writer cites Raffaelh, Im/,a>'",iale istoria dell' twio11e d'll" Bib/iote(a dumle di Urbino alia Ii,tirana di Roma. Fennu, 18;i, 1'.12. n] 'IEDICEAK LIBRARY, FLORENCE 235 of the last century, four were destroyed. This reading-room also blocks four windows. The glass was supplied by GiO\'anni da Cdine in 15ú7 and 1568. The subjects are heraldic. In each window the arms of the Iedici occupy a central position, and are surrounded by wreaths, arabesques. and othcr devices of infinite grace and variety, in the style \"hich the genius of Raphael had introduced into the Vatican. I "ra, p. 13. " The-e \\orch were u'ed hy Professor \\ïllis, Anh. HÙI. \'01. III. p. 4;;1. VII] AT s. ]OIIX'S COLLEGE, CA II3RIDGE 249 narrow, 110ft. in length by 30 ft. in breadth. Each sidc-wall is picrced with ten lofty pointed windows of two lights with tracery in the head. The sills of these windows are raised 4 ft. abO\'e the floor, and the inten'al between each pair of windows is 3 ft. 8 in. There is also a western oriel, the foundations of which are laid t < ,.., j . t " i,l! ,-, .1 , .I!J '\. >> <<- <- --- - \-;- n : ': ir,ill:: - , j · - 100 n I ' ;: - -- -; , ... I .' :.=- ff t I :.. - - "-- I ' -( 1-; _....... _ -' . s '= --.,.. -# --X . ':-I . __ 1 .. .,:1 ;., Cy j{ r .. ( =' '$ --:r- ).. J' - .. ..: 0---'1' - :'!!..- , - , --- '... -", , L... -. , 1 Fig. log. W st ori 1 of th Library at S. JOhn's ColI g , Cambridg . in thc river \\ hich washes its waIls (fig. 109). The name of the founder is commemorated 011 the central gable by the letters I. L. C. S" the initials of Joltll1l1les Lillcolllimsis Custos Sigilli, the Bishop Leing at that time keeper of the Great Seal, or, as we should say, Lord Chancellor. The date lú24 marks the com- pletion of the shell of the building l . I For the hi'lm}" or thi, building ",e l'...re,,"r \Yillis, lit slIþw. \"01. II. PI" fi"- il. 250 S. JOlIN'S COLLEGE, CA'IBRIDGE [CHAP. The beautiful fittings (fig. 110), which are still In use, were completed before 1628. Medieval arrangement was not wholly discarded, but various modern features were introduced. The side-walls and window-jambs are panelled to a height of 8 ft. ; and the cornice of this panel-work is continuous with that of the taller cases-which, as in the older examples, stand at right I C l --:: , 1 hi" ----- Fig. 110. Bookcases in the Library of S. John's College, Cambridge. angles to the walls between each pair of windows. Before these fittings were constructed, chaining had been practically aban- doned, so that it was not necessary to provide either desk or seat. In the place, therefore, of the reader's seat, a low bookcase was set in front of each window. These cases were originally 5 ft. 6 in. high, with a sloping desk on the top on which books \ II] PFTERIIOUSE, CA \IBRIDGE 25 1 could be laid for study. Stools also were provided for the convenience of readers. The larger cases or, as the Luilding- account of the library calls them, " the greater seats," have been a good deal altered in order to accommodate more books. Originally the plinth ran round the siùes of the case; as did also the broad member which is seen on the end above the arches. By this arrangement there were in all only four shelves, namely, one below the broad member and three above it. Further, there was a pilaster in the middle, below the central bracket. It should be noted that the medieval habit of placing a list of the books contained in each case at the end of the case is here maintained. It might have been expected that these splendid cases would have invited imitation, and in those at Clare College the general style was undoubtedly copied. But, as I have already explained 1, those cases were originally genuine specimens of the stall-system, with desks. In other libraries, while a new style of bookcase was put up, we shall find no innO\'ation comparable to that seen at S. John's. This was due, in great measure, to the medieval character of the rooms to be fitted up. The library at Peterhouse was lengthened in 1633. It is ï5 f1. long by 25 ft. broad, and each of its side-walls is pierced by a range of three-light windows. The cases (fig. I II) were put up between 16..p and I6-t-8. Like those at S. John's, they stand at right angles to the walls between the windows, but they are detached. and not continuous with the panel work. Originally they were just eight feet high, but have since been heightened to accommodate more books. Each case is still divided by a central pilaster. So far they do not present any striking peculiarity, but I wish to draw attention to a curious con- trivance, which we shall find subsequently reproduced in various forms, though not exactly as it is seen here; for these cases \\ere evidently admired, and imitated in se\-eral other colleges. The chains had been taken off the books at Peterhouse in 1593-94, when they were first moved into the new library; so that desks attached to the cases were not required. N' or were lowcr ca-;es, with desks at the top of them, provided. But the cOIl\'enience of the reader was consid red, up to a certain 's"" ahove 1'. I M6. 252 nOOhCASES IK THE SOUTH ROO!lI, [CHAP. point, by the provision of a seat, 12 in. wide and 23 in. high, extending along the side of each case, and returned along the wall between it and the case next to it. This arrangement may still be seen in the two compartments at the west end of the room, one on each side of the door of entrance. The ends of the seat or 'podium,' are concealed by boldly carved ,,"ings l . "!) - --. . . - . ...ii'lU ij '( . -::...: : =" - -"r T J',WhlU I " IJ tt ! LH . ' . J ' ,- ' JIlt r u r I f 1--: ., -fA LJ ; ' ,' I -r' - I , "'''11....._ J. ' ___' I_....n ------ - - .::-- / 'Ip j" I. __ I ----- Fig. III. Bookcases in the Library of Peterhouse, Cambridge. The convenience of this type of case was e,'identJy recog- nised at once, for we find it copied, more or less exactly, in the south room of the Uni,"ersity Library (1649); at Jesus College (1663); at Gonville and Caius College (1675); at Emmanuel College (1677); and at Pembroke College (1690). The south room of the C niversity Library, on the first floor, is 25ft. wide and was originally 67 ft. long. I t was lighted by eight windows in the north wall, and by nine windows in the south wall, each of t\\'o lights. There was also a window of four lights in the east gable, as we learn from Log-gan's print, and probably a window in the west gable als0 2 . It was entered by a 1 Auh. His!. ut supra, \"o\. I. p. 33. and \'01. III. p. + +. 2 When the new façade "as huilt in the middle of the 18th century this room was shortened by about 8 feet, so that now ther" arc only 8 \\ indo\\ s on the south side anù í on th" north ,ide. of . \ , ....... ..Ii f f" ". I I r\ II I tU !.. ..I .';111111.1[[ 1111111111I I rm n 'i II 1111, : (! \\ -", I IfD :1 J ìl\l, t II II 1111 lfL ! --- -- n , 'u; u . I 1 Fig. II2. Bookcases in the south room of the University Library, Cambridge. 11 IrQ! I -' \ II] U l\'ERSITY LIBRARY, CA'IBRIDGE 253 door, in the north-east corner, approached by a "vice," or turret- -;tair. This door was fortunately left intact when the east building \\as erected in 1755. The room has been but little altered, and still presen'es the beautiful roof. the contract for which is dated 25 June, 14 661 . \\'e do not kno\\' anything about the primitive fittings, but, having regard to the fact that the spaces between the windows are barely two feet wide, it is probable that they were lecterns. l\IoreO\'er, a catalogue, dated '473, enumerates cight stalls on the north side each containing on an a,oerage 2 I books, and nine on the south side, each containing 18 books 2 . These numbers, compared "ith those mentioned above at Zutphen, indicate ]ecternso I n the next century this room \\ as assigned to teaching purposes, and the lecterns were cither removed or destroyed. In 1 6 45 the University petitioned Parliament to put them in possession of .-\rchbishop Bancroft's library, \\-hich he, by will dated 28 October, 1610, had bequeathed to the Public Library of the U ni,oersity of Camhridge, should certain other prO\oisions not be fulfilled. The request was granted, IS February, 1 6 47, and thc books arrived in 1649. The room in question, then used as the Greek School, was ordered, 3 September, 16 49, to be "fitted for the disposeall of the said books" without delay. The existing cases were supplied at once, for Fuller. writing in the following ycar, speaks of them with commendation l . Their exact date is therefore known. These cases (fig. 112) are 8 ft. high from the floor to the top of the horizontal part of the cornice, and 22 in. broad. They have the central pilaster; but the seat has been cut down to a step, which is intcrrupted in the middle, so as to allow the central pilaster to rise directly from the ground. The wing, ho\\'e,'er, was too picturesque a fcature to be discarded, so it was placed at the cnd of the step, and carried up, by means 1 The contract is printed and explained in A,,-h. /lisl. Yo\. III. Pl" 1)2-6. ClIlI/b. A"lo Soc. Proc. \'01. II. p. 258. The calalogue is printed, with remark-, hy II. Bradshaw, M..\., Univer ity Librarian. It hould be noled that on the south ,ide of the room, the fir>t ca>e only is called' stall,' the remaining eight are called . desl._.' 3 /lisloryof UlliverSily of ClI11II>rÙ t; , ed. Pricl.eu and Wright, p. Ilioo S<:" also .-l1Ch, l/i>l. \'01. III. p. i. 254 KING'S COLLE(;E, CAMBRIDGE [CHAP. of a long slender prolongation, as far as the molding which separates the two panels on the end of the stall. These cases were exactly copied at Gonville and Caius College; and again at Emmanuel College; but in both those examples the step is continuous. At Jesus College the same type is maintained, with the central pilaster and continuous step; but the work is extremely plain, and there is neither wing nor pediment. At Pembroke College there is a further modifi- cation of the type. The step disappears, and, instead of it, a plinth extends along the whole length of the case. The wing, however, remains, as a survival of the lost step, and helps to give dignity to the base of the standard, which is surmounted by a semicircular pediment, beneath which is a band of fruit and flowers in high reliefI. I will now describe a very interesting bookcase at King's College, Cambridge (fig. I 13), which was put up in 1659, with a bequest from Nicholas Hobart, formerly Fellow". It remains in its original position in one of the chapels on the south side of the choir, which were used for library-purposes till the present library was built by \Vilkins in 1825. It has several details in common with those at S. J olm's College, as originally con- structed, and will help us to understand their aspect before they were altered. There is a lofty plinth, a broad member interposed bet\\:een the first and second shelf, a central vertical pilaster; and, as at Peterhouse, and elsewhere, a step or 'podium' with a wing. But, with these resemblances to cases in which books are arranged as at present, it is curious to find the usual indications of chaining, which we know from other sources was not given up in this library until 1777. There are locks on the end of the case just below each of the two shelves, and scars on the vertical pilasters caused by the attachment of the iron-work that carried the bar. Further, just below the broad band, a piece of wood of a different quality has been inserted into the pilasters, evidently to fill up a vacancy caused by the removal of some part of the original structure, probably a desk or shelf. 1 These descriptions are aU borrowed from Professor Willis, Arch. Hisl. Vo\. III. pp. 454--1-58, 460, 465. Arch. Hisl. Vo\. I. p. 538. YII] Ql'EE:\'S cor LEGF, OXFORD 255 The antiquary \\ïlliam Cole, \\riting in 1744, describes these chapels when used as libraries. Each chapel hdd five bookcases, .. two at the extremities, which are but half-cases, and three in the body, of which the middlemost is much loftier than the rest." In the chapel fitted up by Hobart, Cole teJls us that" at .(. (1\ \ \\ \ f' , . I 1 --- ....1 ,. ,- - '-':.: ",'r!-, ç , fiI'H1 rn::11I '\ , fft1 1- JtUt r rn I : I i U1.L I I -r-t - l ]1b bl J \. r t __ 1 t ' r 1..---- --f 1 , ,- , II 1 \, ' L " , ' } , -; I I - - =- / /"/ / /1 Fig_ "3. Bookcase in the old Library of King's College, Cambridge, made with the bequest of Nicholas Hobart, 1659. the end of the biggest middle class is \\ rote in gold letters LFGA\ rT NICOl AUS HOB \J.:.T r6591." ;\s the chapel is only 20 f1. long, the inter\"als between the cases could hardly have exceeded 2 ft., and as the buoks were chained they must have been consulted standing. A similar return to ancient forms is to be found in the library of Queen's College, Oxford, begun in 1692. The architect is said 1 .-/r,h. Efisl. I. p. .w- 256 QUEEX'S CULLEGE, O FORD [CHAP. to have been Nicholas Hawkesmoore, to whom the fittings, put up in the first fourteen years of the eighteenth century" are also ascribed. This library is 123 ft. long by 30 ft. wide. There are ten bookcases on each side at right angles to the walls between the windows. Each case is about 11ft. high, and 2 ft. 6 in. wide; but, though their ornamentation is in the style of the period, of which they are splendid examples, their general design exactly reproduces the old type. In their original state they were provided with desks, though there is no evidence that the books were chained; they had only two shelves above that which was on the ]eve] of the top of the desk; and there was a double seat between each pair of cases. The space above the second shelf, between it and the cornice, was occupied by a cupboard, handsomely ornamented with carved panels, for small books or manuscripts . In fact, the only innovation which the designer of these remarkable cases permitted himsdf to emp]oy waS to make the moldings of their cornices continuous with that of the panelwork which he carried along the sides of the room, and into the jambs of the windows. The space below the desk was utilised for books, but, as these were found to be incom enient of access, the desks and seats were taken a\\ay in 18 7 1 , and dwarf bookcases provided in front of the windows. \Vhen the Dean and Chapter of Canterbury built their library, no\\ called the HO\dey-Harrison Library, in 1669-7 0 , they constructed a room on strictly medieval lines. It is 65 ft. long by 2 I ft. broad, with seven equidistant windows in the north wall and six in the south wall. The bookcases, \\ hich are plain medieval stalls, project from the \valls at right angles beÌ\\'een the \\ indows. There is another class of libraries which must be briefly mentioned in this chapter, namely, those connected with parish 1 This date is given on the authOlity of the present Provu,t, John Richard Magrath, D.D. 2 A view of the Library in it, original ,tate is given in Ingram's 1I1cIJI0I ials, Queen's ColIege, p. 12. An article in Kotes alld (!zw-ies, 6th Ser. 1\'. 4+ 2 , by the Rev. Robert Lowes Clarke, l\I.A., Fellow and Librarian, contains the follo\\ing passage: "The bookcases \\ ere fitted \\ ith reading desks, as at the Bodleian, and there \\ ere fixed oak seats in each recess. T11ese \\ ere convenient in some ways, and helped to make the room seem a place for ,tudy rather than a store for materials, but they made the lo\\er she!\'e, hard of access, and were removed in .SjI to gi\e room for new cases." \ II] PAROCHIAL LIBRARIES. GRANTIL-\:OI 257 churches and grammar-schools. I suppuse that after the destruc- tion of monastic libraries all over the country, the dearth of books would be acutely felt, and that gradually those who hall the cause of education at heart established libraries in central situations, to \\ hich persons in quest of knowledge might resort. SOUTH AISLE OF CHURCH STAIRS FROM SOUTH AISLE Fig. 114. Ground plan of Library, Grantham, Lincolnshire. Scale one quarter of an inch to one foot. The library (fig. 114) at Granthdm in Lincolnshire occupies a small room, 16 feet from north to south by 14 feet from east to west, over the south porch of the parish church, approached by a newel stair from the south aisle. I t was founded in 1598 by the Reverend FrJ.ncis Trigg, rector of \Vellbourn; and in 16 4 2 , E.dward Skipworth "out of his love and well-wishing to IcVIRE. 16 55. Besides these parochial libraries 1\lr Chetham directed the foundation (among other things) of" a Library within the Town of JIalldLCsta, for the Use of Scholars, and others well affected, to resort unto... the same Books there to remain as a public Library for ever; and my Mind and \Vill is, that Care be taken, that none of the said Books be taken out of the said Library at any Time... the same Books [to] be fixed or chained, as well as may be, within the said Library, for the better Preservation thereo(" In order to carry out these provisions the executors buught an ancient building called the College, which is known to have been cumpleted before 1426 by Thomas Lord de la \Varre, as a college in connexion with the adjoining cullegiate church, now the Cathedral 1. The library was placed in two long narrow rooms on the first floor, the original destina- tion of which is uncertain. They are at right angles to each other, and have a united length of 137 ft. 6 in., with a breadth of 17 ft. The south and west walls are picrced with fourteen three-light windows, probably inserted by Chetham's executors; the east and west walls are blank. The existing fittings, though they have been extensively altered 2 from time to time, are in the main those which" ere originally put up. The bookcases, of oak, are placed in medieval fashion at right angles to the windows. They are IO ft. long, 2 ft. wide, and were originally 7 ft. high, but have been pieced apparently twice, so that they now reach as high as the wall-plate. Each pair of cases is 6 ft. apart, so as to make a small compartment, closed by wooden gates, which now upen 1 The architectural hbtory of these buildings has been admirably worked uut, in Old I/alls Ùl La1lcashire alld Cheshire, by Henry Taylor, Architect, -I-to. Manchester, 188-1-, PI'. 3 1 -4 6 . 2 These alterations probably began when the fullowing Order was made: "Tuesday, 24 July, Ij8j. That a Committee be appuinted to inspect the Librmy along "ith the Librarian, consisting of the Treasurer [etc.]; And that such Committee shall have power to repair and- make such Alterations in the Library as they may think proper." o Orda fur taking off the chains has been discovered. \"II] \\'I:\IBORNE ;\IIKSTER 261 in the middle; but a lock attached to one side of the end of each cao.;e indicates that orig-inally the gates were in one piece. The cases are quite plain, with the exception of a few panels at the end. On the uppermost of these, \\ hich is oblong, and extends from side to side of the case, the subjects of the worb are written: as, PIIILOSOPIII.-\; and bencath, in smaller charac- ters, JlnthC11lntica, Ph)'sica, illdnrk/'sica. . \11 indications of ch,1Ïning have been obliterated, but a refcrence to the earliest account-book which has been presen'ed, that beginning 20 April, , 68 5. shews that the founder's directions were obeyed: 20 Apr. 1685. To James Wilson for Cheining ten books... ......... .. .... ... ...... ...... 0 2 6 1686. --- for making 26 large Claspes and (,heining 26 hookes,.. .......................... ...... 0 4 4 9 Iar. I686-8ï. for Chcining and Clasping 12 doz. bookes............ 00 18 00 Chains \\'ere evidently kept as a part of thc stock-in-trade of the libralY, to bc used as required. for, at the end of an Invcntory taken 18 Novcmbcr, 1684. wc find: .\lsoe in the Lihrary two globes; three :\Iapps; two quere" of larg papcr to make tables; a paper fol-booke; .\ Ruleing pcnn; 2.J. dossen Chains; ,\ geniological roul; and a larg serpent or snaks skin. At \\'imborne :\Iinster the books arc placed in a small room, ,.bout fifteen feet square, over the vestry, a building in the Decorated style, situatcd between the south transept and the south aisle of the choir. .\ccess to this room is obtaincd by a turret-stair at the south-\\'c'it corner. It was fitted up as a library in 1686, whcn the greater part of the books were given by the Rcv. \\ïlliam Stone. There are two plain wooden sheh-cs, carried round three sidcs of the room. Thc chains are attached to thc right-hand board of each book, instead of to the left-hand board, and they are made uf iron wire, t\\'io.;ted as shewn in the sketch (fig. I 15). The swivel, instcad of bcing ---x--- I I I ',,, IU ì '( --- ---- -- Fig. irS. Ring and link of chain: Wimborne Minster. 262 ALL SAINTS', HEREFORD. SCHOOL LIBRARIES [CHAP. central, plays in a twist of the wire which forms the ring attached to the book. The iron bars are supported on eyes, and are secured by a tongue of iron passed over a staple fixed into the bracket which supports the shel( The tongue was originally kept in its place by a padlock, now replaced by a wooden peg. N" 0 desk was attached to the shelves, but in lieu of it a portable desk and stool were provided 1. A library was built over the porch of the parish church at Denchworth 2 , Berks, in 1693, and" stocked with 100 books well secured with chains," presumably for the use of the vicar anù his successors; and in 1715, \\'iIIiam Brewster, lVI.D., bequeathed 285 volumes to the churchwardens of All Saints' Church, Here- ford, for the same purposes. The books were placed in the vestry, where they still are. They are all chained on a system copied from that in use at the Chapter Library. In addition to collections of books, which varied in extent according to the taste, or the means, of the donor, single volumes are often found chained in churches. These do not come within the scope of this Essay, and I will therefore pass on to notice some libraries connected with Grammar Schools. At Abingdon in Berkshire, the school, founded 1563, had a library, some volumes of which, bearing thcir chains, are still preservcd. There was a similar collection at Bicester in Oxford- shire, where a school is said to have been in existence before 1570. In 1571 James Pilkington, Bishop of Durham (1561- 1577), by will dated 4 February in that year, bequeathed his books to the school at Rivington in Lancashire. The following extracts from the statutes, said to have been made shortly after the arrival of the books, remind us of monastic provisions.. The Governors shall the first day of e\"l ry quarter when they come to the School take an account of all such books as have been gi\'en to 1 Sketches of El1glish Litt'rature, by Clara Lucas Balfour, 12mo. Lond. 18:;2. Introduction. In the description of the library there given the padlochs are specially mentioned. Compare also, A History of IVil/lbOr1t "- ,:, ,- r ..J I =:I c-) I .t;; / .....;.. '1 {i' t ...... \ \ \ , \ \ ,'" " , I '- i \ \ " - oj .. :a '" <':I U .r c:: .3 ci' B Õ . IP ;:; È' õ .., 0 . .<:: u """ '" .,.. .:: " .'" -5 J .5 '" ..;:: '" "" " .. c.. '" .:.: ,<:> 0 ..:::: 0 IP .- ...::: .ö ê .. bñ VII] CII-\INI G AT LATE D<\TES 26 5 money, to be paid to his cousin, U to th' entent that he maie by cheines therwith and fasten so manye of them in the Librarye at Grauisin [Gray's Inn] as he shall think convenyente 1 ." At S. John's College, Cambridgc, in 1563-4, three shillings were paid to .. Phillip Stacyoner for cornering, bo!"sing. and chayninge Allato11lia11l Vessalii etc. K " In 15ï3, Dr Caius directs by will tweh'e copies of his own works to be gi,'cn to his college, "there to be kepte as the other bokcs are, and to be successive1ye tyed with chaynes in the Libraryc of the same College 3 ." Dr Perne, Iaster of Peterhouse, by will dated 25 Fcbruary, 1588, directs that all his books therein bequeathed "be Iayed and chayned in the old Librarie of the Colledge 4 ." At Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1601, :\1r Peter Shaw gave ;/;5 towards the" cheyning and desking of his bookes given to the newe liberaric.... In 1638-9, when a new ]ibrary \\ as complcted for thc Barber Surgeons of London, ;/;6. 18s. were spent on binding and chaining, as for instance: Paid for 3 6 yards of chaine at 4fl the yard and 36 yards at 3d. the }ard cometh to x\.ijs. vjd. Paid to the coppersmith for eastinge 80 brasses to fasten the chaines to the bookcs-xiijs. iiijd. 6 Sir Matthew Hale, who died in 16ï6, directed in his will that certain manuscripts should be gi,'en to the Honourable Socicty of Lincoln's Inn: "My desire," he said, "is that they bc kept safe and also in remembrance of me. They were fit to be bound in leathcr and chained and kept in archives 7." In the will of :\Iduhe\\ Scrivener, Rector of I1asling-fie1d in Cambridge- shire, dated 4 :\Iarch, 16Sï, the following passage occurs: "I gi,'e fifty pounds in trust for the usc of th public Library [at Cambridgc], either by buyin g chains for the securinu the books h at prcsent therein contained, or for the increase of the number I Th, Gllild of th, Corl'lIs Christi, Jórk, ed. Surtee. Society, 18;1, p. 106, 'lOft. · S. John's College Audit.llook, I;;6. -4, Exp. 1I"",ss. 3 Commisso Dods. (Cambridge), II. 3 0 9. · Arch. Hisl. III. ..;;... · Sen. Bur.. Accounts, 1600-1, R'Ct'pta. 8 "'emortals of th, Craft of SlIrgny ;11 1:lIglum!, ed, U'.-\rcy 1'0\\ er. Ih o. Lundon I 'j(j, p. 13 0 . 7 I [erbert, Inns of COllrt, p. . o. . 266 CHAIN'S T AK EN OFF [CHAP. VII of them 1." At the church of S. Gatien at Tours it is recorded in 17 18 that the library which occupied one alley of the cloister was well stocked with mdnuscripts, chained on desks, ,,,hich stood both against the wall and in the middle of the room 2. Lastly, in ISIS, John Fells, mariner, gave :1;3 0 to found a theological library in the church of S. Peter, Liverpool. " The books were originally fastened to open shelves in the vestry with rods and chains 3 ." Towards the end of the eighteenth century the practice was finally abandoned. At Eton College in 1719 it was" Order'd to take ye Chains off ye Books in ye Library, except y. Founder's Manuscripts."; at the Bodleian Library, Oxford, the removal of them began in 1757 5 ; at King's College, Cambridge, the books were unchained in 1777 6 ; at Brasenose College, Oxford, in 17 807 ; and at :\lerton College in 179 28 . In France the custom was evidently abandoned at a much earlier date, for the authors of the Voyage Litt/mire, who visited more than eight hundred monasteries at the beginning of the eighteenth century, with the special intention of examining their records 3.nd their libraries, rarely allude to chaining, and when they do mention it, they use language which implies that it was a curious old fashion, the maintenance of which surprised them 9 . 1 DoCt/ments relatÏllg to St Catharine's College, ed. H. Philpott, D.D., p. 12 5. . 1,>yage Litllrgiq/le de la Joì-allU, by Le Sieur de :\Ioléon, 1718. I have to thank Dr James for this reference. sOld Clwrcl. Libraries, lit supra, p. 102. 4 Eton College Minute Book, 19 December, 17 1 9' 5 Macray. ut SlIPra, p. 86. The incom-enience of chaining had long been felt for in TM Foreigll'7's Companion tllrough the U,Jiversities, by :\Ir Salino", I 7 .. , it is objected that" the books being chain'd down, there is no bringing them together even in the Library," p. 27. 6 King'sCol1ege :\Iundum Book, 1777: SlIlitl,'S work. .. To a man's time 9 Dayes to take the Chains of the books /:,1. is. ad." ; Churton's Li7'es of SIIl).tl. and Sill/Oil. p. 3 I I, /late. 8 lIenrlerson's lIistory, p. 237. 9 Val'. Litt., erl. 172.., Yo\. III. p. 2... CHAPTER VII I. TilE WALL-S..STDI. THIS BEGAN ON TilE CUI\TINENT. LIBRARY OF TIlE ESCÕRIAL. A'IBROSIAN LIBRARY AT MILAN. LIBRARY OF CARDINAL 1\L\ZARIN. BODLEIAN I.IBRARY AT O,(FORD. WORKS AI\D II\FLUENCE UF WREI\. FREKCH CON\"ENTUAL LIBRARIES OF THE SEVEKTEENTH CENTURY. .. HILE in England we were struggling with the J _ / difficulties of adapting medieval forms of libra- ries and bookcases to the ever-increasing number ;", of volume,_ a new 'ptem wa< ;n;tiated on the Ë ' continent, \\ hich I propose to call the waIl- system. It seems so natural to us to set our booksheh-es against a wall instead of at right angles to it, that it is difficult to realize that there was a time when such an arrangement was an in- novation. Such however was the case. I believe that this principle was first introduced into a library at the Escñrial, which Philip the Second of Spain began in 1563, and completed 13 September, 1584. I do not mean by this sentence that nobody ever set bookshelves against a wall before the third quarter of the sixteenth century. I have shewn above, when discussing the catalogue of ÜO\.er Priory I, that the books stood on pieces of furniture which were probably so treated; and it is not uncommon in illuminated manuscripts to see a writer's book.. standing un one or more shelves set against the waIl near his des\.... Further, in the accounts of the library arranged I See ahove, p. 19 6 . 268 LIBRARY OF THE ESCÕRIAL [CHAP, 1\1 the Vatican by Sixtus IV., shelves set against the wall of one of the four rooms are specially mentioned I; and in thedescri ption of the library of the Dukes of Urbino, it is ex- prcssly stated that "the shelves for the books are sct against the walls k scall:::ie dc' libri S01/O aeeos/ate a/Ie 11ll/raY." "'hat I wish to enforcc is that before the Es- cÖrial was built, no important library ",a<; fitted up in that manner from the beginning by the architcct. The library of thc EscÖrial 3 occu- pics a commanding posi tion ewer the por- tico through which thc building is en- tereù. It is 212 ft. 1 See above, p. 224' " See ahove, p. 2.B' .1 For Ihe hi lory of the Escì.rial, see Ford, lltllld- book for Spain, Ed. I!! 5, Pl" j 49-j 6 3, and D<'Soip- cioll..,dd Esrorial, Fra de Ins Santos, fol. !\Iadrid. I6Sï. with the Engli h lran..lation by G. Thomp- son, 4to. London, I jfío. -- - - If I I I ,4 ' \ . .. ,ø 11 a.... . ,.&., .... ' '1 U I{ ,f I r. , : I ,I ' , ,:" 1 I , I II I II! ., \,rl I I' II I 1\ I I I , , Fig. 118. Bookcases in the Library of the Escõrial on an enlarged scale. I, WI" --. ). r I I ..!. "- ----=-.- ,=- . \ b L:::: -: --- , -.\. \ .- -\.- ---- '- o ... ' ...... '. - ... "' . .- .- .. , - ., - , I, ...,;... ,- - -4 - -; *" ,- , .f ." "........ . . { - ", ,, t11, -' '. , , . .. , ,,,, ' --- , ' -." '- .... \." ,..... -- .... .... ' ... ....".... .......-- ,, ....- . .. 4 , ,I _ ' T' -===--- . I_-- --= ...--. .,....., .. -- -= r \- ..",.... I...'" - P I --- - I" , r-r--r- r- ..... - . . - ----.r-- - - I I \ \ ' J -5 ... o s:: b.O s:: :;; o .2 c;; 'i: '0 u '" iJ:1 " -5 o >. ... 0:: ... ...1 " -5 .... o OJ 'S: c;; ... OJ s:: OJ C .:. ::: hD \ III] LIBRAH.Y IJF TilE ESCðl<.HL 269 long, by 35 ft. broad and about 36 ft. high. The roof is a barrel-vault, gorgeously painted in fresco, as are the wall- spaces above the bookcases, and the semicircular lunettes at the ends of the room. In that at the north end is Philosop!l)', in that at the outh end is Theology, while between them are personifications of Grammar, Rhetoric, Logic, l\Iusic, etc. On the walls, forming a gigantic frieze, are various his- torical scenes, anù figures of celebrdted persons real and imaginary, as for instance, the first Nicene Council, the School of Athens, Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, Cicero, David, Orpheus, etc. The general appearance of this splendid room will be understood from the view (fig. 117). It is lighted by five windows on the east side and seven on the west side, to which is adùed on the east side a range of five smaIler windows just under the vault. The principdl windows are quite different from those of any other library I ha'"e been considering, for they are nearly 13 ft. high, anù extend down to the floor. The wall-spaces between each pair of windows have book- cases fitted to them, of a very original and striking design. They are divided into compartments by fluted Doric columns supporting an entablature with projecting cornice, above which again is a sort of seconù entablature. The bases of the column" rest upon an extremely lofty plinth, intersected, at about three- quarters of its height from the ground, by a shelf, behind which is d sloping desk. The material used for these cases is mahogdny, inlaid with ebony, cedar, and other woods. They were designed by Juan de Herrera, the architect of the building, in 1584, and I am assured that they have escaped alteration, or serious damage from the numerous fires which have occurred in the palace. In order to exhibit the distinctive peculiarities of these remarkable cases as clearly as possible, I give (fig. 118) an enlargement of part of the former view; and further, an elevation of one of them drdwn accurately to scale (fig. 119), for which I hd\"e to thank a Spanish architect, Don Ricardo Velasquez. These bookcases have a total height of rather more than 12 ft., mea'iured from the floor to the top of the cornice. The desks are 2 ft. 7 in. from the floor, a height which corresponùs \\ ith that of an ordinary table, and suggests that they must 27 0 LIBRARY OF THE ESCðRL\L [ CHAP. have been intended for the use of seated readers, though seats are not provided in the library at present. The section of the ., ! II JJ m =- -- 12 6 0 I I I I I 2 1[1 ì i] 11'1 i 1'1' J ! I I I[ I I = I re ! =- ,!,f' IPT: " ] f:- l' -'J' I Ð rl;: -3J Jdll] LL I ü' _ _ _ '-'--=_u I !lll Ie rlf] 1'1 .; --=- 1 f.'. " 8 9 10 11 1 , , , I . , I Fig. 119, Elevation of a bookcase, and section of a desk in the Library of the Escõrial. 2 , SCALE OF FEET 3 4 5 6 7 I I I I I shelf and desk placed beside the elevation shews that there is a convcnient slope to lay the books against. The uppermost of the four shelves is at a height of 9 ft. from the ground, so that a ladder is required to reach the books. The two photographs which I have reproduced (figs. 117, I IS) shew that they have the fore-edge turned outwards, according to what is, I am informed, the usual custom in Spain. I believe that the work done in the Escãrial had a very - \ - -f.' [ , J 1 I & \ \- I I , I I I I , I , 1 I I' I , , , I , , I I II , 11'11' t . '"' 1 ! \ "- " '-. ' os I Ill I: t i îi i 1 'II \! .12 ,I IIII I II L , : 10 '0 . " t 'II I 'I ,I I >. .... os . .... .c -7.- j : c:: .::: . .c - E '"" < 2 OJ .z "'3.. .... " o 'ï: OJ >:: i: .... - ._____1 I'll :_ I ' . t " I ' .. - "", I I j. " . at + .I .., , ..... / ' I ,.. .11 L I II I I t I '- I 11)' ,. .J ..ill r I · h 11 I.i !\ I , . . . '" liD '"' " , " \ \\ \. , \\ ,\\ , - \ nIl] A 'IBROSIAI\ LIBRARY, :\IIL.-\N 27] definite effect on library-fittings elsewhere; but, like other important inventions, the scheme of setting sheh es against a wall instead of at right angles to it occurred to more than one person at about the same period; and therefore I C,1I1110t construct a genealogical tree, as I once thought I could, \\ ith the Escãrial at the root, and a numerous progeny on the branches. Beh\een 1603 and 1609-only 25 years afterwards-Cardinal Federigo 13orromeo built, endowed, and furnished the Biblioteca .-\m- l brosiana at 1\Iilan. A plain Ionic portico, on the cornice of which are the words BIBLIOTHEC-\ .-\:\IBROSL\ .-\, gives access to a single hall, on the ground floor, 74 ft. long by 29 ft. broad (fig. 120). The walls are lined with bookcases about 13 ft. high, separated, not by columns, but by flat pilasters, and protected by wire-work of an unusually large mesh, said to be original. At each corner of the hall is a staircase, leading to a gallery, 2 ft. 6 in. wide. The cases in this gallery are about R ft. 6 in. high. Above them again is a frieze consisting of a series of portraits of saints in oblong frames. The roof is a barrel-vault, orna- mented with plaster-work. Light is admitted through two enormous semi-circular windows at each end of the room. X 0 alteration, I was Fig. 120. Ground-plan of the Am- informed when I visited the library brosian Library at Milan in 1898, has been permitted. Even the floor of plain tiles, with four tables (one at each corner), and a central brazier, is left as the Cardinal arranged it. A good idea of the appearance of this noble room will be obtained from the general view (fig. 121 )1. The way in which j . .a. T Reduced from Ihat given by P. P. Boscba. 1 I have to Ihank the librarian, Ion>ignorc Ceriani, for kindly aIlO\, ing thi, photograph to be Iaken for my use. 27 2 BIEUOTHÈQUE I\L\ZARINE [CHAP. the books were arranged was evidently thought remarkable at the time, for a contemporary writer says of it "the room is not blocked with desks to which the books are tied with iron chains after the fashion of the libraries which are common in monas- teries, but it is surrounded with lofty shelves on which the books are sorted according to size l ." This library was part of a larger scheme which included a college of doctors, a school of art, a museum, and a botanic garden; an of which were amply endowed. The library was to be open not merely to members of the college, but to the citizens of Milan and all strangers who came to study there; but the severest penalties awaited those who stole a volume, or even touched it with soiled hands; and only the Pope himself could absolve them from such crimes 2 . Before m,lI1Y years were over these novelties in library arrangement and librdry administration found a ready welcome in France, where Cardinal lVIazarin was engaged in the formation of a vast collectiun of books intended to surpass that of his predecessor Richelieu 3 . Even then his library was public; all who chose to come might work in it on Thursdays from 8 to I I in the morning, and from 2 to 5 in the afternoon. At a ]ater period of his life, when he had removed to a palace now included in the 13ibliothèque Nationale, he was able to build a library in accordance with his magnificent ideas. An accident of construction placed this room over the stables, a conjunc- tion which afforded endless amusement to the pamphleteers of the time. It was finished at the end of 1647; and in the following year the Cardinal threw it open, the first public library given to Paris. Publicè patere vo/uit, cellSlt perPduo dotavit, posteritati t"01JlIJIClldavit, said the inscription which he placed over the door of entrance. I need not attempt to recover from the somewhat conflicting accounts of admiring contemporaries the exact dimensions and arrangements of this gallery, for the bookcases still exist almost unaltered in the 1 G/i Isliluli Scimlifici etc. di l Ii/a1IO. 8\'0. Milan, 1880, p. 12 3, note. Boscha, De OrigÙte et statu Bib/. AlIlbros. p. 19; aþ. Gr, vius, Thes. Allt. et Hist. lta/iæ, V o\. IX. part 6; see also the Bull of l'aul \ ,dated 7 July 1608, approving the foundatiun and rehearsing the statutes, in lIIaguulll Bul/al Ùl1Jl ROlllallum, 4 to . Turin, 1867, Vo\. XI. p. 5 11 . 3 For the hi tory of the Biùliuthèque Mazarine see Franklin, .-llte. Bib/. Jè P"ris, Vol. III. pp. 37- 160 . r,.., .; r . . 1 1t I ) . \ 'i' j: ,. f,l. , ,f I' . . I .) · :;t I . . i t. . J . ' I )"':1' . I t'l' 'J ' ). " )./ ), , ,, \:'r .... I' I,' I ".1 .- I." I I ... ' -..,.- I. I C : -:-f; ", r i , L. ' I I ,. I r , i' , t - i'IJI. .. I l--.- .. ,f-' " I' ,. , f. . -. I 'J J I I j . · r , r - T I \1'\ f , t , II'I' 'i " I r I - -- t l f! ' I' ã. 1"11: I ' ....... - a 1It ' I s . .... !. .",,' ' ' I rl " I ,. · _I.. .... '..tlJ \1 -- "', - i.lJIII IIUuJU II , I -- -:... \ r I )r.* L . . I I 'I :. I ' I , _I , L- " I '. -.... _._. _ J I , I I I 1 I' - 1 I r I ' I " "1- ....- c.. -I I 11 1 ""f .1 , I .J . I - :1 , \ " II" I "" Fig. 122. Bookcases in the BibIiothèque Mazarine, Paris. From a photograph hy Dujardin, [!j9!!' nIl] Elm IOTHFQUE 1\L\Z.\RU\E 273 Bibliothèque :\Iazarine. One detail deserves notice because it may have been borrowed from the Ambrosian Library. There is said to ha\.e been a staircase in each of the four corners of the room by which access to a gallery was obtained I. :\Ianrin died in 1661, and, in accordance with his will, a college, to be called Le Collège dcs QI/alre Nali011s, was founded and endowed, and the library was removed into it. The college was suppressed at the Revolution, and the buildings are now occupied by the blSlillll dc Frallcc, but the library remains practically intact. I t occupies two rooms at right angles to each other with : united length of about 158 ft., and a width of 27 ft. They are admirably lighted by 17 large windows. The bookcases (fig. 122), from the original library in the Palais :\Iazarin, were placed round the new room. At first they terminated with the cornice, surmounted by the balu'itrade which protected the gallery mentioned above, and the roof was arched. In 1739, when additional shelf-room was required, and the roof was in need of repair, it was agreed to construct the present flat ceiling, and to gain thereby wall-space of sufficient height to accommodate 20,000 additional books. The gallery thus formed is approached by two staircases constructed at the same time 2 . If the elevation of these cases (fig. 123) be compared with that of the cases in the Escõrial (fig. 119), I feel sure that my re.1ders will agree with me in admitting that the French example was copied from the Spanish. The general arrange- ment is the same, and especially the really distinctive features, namely, the division by columns, and the presence of a desk. I t will be observed that the French example is the larger of the t\\'o, being 18 ft. high from the floor to the top of the cornice. The desk, moreover, is 4 ft. from the floor, so that it \\'.1S e\'idently intended to be used standing. I am aware that Naudé, the librarian employed by 1\Iazarin to collect books for him, did not visit Spain, nor was Mazarin himself ever in that country. There is therefore no evidence to connect his library with that of Philip II., but in justification of I Fr:l.nklin, Allc. Bibl. de PflriS, \'01. III. pp. 55-6. , The minute of the con'ef\'atnrs of the lihrary authori,ing this chant;e is printed hy Franklin, lit slI/'m, p. II i. C. I. 18 274 BIBLIOTHÈQUE MAZARINE [CHAP. my theory I submit that the resemblance is too close to be accidental, and that in all probability the library at the Escõrial had been much talked of in the world of letters. 12 6 0 I. I I L -= o D Fig. 123. Elevation of a bookcase and section of a desk in the Bibliothèque Mazarine., Paris. 2 , SCALEOF FEET 3 4 5 6 7 I I I I I 10 11 I J 9 8 , .. \' III ] BODLE I -\N LIBRARY, OXFORD 2ï5 The convenience of placing book-sheh-es against a wall was soon accepted in England, but at fir')t in a somewhat half- hearted fashion. The earliest in"tance of this, so far as I know, is to be met with in the Bodleian Library, Oxford, where the first stone of the eastern wing was laid in 1610, and completed, with the fittings, in 1612 1 . ..., " 'C;} ' ,"'." " --- ,-. .'-. T_'- .. . -- ...... ".. , , - , . '". ....:.... A- I -Zk-t " ---;O '-L ,,-=----:.' -- ... ...--' :a. ":' /ð ,, :. .;" I f '), - . C I I - \ ' .J: .1 -, , - -'ji!l. . -' . I '. i ;- 1 1 1 m 1 f!!! -'": :- "q,. 11.'-' , i1 "I, 1'< I I ,: I' /",. ,1:i iiJ... . 'I " -- I OJ m --- ,1 '-',j, {. ;'" h "' ",J iii, , ;j , .' ,""""'" '"1''' ........".. .,..... . I : ". 'All . ' -1ml llt '.t ' '=(( '..:, I - I ........, !j'l ::trt:I lie _ I II 1!1 I, ;, I 'ßlI ' 1i "'"' i I J' IDI Ii ". \.\ I U I ... _11I____11.....t ill[ . ar"'ü . tir 'h . _:1-: 111 po. _ . it" t!.. Jf " ........ t!I, - ., I " ...:' ,\ ; . < - - t ..... . , I C' Fig. 124. A portion of the bookcases set up in the eastern wing of the Bodleian Library, Oxford, built 16'0-,612. From Loggan's Oxollin IIIIIstrala, 1675- .\d\'antagc wa') taken of the whole of the wall-space prO\'ided by this extension, and it was lined with a bookcase extending from floor to ceiling. In order to provide easy access to the upper shelve'), a light gallery was prodded, the pillars of which were utilised to support a seat for the reader'), because, the I Iacray, .-lmur/.., ut supra, p. ]j. 18 - .! . 27 6 INFLUENCE OF WREN [CHAP. books being still chained, desks and seats were indispensable. These cases still exist almost unaltered, but their appearance as first constructed has been preserved to us in Loggan's print, taken about 1675, part of which is here reproduced (fig. 12 4). In 1634 (13 I\iay) the first stone was laid of the enlargement of the library towards the west, corresponding exactly to the wing at the opposite end erected twenty-four years before 1. The fittings were on the same plan, but of a more elaborate and highly finished design, the plain supports of the former work being replaced by Ionic columns supporting arches with frieze and cornice, and a heavy balustrade for the gallery above. I now come to the influence exercised upon the architecture and fittings of libraries by Sir Christopher \Vren, and I shall be able to shew that though he did not actually introduce the wall-system into England, he developed it, adapted it to our requirements, and by the force of his genius shewed what structural changes were necessary in order to meet the increased number of books to be accommodated. \Vren never visited Italy, but in 1665 he spent about six months in Paris, where he made the acquaintance of the best painters, sculptors, and architects, among whom was the Italian Bernini. From him he might easily obtain information of what was passing in Italy, though he describes him as "the old reserved Italian" who would hardly allow him a glimpse of a design for which, says \\'ren, " I would have given my skin." French work he studied enthusiastically, and after giving a list of places he had visited says, "that I might not lose the impressions of them I shall bring you almost all France in paper." Among other things he specially records his admiration for what he terms "the masculine furniture of the l'alais I\1azarin," though he does not specially mention the library; but, as Mazarin had died four years before, his palace would have been practically dismantled, and the only furniture likely to attract \\'ren's attention would have been his bookcases 2 . The first piece of library work executed by \Vren in England was at Lincoln Cathedral, 1674, where after the Restoration a new library was required. Dr Michael Honywood, who had been appointed Dean in 1660, offered to build one at his own cost, I l\Jacray, ut sup/a, p. 80. Elmes. Life 0/ Sir C. lVrm, pp. 180-184' Ptm:I1talia, p. 26.. I I ' t I' I, It 'I , . - .1 1 I\' '. ! I I · 't I J. I i ' - I I or \4..' , , o' . _u.Ot..." "-''W. - 6a{_ I . '.. I I - ..,. - ,-- I I .1 ,( .( i .\, .. I: .1 I I ... , .-- .. Fig. 125. Entrance to Wren's Library at Lincoln Cathedral, with part of the bookcase which lines the north wall. \ III] LINCOLX C\TH DRAL 277 and to present to it the books which he had collected in Holland. The site selected was that formerly occupied by thc north alley of the cloister, which, through faulty construction, had fallen down, and lain in ruins for a long period. The building consists of an arcade of nine semicircular arches supported on eight Doric columns. The upper storey, containinq the libr,uy, has eleven windows in a similar classical style, and above there is a bold entablature ornamented with acanthus lea\'cs. The library is 10-1- ft. ]ong by 17 ft. 6 in. wide and I..J. ft. high; the ceiling is flat and perfectly pldin. In addition to the \\ indows above mentioned there is another at thc west end. The entrdnce is at the east end through a richly ornamcnted door (fig. 125). The shield in the centre of the pediment bears the arms of Dean Honywood, \\'ren placed a continuous bookcase along the north wall of this room, extending from floor to ceiling. At the base thcre is a plinth (fig. 125), which may have originally contained cupboards, but is now fitted with shelves; and at the top, close to the ceiling, there is a heavy entablature decorated with acanthus leaves and classical moldings above a plain cornice, which bears at inter\'als oblong tablets inscribed with the subjccts of the books beneath. The shelves are disposed in compartments, altcrnately wide and narrow, the former being set slightly in ad\"ance of the latter, so as to break the monotony of a bookcase of uniform width extending the whole length of a long room. \\"hile this work was proceeding \Vren planned the Xew Library for Trinity College, Cambridge 1 , begun 23 February, lú75- 6 . His design is accompanied by an explanation, contained in a rough draught of a letter to some gentleman of Trinity College, probably thc :\Iaster. It is not signed, but internal evidence shews that it must have been written or dictated by Wren. This library was placed on a cloister, open both to the east and to the west, at the end of X cvile's Court. The level of the I The hi_tory of this library has been fully narrated in Ihe Arch. His!., ut supra, Vol. II. pp. ;;31- 51. \\ ren's [emoir quoted below has been collated "ith Ihe original in the library of All Suub' College, Oxford. \\ here hi. de_ign_ are al,u prc-crved. 27 8 INFLUEKCE OF WREK [CHAP. library floor was made to correspond with that of the first floor of the chambers on the north and south sides of the court. This is shewn in \\'ren's design, part of \\'hich is here reproduced (fig, 126), and explained in the following passage of his memoir. /1r- tl 11, - II I I Irl II 1111I11 1 I '" II dlll'll " I III II Scale of Feet. 1 20 30 40 I I I I ï- 10 5 0 I., ,1,. " I Fig. 126. Part of Wren's elevation of the east side of the Library of Trinity College, Cambridge, with a section of the north range of Nevile's Court, shewing the door to the Library from the first floor. [The design] shewes the face of the building next the court with the pa\-illions for the stairecases and the Sections of the old buildings where they joyne to the new.... I hauc given the appearance of arches as the Order required fair and lofty: but I haue layd the floor of the Library upon the impostes, which answar (sic) to the pillars in the cloister and the !evells of the old floores, and haue filled the Arches with reiieues of stone, of which I haue seen the effect abroad in good building, and I assure you where porches are lowe with flat ceeiings is infinitely more gracefull then lowe arches would be and is much more open and pleasant, nor need the 'III] TRIKITY COLLEGE, c.nmRID( E ::!ï9 mason frean (sÙ) the performance because the .\rch discharges the weight, and I shall direct him in a fir me manner of executing the dcsigne. = i - 'I I -I I III . J . . _II' . II . I :'1 1--1 "",, 1_ 1 , I .!- I t/) I I , . I I I I. ', 0 10 FEET . Fig. '27. Elevation of one bay on the east side of the Library of Trinity College Cambridge. drawn to scale from the existing building. 280 INFLUENCE OF WREK [CHAP. By this contrivance the wi dowes of the Library rise high and giue place for the deskes against the "ails, and being high may be afforded to be large, and being ,\ide may haue stone mullions and the glasse pointed, "hich after all inventions is the only durable "ay in our Climate far a publique building, where care must be had that snowe driue not in.... The general design seems to have been borrowed from that of the Library of S, l\Iark at Venice, begun by Sansovino in 153 6 . The Italian architect, like Sir Christupher Wren, raised his library on a doister, which is in the Doric sty]e, while the superstructure is Ionic. The Venetian example is more ornate, and there are statues upon every pier uf the balustrade. The arcades are left open, because there WdS not the same necessity for accommodating the level of the floor to that of older buildings, and also because the "'all opposite to the window,s had to be left blank on account of the proximity of other structures. No consideration for fittings such as influenced \\' ren could have influenced the Italian architect. The style of \\'ren's work will be understood from the elevation of a bay on the edst side (fig. 127), drawn to scale flOm the existing building. If this be compared with the original design (fig. 126), it will be seen that the style there indicated has been dosely followed. \Ve will now consider the fittings. A long stretch of blank wall having been prm;ided both along the sides and at the ends of the room, \Vren proceeded to design a masterly combination of the old and new methods of arranging bookcases. As he says in another passage of the same memoir, when describing this part of his design: The disposition of the shelues both along the walls and breaking out from the walls....must needes proue very convenient and gracefull, and the best way far the students will be to haue a litle square table in each Celie with 2 chaires. The necessity of bringing windowes and dares to answer to the old building leaues two squarer places at the endes and 4 lesser Celles not to study in, but to be shut up with some neat Lattice dares for archives, The bookcases, designed by himself, were executed under his direction by Cornelius Austin, a Camûridge workman. My illustration (fig. 128) shews one of the" 4 lesser Celles" with one of its doors open, and next to it a "Celle" for students with nIl] TRIKITY COLU.GE, CA:\IBRIDGE 281 table, revolving desk, and two stools. These pieces of furniture were also designed by \Vren. ." I.' r-_ , l 'I 11 l't" y. ì 1 f 1 -- .,;t:k . h L ..J ...... ----- "1/ T i! c, c:. ,iT" t "'H ' ,i,1 r · ..r'" . ' II . .1 . hi Jj \;- j I 1.',Iftlll . If' I ì1,-1 ; I:1 r.. ,- ...- - ...... r -' j . ....J I .. !J - ..- @II..a -- Fig. 128. Intenor of the north-east corner of the Library of Trinity College. Cambridge, shewing the bookcases, table. desk and chairs. as designed by Sir C. Wren. The cases are 11ft. 10 in. high, and the wooden floor upon u'hich they stand is raised higher than that of the library. The great depth of the plinth, which \\ ren utilised for cupboards, recalls the plan of some of the older cases, and there is the little cupboard to contain the catalogue at the end of each standard; but, with these exceptions, there is nothing medieval about them except their position. On the top of each case is a quare pedestal of wood on which \Vren intended to place a statue, but this part of his scheme was not carried out. The celebrated Grinling Gibbons supplied the busts which take the place of \Vren's statues, and also the coats of arms and wreath'i of flowers and fruit \\ ith \\ hich the ends of the cases are decorated. 282 INFLUENCF OF WREN [ C H.\. P. It is difficult to decide the source from which an architect so great as \Vren derived any feature of his buildings, but it seems to me reasonable to ascribe to foreign influcnce his use of the side-walls at Trinity College Jibrary; and his scheme for combining a lofty internal wall with beauty of external design, and a complete system of lighting, must always command ad- miration, In the next example of his library work foreign influence may be more directly traced, for I feel that the library of S. Paul's Cathedral suggests reminiscences of the Ambrosian Jibrary at Milan. Wren placed the library of his new cathedral in the western transept, with an ingenuity of contrivance and a dignity of conception peculiarly his own. On the level of what in a Gothic church would have been the triforium, he constructed, both on the north and south side, a large and lofty room. I t was his intention that each of these rooms should be used as a library, and that they should be connected by means of the gallery which crosses the west end of the nave. Access to them was to be obtained from the exterior, without entering the church, by a circular staircase in the south-west corner of the façade. This plan has not been fully carried out, and the southern library only has been fitted up. It is now usually reached by means of the staircase leading to the dome. These arrangements will be understood from thc ground- plan (fig. 129)1. This plan shews very clearly the ]ibrary itself, the two circular staircases at the west end, leading up to the gallery, the wide geometrical staircase leading down to the portico, the corridor into which this staircase opens, and from' which a visitor could either ascend by a flight of stairs to the gallery crossing the nave, or, turning to his right, either enter the library, or pass eastwards towards the dome. The library (fig. 130) is a well-lighted room, with an area measuring 53 ft. by 32 ft., and of sufficient height to admit of the introduction of a gallery under the vault. A massive stone pier projects into the room at each corner, so as to break the formal regularity of the design in a very pleasing manner. The gallery, together with the bookcases, which stand against the 1 [his plan has been reduced from one on a larger scale kindly sent to me by my friend Ir F. C. Penrose, architect to the Cathedral. '\, -... . ;.. ,. ' , J. :0- io/' 'Ti''' r-->" ,b =-= t- . fir - I .- -- r-I' , , ï/.... - 1 . J , '- ___' ___ .......' - '''' --- ....... , --.......... ..... -..... --- ..... -- :: n. 11'..... --? ":' 1r I -- : -L.= .. - \, Ii 1'- I l,...J -"- .. -... ,. ..... :.. . .-----' 11 1 I I' II - , i Fig. 130. Sir Christopher Wren's Library at S. Paul's Cathedral. London, looking north-east. LIBRARY OF S. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL, LONDON nil] 28 3 walls, both in the gallery and below it, were either designed by \Vren himself, or placed there wIth his approval. The Builùing (' UJ > <{ z UJ I I- - 1111111111 J'el_M cr: o o cr: cr: o o .r L, .... . II iii ,I II cr: <{ cr: (D :ï UJ I I- o o d >- cr: <( cr: II) ::ï !! L- Fig. 12 9. Ground plan of Library and adjacent parts of S. Paul's Cathedral, London. Accounts I contain mdny valuable pieces of information re- specting the history of the room anù its fittings. The floor "in the south library" was laid down in July, 1708, as was also I I have to thank the Dean ami Chapter for leave to >tudy these Accounts, and to have a photograph taken uf the lil>rary. 284 Ir-;FLUENCE OF WREN [ nl.\I'. that in the gallery; the windows" in the north and south library," words which shew very clearly that the corresponding room on the north side was also intended for a library, were painted in December, 1708; and the ornamental woodwork was supplied in :\Iarch, 17 08 -9. From the entries refcrring to these works I will quote the following, as it particularises the most striking feature in the room, namely, thc large ornamental brackets which appear to support the gallery; To Jonathan Maine Carver in the South Library, viL. For carving 3 2 Trusses or Cantalivers under the Callary, 3 ft. 8 in. long, and 3 ft. 8 in. deep and 7 in. thick with Leather worke cut through and a Leaf in the front and a drop hanging down with fruit and flowers etc. at 6 1 . I os. each. 208'. - -- The words "leathcr work," used in the above entry, are singularly suitable, for the whole composition looks more like something molded out of leather or plaster than cut out of a solid piece of wood. The vertical portion, applied to thc pilasters, consists of a bunch of flowers, hops, and corn, some- what in the manner of Grinling Gibbons, who has been often nameù as the artist. The above-mentioned pilasters divide the wall-space into 33 compartments, each of which is from 3 ft. 6 in. to 4 ft. wide, and 9 ft. high, exclusive of the plinth and cornice, and fitted with six shelves, which are apparently at the origina] levels. The gallery is approached by a staircase contrived in the thickness of the south-west pier. It is 5 ft. wide, and fitted with bookcases ranged against the wall in the same manner as those below, but they are loftier, and of plainer design. The balustrade, a molded cornice of wood, supported on pilasters of the same material, which recall those separating the compartments below, and the great stone piers, enriched with a broad band of fruit, flowers, and other ornaments set in a sunk panel, are striking features of this gallery. The material used throughout for the fittings is oak, which fortunately has never been painted, and Þ-as assumed a mellow tone through age which produces a singularly beautiful effect. I f we now return to Cambridge, we shall find that the influence of \Vren can easily be traced in all the library fittings nn] BOOKCASES AT CAMBRIDGE 28 5 put up In the course of the 1 Rth century. The first work of this kind undertaken was the pro,-ision of additional fittings to the library of Emmanuel College l between 1702 and 1707. The tall cases, set up at right angles to the walls in 1679, were moved forward, and shelves in continuation of them were placed against the side-walls. The same influence is more distinctly seen in the library of S. Catharine's Ha1l 2 , which was fitted up, according to tradition, at the expense of Thomas Sherlock, D.D., pro- bably while Master, an office which he held from 17I4 to 1719. The room is 63 ft. 6 in. long by 22 ft. 10 in. wide; and it is divided by partitions into a central portion, about 39 ft. long, and a narrow room at each end, 12ft. long. Each of these latter is lighted by windows in the north and south walls; the former has windows in the south wall only. The central portion is di,-ided into three compartments by hook cases which line the walls, and project from them at right angles; in the two smaller rooms the cases only line the walls, the space being too narrow for any other treatment. \Vhen the building of the new Senate House had set free the room called the Regent House, in which the University had been in the habit of meeting from very early times, it was fitted up, between 1731 and 1734, as part of the University Li bra rys. \\'ren's example was followed as far as the nature of the room would permit. \\'herever a blank wall could be found, it was lined with shelves, and the cases placed at right angles to the side-walls were continued over the narrow spaces left between their ends and the windows. One of these cases, from the south side of the room, is here shewn (fig. r 3 I). The shekes under the \\ indows wcre added subsequently. ^ similar arrangement \\as adopted for the east room in lï 8 7---ço_ At Clare College, at about the same date, the new library over the kitchen was fitted up with shelves placed against the walls. These fittings are excellent specimens, ornamented with fluted Ionic pilasters, an elaborate cornice, and pediments abo,-e the doors. It is worth noting, as evidence of the slowncss with \\ hich new fashions are accepted, that the antiquary \\ïlliam I Arch. Hisl. \'o\. II. p. 710. \,,,1. /II. p. ..6R. i ib. \' o\. /II. p. 468. .1 if>. \ 01. III. PP' 7." ..7 0 . 286 TIlE \VALL-SYSTÐI ADOPTED [ CHAP. Cole, wntl11g in 1742, calls this library "a very large well- proportion'd Room à la moderne, w th ye Books rang'd all round it & not in Classes as in most of yC rest of ye Libraries in other Colleges I." . ' "'') . I " "' ." . , . q '-I "llt'III I " , I , I Wr1, , I J:C I I I!rniô ,I f!tfi 11'" I' I, '__, ' 1 f1íì!1i;Jf'j 1tqW!t, A-C I" ' mm IT!1t . ......-..: 11 I'" . 'II r Fig. 131. Bookcase in the north room of the University Library, Cambridge, designed by James Essex, 173 1 - 1 734. The fashion of which I have been tracing the progress in England had been accepted during the same period in France, where some beautiful specimens of it may still be seen. I presume that the example was set by the wealthy convents, most of which had been rebuilt, at least in part, in the then fashionable classical style, during the seventeenth centuryv. At Rheims a library fitted up by the Benedictines of Saint Remi in 1784 now does duty as the chapel of the Hûtel-Dieu. Fluted Corinthian columns supporting an elaborate cornice 1 Arch. His/. Vo\. I. p. 113. " See the set of views of French Religious Houses called Le 1I1ollas/Ïcoll Gallica- llllJll, -Ito- Pari., 1882. The plates were dra\\n by Dom G"rmain 16-1 -lfi9-1' r--- , \ ... .. ..... , I ! \ J. '. . ........ '- .. ..., .... - , I ry- . -- --; fF --- -- .. -,:;..::.. \ IT · I f i I --- -t o!._ I' \ Ñ --- )0 , l" . t'\,"", .. '" ... .z .... o .. o ";: ... ] Ñ M bñ tI.. , III] IN FRENCH LIßRARIES 287 divide the walls into compartments, in which the books are ranged on open shelves. The room is 120 ft. long, by 31ft. broad, with four windows on each side. \\ïth this may be compared the public library at Alcnçon, the fittings of which are said to have been brought from the abbey of the Val Dieu near l\Iortain at the Revolution. The room is 70 ft. long by 25 ft. \\ ide. Against the walls are 26 compartments or presses, alter- nately open and closed. Each of these terminates in an ogee arch enriched \\ ith scroll') and a central shield_ The whole series is surmounted by a cornice divided by console brackets, between which are shields, probably intended originally to carry the names of the subjects of the books. Lastly, I must mention the libraries of Louis X\i. and l\Iarie Antoinette at Versailles. The walls are lined with a double row of presses, each closed by glass doors. The lower row is about four feet high, the upper row about ten feet high. The wood-work is painted white, and enriched with wreaths of leave') in ormolu. As a general rule the books are hidden from \-iew by curtains of pleated silk. I mentioned in a previous chapter' that additional space \\ as provided for the library in a French monastery by raising the roof of an existing building, putting in dormer windows, and converting the triangular space so gained into a library by placing in it bookcases of a convenient height, and connecting them together by a ceiling. I have fortunately discovered one such library still in existence at Rheims. I t belonged originally to the Jesuits, who had constructed it about 16 7 8 , and when the Order was expelled from France in 1764, and their House became the workhouse (hópital gàll rat) of the town. it was fortunately made use of as the lillgerie, or linen- room, without any material change. Even the table has been preserved. The view here presented of the interior (fig. 13 2 ) may sen'e to give a general idea, not merely of this library, but of uthers of the same class. The decoration of the ceiling is coarse but effecti\'e. On the coved portion of it, within the shields, are written the subjects of the books on the shelves beneath, I made a list of these and have printed them on the margin of my ground-plan (fig. 133). This plan also shews the arrdngement I ce alx)\'e, pp. 100, I q. 288 LIBRARY OF JESUITS AT R TIEI\T<; [('IIAP. SCRIPTURA SCRIPTURA ET ET tNTERPRETES INTERPRETES PAT RES MISCELLANEI GRAECI (over window) HISTORIA PATRES SACRA LATINI HISTORIA ASCETICI SACRA (over window) HISTORIA THEOLOGI SACRA SCHOLASTICI THEOLOGI PHILOLOGI SCHOLASTIC I (over window) Deu.s Scientiarum ORATORES Dominus est SACRI 1 Reg. c. I) PHILOLOGI THEOLOGI (over window) CONTROVERSISTAE THEOLOGI HISTORIA MORALES PROFANA ASCETICI HISTOFtIA (over winduw) PROFANA PHILOSOPHIA HISTORIA ANTIQUA PROFANA PHILOSOPHIA GRAMMATICI NOVA (over window) MATHEMATICI POETAE ORATORES IUS PROFANI UTRUMQUE 0 10 2 FEET . Fig. 133. Ground-plan of the Library of the Jesuits at Rheims. VIII] MONASTIC LIBRARIES IN PARIS 28 9 of the bookcases. They are placed at a distance of five feet from the walls, and are returned to meet each window, thus forming convenie'1t bays for private study. The space between the bookcases and the wall was used as a store-room '. The ßibIiothèque Sainte-Geneviève, at Paris, offered originally a splendid example of a library arranged in this manner. It consisted of two galleries, at right angles to each other, fitted up in the same style as the library at Rheims. The longest of these galleries was 147 ft. long by 24 ft. wide. The guide- books prepared for the use of visitors to Paris in the middle of the 18th century dwell with enthusiasm on the convenience and beauty of this room. The books were protected by wire-work; between each pair of cases was a bust of a Roman emperor or an ancient philosopher; at the crossing of the two galleries was a dome which seemed to be supported on a palm-tree in plaster- \\ ork at each corner, out of the foliage of which peered the heads of cherubs; while the convenience of readers was consulted by the liberality with which the library was thrown open on three days in every week, and furnished with tables, chairs, a ladder to reach the upper shelves, and a pair of globes'. This library was begun in 1675, and placed, like that at Rheims, directly under the roof. The second gallery, which is shorter than the first, was added in 1726. It was not disturbed at the Revolution, nor under the Empire, though the rest of the abbey-buildings became the Lycée Napoléon. After the Rcstoration, when this school became the ColIége Henri IV., the presence of the library was found to be inconvenient, and in 1850 it was removed to a new building close to the Pantheon. The galleries are now used a<; a dormitory for the school-boys, but the dome, with some of its decorations, still survives. Another example of this arrangement, which seems to have been peculiarly French, is afforded by the library of Saint Germain-des-l'rès, the gradual extension of which I have already described 3. The books were contained in oak presses set against the walls. Above them was a series of portraits representing 1 Jaclart, ÚS AnrÙIl11e., Bibliothhfllrs de Rtims, 8vo. Rcims, 18 9 1 , p. q. l Franklin, A,lr. Bibl. de Pan's, \'01. I. PI'. 71-<)9. lIe givcs a vicw of the interior of the library from a p,int ,!:lice I 1773. 1 See ahovc. p. I I... (". I. H) 29 0 MONTE CASSINO [CHAP. VIII the most important personages in the Order of S. Benedict. This library was open to the public daily from 9 to I I a.m. and from 3 to 5 p.m. 1 I will conclude this chapter with a few words on the library of the most famous of all European monasteries, namely Monte Cassino, the foundation of which was undo).1btedly laid by S. Benedict himseJf. I confess that I had hoped to find there a library which might either by its position or its fittings recall the early days of monasticism; but unfortunateJy the piety of the Benedictine Order has induced them to rebuild their parent house in a classical sty\c, and to obliterate nearly every trace of the primitive building. The library, to which I was obligingly conducted by the Prior, is 60 ft. long by 30 f1. broad, with two large windows at the end opposite to the door. The side-walls are lined with bookcases divided by columns into four compart- ments on each side, after the fashion of Cardinal Mazarin's library. These columns support a heavy cornice with hand- some ornaments. A band of woodwork divides the cases into an upper and lower range, but there is no trace of a desk. I could not learn the elate at which these fittings had been con- structed, but from their style I should assign them to the middle of the seventeenth cent ury 2. I Fran1.lin, ut supra, I. PI" 'OJ- I. +. , I \i_it"'.! :\I..nk Ca"in.. I. April. 'X'JX, CHAPTER IX. I'H.IYATE LIBRARIES. AnnAT smox A1\D IIIS BOOK-CIIEST. LIIIR.\RY OF CIL\RLFS \-. OF FRANCE. ILLUSTRA TIO:'\S OF TillS I IBRARY FRO" ILLUMINATED l\I.\NUSCRIPTSo HOOK-LECTERN USED 1:'\ PRIYATE 1I0USES. HOOK-DESKS IU':YOLYJKG ROC'KD A CI:XTR,\L SCREW. DESKS ATTACIIED TO CIIAIRS. WALL-CUPBOARDS. A SCHOLAR'S ROO;\I IN TIlE FIFTEEXTII CEl\TURY. STUDY OF TIlE DUKE OF L'RJ:Iì'\O. lIBRARY OF MONTAIGNE. LIBRARY OF .\IAR- GAIUT OF AUSTRIA. CONCLUSIOi\. . X the previous chapters I have sketched the history of library-fittings from the earliest times to the end of the eighteenth century. The libraries to which these fittings belonged were, for the most part, public, or as good as public. But, as in histury we have recognised the important fact that a record of battles and sieges and enactments in Parliament gi,oes an imperfect conception of the life of a people, so I should fecI that this archeological subject had been insufficiently treated if I made no attempt to shew how private scholars disposed their books, or with what appliances they useù them. For instance, in what sort of chair was the author of the Philobiblolz sitting when he wrote the last words of his treatise, 24 January, 1345, and how was his study in his palace at Aucklanù furnished? Further, how were private students bestowed in the fifteenth century, when a love of letters had become general? Lastly, how were libraries fitted up for private use in the succeeding century, when the great people of the earth, like the weahhy Romans of imperial 19- 2 29 2 PRIVATE LIBRARIES [CHAP. times, added the pursuit of literature to their other fashions, and considered a library to be indispensab]e in their ]uxurious palaces? In the hope of obtaining re]iable information on these in- teresting questions, I have for some years past let no opportunity slip of examining illuminated manuscripts. I have gone through a large number in the British l\Iuseum, where research is aided by an excellent list of the subjects illustrated; in the Bibliothèqu{' Natiollale, Paris; and in the Bibliothèque Ro)'ale, Brussels, where the manuscripts are for the most part those which once belonged to the Dukes of Burgundy. I have been somewhat disappointed in this search, for, with the single exception of the illustration from Boethius (fig. 63), I have not found any library, properly so called. This is no doubt strange, having regard to the great variety of scenes depicted. It must be remembered, however, that these are used for the most part to illustrate some action that is going forward, for which a library would be a singularly inappropriate background. Single figures, on the other hand, are frequentJy shewn with their books about them, either reading or writing. Such illustrations most frequently occur in Books of Hours, in representations of the Evangelists; or in portraits of S. Jerome, who is painted as a scholar at his desk surrounded by piles of books and papers; and I think we may safely take these as representations of ordinary scholars, because, by the beginning of the fifteenth century, when most of the pictures to which I refer were drawn, it had become the custom to surround even the most sacred personages with the attributes of common life. In the twelfth century, when books were few, they were kept in chests, and the owners seem to have used the edge as a desk to lean their book on. My illustration (fig. 134) shews Simon, Abbat of S. Albans 1167-1183, seated in front of his book- chese. The chest is set on a frame, so as to raise it to a convenient height; and the Abbat is seated on one of those folding wooden chairs which are not uncommon at the present day. Simon was a great collector of books: "their number," 1 M S. Mus. Brit., I\ISS. Cotton, Claudius E. 4, part I, fol. 1'24. I have to thank my friend, l\Ir Hubert Hall, of the Public Record Off.ce, for drmlÏng my attention to this illustration. I ] BOOK-CHESTS 293 writes his chronicler, .. it would take too long to name; but those who desire to see them can find them in the painted aumbry in the church, placed as he speci- ally directed against the tomb of l{oger the hermitl." Chests, as we have seen above at the Vatican library, were used for the permanent storage of books in the fif- teenth century; and a book- chest frequently formed part of the travelling luggage of a hing. For example, when Charles V. of France died, 16 September, 1380, at the ('hâtcaude Beauté-sur-Marne, thirty-one volumes were found in his chamber "in a chest resting on two supports, which chest is by the window, near the fireplace, and it has a double cover, and in one of the divisions of the said chest were the volumes that follow." His son, Charles VI., kept the thirteen volumes which he carried about with him in a carved chest, within which was an inlaid box (escrill marqlletL) to contain the more precious books 2 . The earliest information about the furniture of a medieval private library that I have as yet discovered is contained in a fragment of an account-book recording the cost of fitting up a tower in the Louvre in 1367 and 1368, to contain the books belonging to Charles V. of France. Certain pieces of --- -1' .. ' ' l , : 'u.. t' , I I II . .. f I . I, . \ 11 ... '\ I -.,:, ... , \ ( . - I . Pi 'W :! Î" Ii ) . , Fig. 134. Simon, Abbat of S. Albans (1167-1183). seated at his book-chest. From IIISS. Cotton. 1 Gcsta AMatltlll, ed. Rolls series, I. p. 18 . I owe this reference and ils transla- tion to thc Rev"reml F. A. Ga quct, 1IIedÙ-l/alllJollasIÙ LibrarÙ!s, p. 89, in JJo vllside Rt'Viro., 181)1. Vol. X, I\o. 2. J Henri lIavard, Diet. de l'A1Iletlb!Cllltlll, s. v. Lihrairic. The fir>t chest is describ"d in the folluwing \\ords: .. Livres e tans "n la granI chamhrc dudit Seigneur, cn ung escrin a,,,iz sur deux crampon , le. . I ,-- t J: ì L '> , '- " " \' '(I ' 111 0 hi'L' . I \\: - f I Ü' J:- t---LI ',-, -- .. --- , y II I II ... \I , (1. ' L \ ....-.-.1 .. Fig. 141. Circular book-desk. From a 1\15. of Fais ct Gcstcs till R{1i All'xatzdrl', in the Briti..h f\lu ellm. ,'- - .... - . .TVA . p srvs. . C . - ' :f. 1 - -} " ' t.f'" II I , ' . , _ -c .... <:>. \ \ : 'II' LlL{'" - . tc' . . \ \ ) , \. \ . - - , \\î t \\1.' - 1r,J - . I . " 'A ... . . í) 0} 1.. < \ . !- .-. . f 1 == ì I \ -=-...J . ,) ".. f. ..,- , - ) - /1.' tI \1 t " \ \ ': '- - " .. . F;g, '40 ... . - · "Will a' . S. Jerom ,n ,"1 painling " e writing. , y Benedetto U - :-. l' onlj"li . . clet .\1 I' .'" In the L I \rug,a. mtch "f ...- ..... ... ., IX] WHEEL-DESK 3 0 5 of one or more tables which could be raised or depressed by means of a central screw, was very generally used by scholars in the :\Iiddle Ages. I shall present a few of the most common forms. My first specimen is from a manuscript in the British :\luseum, written aná illuminated in England in the middle of the fifteenth century. It is called Fais ct Gestcs d/t Roi A Ie ml/dre I. The picture (fig. 141) represents Alexander as a '- '" . . - -.&, ..i ..: .. . . . -.I,. i\ , '--- , . , \ f ... - . .- Fig. 142. S. Luke writing his Gospel. From the Dunoi.. Ilor", a :MS. in the po,s ..sion of H. V. Thompo;oon, E C). I ;\IS--. ;\111" Brit. r;. F. , r. c. L. 20 3 06 WHEEL-DESKS [CHAP. little child, standing in front of his tutor, who is seated in one of the chairs I described above. On the learned man's right is his book-desk. A circular table with a rim round it to prevent the books falling off, is supported on a central pedestal, which contains the screw. The top of the said screw is con- cealed by the little Gothic turret in the centre of the table. This turret also supports the book which the reader has in use. 1\1y next example is from a miniature in a volume of Hours known as the Dunois Horæ, also written in the middle of the fifteenth century. It has been slightly enlarged in order to bring out the details more clearly. The subject is S. Luke writing his Gospel, but the background represents a scholar's room. There is a bookcase of a very modern type, a table with two folio volumes lying upon it, and in the centre a hexagonal book-desk, with a little Gothic turret as in the last example. Round the screw under the table are four cyJindrical r:,,-.: . \ ot -\ I . þ . ... . .. . .. . .. ......... .... .. .. .. ...... .. . . ..:..... . . ........ . ..,_ e. . o. .,-." .'0. .. .. .. -. . ..;. : ....... . . .... .... " . ...... II . ". ...... .ao ... .' ::1 ......... '.9 .( Q .. _I Fig. '43. A lady seated in her chair reading. From a MS. wriuen in France, early in the fifteenth centur}". IX] WHEEL-DESKS 3 0 7 supports, the use of which I fail to understand, but they occur frequently on desks of this type. The "'hole piece of furniture rests on a hea,'y cylindrical base, and that again on a square platform. I now pass to a variety of the screw-desk, which has a small book-rest above the table. The whole structure rests upon a prolongation of the solid platform on which the reader's chair is placed, so that it is really exactly in front of the reader. 1\Iy illustration (fi . 143) is from" The booke of the noble ladyes in frensh," a work by Boccacio; it was written in France early in the fifteenth century'. -....- .. ........ ... ... ,.., J J' n ( ..... ---'"1 ;Õ.. 1 . :Å.:.:t. :'< c....... ,' " . . ... ,.... .... .... 6 , I!:;.... ".... , ....., - '_..I I I I .- "QO... - , ....... r- -- Fig. '44. Screw-desk, horn a fiftcemh c ntur) MS, in the HiLliothèque dt: ,. \...-ena'. Pari Fig. '45' Hexagonal desk, with central spike. probably for a candle. From a French MS. of Le .I1i..oi.. Hislorinl. These double desks are exceedingly common, and I might fill a large number of pages with figures and descriptions of the variety which the ingenuity of the cabinet-makers of the fifteenth century managed to impart to combinations of a scrcw , :\IS. Ius. Brit. '20 C. \", 20-2 308 WHEEL-DESK WITH LANTERN [CHAP. and two or more tables. I will content myself with one more example (fig. 144) which shews the screw exceedingly well, and the two tables above it. The uppermost of these serves as a ]edge to rest the books on, as does also the hexagonal block above it which conceals the top of the screw'. \Ve meet occasionally with a solid desk, by which I mean one the level of which cannot be altered. In the example here given (fig. 145) from a French l\IS. of Le lIfiroir Historial, there is a central spike which I suspect to have been intended to carry a candle 2 . In some examp]es of these book-desks the pedestal is utilized as a book-cupboard (fig. 146). The picture which I have selected as shewing a desk of this peculiarity is singularly beautiful, and finished in the highest style of art available at the end of the fifteenth century in France. It forms half of the frontispiece to a fine manuscript of Boccacio's Lit're des cas dcs lIlalltellrcllx llobles ILOlIllllCS et fi'1/l1Jlcs". The central figure is apparently lecturing on that moving theme, for in front of him, in the other half of the picture, is a crowd of men exhibiting their interest by the violence of their gestures. On his left is the desk I mentioned; it stands on an unusually firm base, and one side of the vertical portion is pierced by an arch, so as to make the central cavity available for putting books in. From the centre of the table rises a tall spike, apparently of iron, to which is attached a horizontal arm, bearing a lighted lantern. On the table, in addition to three books, is an inkstand and pen-case. In front of the lecturer is a carved chest, probably one of those book-coffers which I have already mentioned. The chair and canopy are richly can'ed, and the back of the seat is partially covered by a piece of tapestry. Further, the lecturer is allowed the unusual luxury of a cushion. I will next deal with the appliances for reading and writing directly connected with the chairs in which scholars sat, and I will begin with the desk. 1 Paris, llibliothèque de I'Arsenal, IS. 519, , fo\. 31 I. Boccacio: Cas dt's 1IIal- hell1-eux 1tobles IlOmmts e/ fi,mmes. 2 Paris,llibl. Kat., !\ISS. Français, :;0, Le lJ/iroÙ Historial, by \ïncent de Beauvais. fo\. 3..0. Probably written in cent. X\'. 3 l\ISS. Mus. Brit. Add. 3:;321. MSS. Waddesdon, Ko. 12. Bequeathed b} Baron Ferdinand Rothschild. . - .4 ..( .... ) " . ( I'. . h .. ... "'t-- I II I . " .. t, < . " ' t þ. , , .. ....., . , , I I " .-! '/.:" .l' III -=- - I .. -r , ..... , , f ,I rt'lIXI'TIt.. , t' _"'!" .. r l ; =( ', l)" #\"..... . .. . i "- - i' -\ . . . ,I "'" , ., . t" . .. , J ,_.. . ,Ii 1,,1 " 1 11(11 / ,./1 æt . . . I I . " . 1--..-- t J f: -7- ... r 4 I II I r J i - Fig. 146. A lecturer addressing an audience. I'rom a IS. of I i;:r, ,ies cas d,s malhclII,IIX /lobles hOllllllC_' t! j.1II111'S, \Hillen in France at elll\ of fifteenth century. - . \ r""" . - ..... .:: :: .:::: i -,.t -- -" - , .;: ... - Fig. 148. The author of The CllYOllicles of Ht/illault in his study (144 6 1. .. '- ' Jti rr- r -- f"'. :' ht,. ..,. , ',.- . . t.-:\ L' ? . \ r 1 -1 I r -:t-l . \ t\ V- -t>... "fj \ .: , -t".), þ' :.- .. I' r l. I " .. '- ... " > ... l ?S \ t t r" ko,... . f{ '\ . 1;-,ð, r;" ,). r rJ ' ,I " -.:..:: \;.:. "- Fig. 150. A writer with his desk and table. From a IS. of L.: Lhn des P/oþrit'tés des Choses in the Britioh l\Iuseum. I'] SCIIOL\R'S CH \IR .\XD DESK 309 The simplest form of desk is a plain board, set at a suitable angle by means of a chain or cord extending from one of its corners to the back of the chair, while the opposite corner rests against a peg driven into the arm of the chair. This arrange- ment, variously modified. occurs very frequently; sometimes there are t\\O pegs and two chains, but what I may term the . '-- . . . . . . III . I . . . .. a, . . -. . -. .. , . C'" \ " , 11);- r .I, _ "l \ , \ $' I ! Fig. 147. S. Mark writing his Gospel. From a 1.15. HOll'S written in France in the fifteenth century. normal form is she\\n in my illustration (fig. 147)1. It is difficult to understand how the desk was kept steady. The author whose study I shall figure next (fig. 148) is engaged in writing the Chronicles of lIainault". His desk rests securely on two irons fastened to the arms uf his chair. On his I :\fSS. BOOI. Lib. Oxr., l\ISS. Rawl. Liturg. e. 2,f, fol. 17 6 . 2 :\ISS. Bibliothèque Royale de ßru>.cllcs, u. 92,f2. ChJOII;,/IIt'S tk HaiJlalll, PI. I. fol. 2, 1 HI). 3 10 SCIIOLAR'S CHAIR .\ND DESK [CIIAr. right is a plain lectern with an open volume on each side of it, and behind are two or more shelves set against the wall with books lying on their sides. On his left is a chest, presumably a book-chest, with books lying on its closed lid. One of these is open. He has prudently placed his chair near the window in such a position that the light falls upon his work from the left. It should be noted that the upper part of the window only is glazed, the lower part being closed by shutters. \Vhen these are thrown back, the lights are seen to be filled to half their height with a trellis, such as was ordered for the French king's library. My third example of a chair fitted with a desk (fig. 149) is taken from Les Iiraclcs de Notre Dame l , a manuscript which belonged to Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, and was written for him at the Hague in 1456. The illustration represents S. Jerome seated in his study. From arm to arm of the chair extends a desk of a very firm and solid construction. The ends of this desk apparently drop into the heads of the small columns with which the arms of the chair terminate. The saint has in his left hand a pointed sf.J'/us, and in his right a pen, which he is holding up to the light. On the desk beside the manuscript lies an ink-horn. To the right of the saint's chair is a hexagonal table with a high ledge round it. There is no evidence that this table has a screw; but the small subsidiary desk above it seems to be provided with one. It will be observed that the support of this desk is not directly over that of the table beneath it. The desk is provided with two slits-an ingenious contrivance for dealing with a roll. On the table, besides an open book, are a pair of spectacles, four pens, a small box which may contain French chalk for pouncing, and what looks like a piece of sponge. I now figure two different sets of library appliances. The first (fig. 150) is from d manuscript of the Livre des Propri/t/s des CllOses, in the British l\lusfum, written in the fifteenth century2. The writer is seated in one of those low chairs which 1 1\ISS. Bibl. Nat. Paris, l1S5. Fran. 9198. See filiracles de ATos/re Dallle, by J. l\lielot, H.oxburghe Club, 1885; with introdu-:tion by G. F. Warner, M.A. l\ISS. Cotton, Augustus, VI. fol. 213 b. There is a beautiful example of a table and desk on this plan in a !\IS. of La Cit'! des Dames, from the old Royal Library of France in the Bibl. Nat., MSS. Fran. 1177. 'c,.J .j -'.... 'i.. """", , ,...... I. ",. . .. ' - r I .....f . .. (". .. , ..... ..- , ' - " - "" .' 1) 11 f' --=- - --=- r " '\.. r - . - " " ,.. .,..;.:!to '_ -I.:>-. -' ,. .! );;l '- t \\i' '- . ... "" "' :.- ., _1 V ./:, 'j : . ). ....- ( , l' -.... ........... I ... I , ,fT. r- rrb ð .' \SC..l .''--- 'þ L ( ' . \ ..., 'WI:' :lr " " .... :0. Ç;,. }, J ..., , <> '" ... -" . "') ) . .. , '- I "' ......:..,..... . "': j i : -->oiì" .' -' 4' ;t' , . , .. . .' "- '..' . " ..........,. . , ... "1 - "C)"'t. ' v*, . l' . .. ,; --= From I , ,IIi arlt de '\ ',rlre f"Jame, "ritten at the llague in I (j. Fig. 149. S. Jerome in his study. IX] SCII()LAR' CHAIR Aì\"D DE K 3 11 occur very frequently in miniatures, and look as if they were cut out of a single block of wood. His desk, \\ hich is quite independent of thc chair, is of the simplest design, consisting of a picce of wood supportcd at an angle on t\\'o carved uprights. On his left stands a very elegant piece of furniture, a table with .t desk at a considerable hcight above it-so high, in fact, that it could only be uscd standing. This upper desk is fitted with a little duor as though it served as a receptaclc for sm.tIl objects. , . . ...- y ;r =:;; -- '" -þ.. I ) '/ 'I' oa' t o. . ' , t ,t 1 5(' ì.; \ I 'I , I \ \ I t I f -, \ d I "', I I ' l! ( ,). 0, . ^ """- - -. - t I .. . J - j " r . I .., , < ""I , . 1 ,: ' \ , ....:/ I . ,.. ,1 -..-- -=--=..::...- I -.. --:::Ii _ --'-' , . __ -.-of- _ _ _ r- G ( ' r- (' . , . { " " ' C ( 'r"1' -:--- I . _ \, . J. " _'. ,) :..J. , _. '-I . __ '\. ' . ;: . =-"1/' - ' I .1t.. \ _ ___ _ _ _ _ IL k Fig. '5'. S. Luke writing his Gospel. ISS. Douce, !Judl. Lib. Oxf., !\u, 3ÔI, 3 12 SCHOL\R'S CHAIR AND DESK [CHAP. The second example (fig. 151) shews S. Luke SIttl11g on a bench writing at a table!. The top, which is very massive, rests on four legs, morticed into a frame. In front of this table is a desk of peculiar form; the lower part resembles a reversed cune, and the upper part a second cone of smaller diameter, so as to leave space enough betwcen the two bases for a ledge to rest books on. Round the base of the desk three quaint ]ions do duty as feet. These ]ions occur again beneath the frame of the picture, and may be connected with a former possessor of the manuscript. The pedestal of the desk is a twisted column, which, like the base, and indeed the whole structure, looks as though it were made of brass. I now pass to a totally different way of fitting up a study, which seems to have been common in Italy, to judge by the number of paintings in which it occurs. It consists of a massive desk of woud, one part of which is set at right angles to the other, and is connected in various ways with shelves, drawers, , .... '" . ,4 i -....., , .... Fig. 15'. S. Augustine at his desk. From a painting by Fra Filippo Lippi at Florence. ] I\ISS. Bodl. Lib. Oxf., I\ISS, Douce, 1\0. 381, fol. 159, A econrl example occurs in the same I\IS., Col. 160. " . I' . .... "0 I ë .3 C o ..J ;3 d Ü bÏJ - c:: g "C oS! (Ø d Z OJ ... E -= 0 1-0 .- OJ ....... d' en I: I '"' I M ;,) I .,., S M bÏJ I .!': "2. .õ ;è 2 ;.., /--- ......... L J I .( t tþ\ . I...- I \1 - , n-htrt r OttU ' - " r -.- - -... 0. ....... ,I I .. "' '\ ..L 4" 't '7 Fig. 154. A writer at work. ï-'- I \- . - _ L....._ Frum a I"n,nch translatiun of Yalerius Ia"imus, \\ritten and illuminated in Flanders in 1+79, for King Edward 1\'. IX] BOOK-Cl"PDOARDS IN THE WALL 3 1 3 pigeon-holes, and other contrivances for holding books and papers. In the example I here figure (fig. 1;2), from a painting by Fra Filippo Lippi (1412-1469) representing S. Augustine's vision of the Trinity, there are two sma!] recesses abuve the desk on the saint's right, both containing books, and behind the shorter portion of the desk, three shelves also with books on them. Attached to the end of the desk is a sma!] tray, probably to contain pens. A similar desk occurs in the beautiful picture by Catena in the National Ga!]ery', representing S. Jerome reading, of which I give a reproduction on a reduced scale (fig. 153). This picture also contains an exce!]ent example of a cupboard in the thickness of the wa!], a contrivance for taking care of books as common in the :\Iiddle Ages as it had been in Roman times s . Cupboards in the thickness of the wa!] are also to be seen in the frontispiece (fig. 154) to a copy of a French translation of Valerius :\Iaximus 3 , written in Flanders in 1419 fur King Edward I V. The writer-probably intended for the author or the translator of the book-is seated at a desk, consisting of a plank set at an angle and capable of being turned aside by means of a central bracket, like that used by the Carmelite (fig. 136). Obserye the two weig-hts hanging over the edge of the desk and the ends of the two horns, intended to hold ink, projecting through it. The window, as in the picture represent- ing the author of the Chronicles of Hainault at work, is glazed in the upper part only, while in the lower are two framed trellises of \\ ire-work. Behind the writer are two cupboards in the thickness of the wa!]. One of these is open, and shews books lying on their sides, upon which are some pumegranates. I cannot suggest any reason for the introduction of these fruits, except that from their colour they make a pleasing variety; but I ought to mention that they occur very frequently in miniatures representing a writer at \\ork. On the other side of the window is a small hanging cupboard. Here again a fruit is introduced on the lowest shelf. Round the room is a settle, raised above , I have to thank my fnend Sidney Coh in, :\1..\., fur ,lra\\ ing my attention to thi picture. J See abovc, pp. 3ï, 38. J IS . :\111.>. lJrit. ,/j E. IV. 3 1 4 A SCHOLAR'S CIrA:\IBER [CHAP. the floor on blocks at intervals. The seat is probably a chest, as in the settles described above in the Vatican Library. The last picture (fig. 155) in this series of illustrations represents what I like to call a scholar's room, at the beg-inning of the fifteenth cent ury l. The owner of the apartment is busily writing at a desk SUppOl ted on a trestle-table. He holds a sl}'/us in his left hand, and a pen in his right. The ink-horn he is using is inserted into the desk. Abuve it dre holes for two others, in case he should require ink of different colours. Above the inkstand is a pen stuck in a hole, with vacant holes beside it. The page on the desk is kept flat by a weight. Above this desk is a second desk, of nearly equal size, on which lies an open book, kept open by a large weight, extending over two-thirds of the open pages. Behind the writer's chair is his book-chest. The background represents a well-appointed chamber. The fluor is paved with encaustic tiles; a bright fire is burning on the hearth; the window, on the same pldn as that described in the last picture, is open; a comfortable-not to say luxurious-bed invites repuse. The walls are unplastered, but there is a hang-ing- under the window and over the head of the bed. \\'ith this simple room, containing- a scholar's necessaries and no more, ] will contrast the study of the Duke of U rbino. This beautiful room, which still exists as the Duke left it, is on an upper floor of the castle, commanding from its balcony, which faces the south, an extensive view of the approach to the Castle, the city, and the country beyond, backed by the Apennines. It is of small size, measuring- only I I ft. 6 in. by 13ft. 4 in., and is somewhat irregular in shape. It is entered by a door from the Duke's private apartment. The floor is paved with rough tiles set in patterns. The walls are panelled to a height of about eight feet. The bare space between the top of the panel-work and the ceiling was probably hung with tapestry. The ceiling is a beautiful specimen of the most elaborate plaster-work, disposed in octagonal panels. The decora- tion of the panel-work begins with a representation of a bench, on which various objects are lying executed in intarsia work. Above 1 Lc D/bat de fhomtcur mtrc trois FrÙtces chcvalercllx. Bibl. Roy. Bruxelles, No. 92j8, fol. 10. The !\IS. is from the library of the Dukes of Uurgundy, anù may be datcð in the second third of the flftcenth ccntur}'. , Î Î! l il I 'j . \ I }' I - II '-:;.... I '-ví 'j ",,-J " \. r '=' '0/ \. . . Fig. 155. A scholar's room in the fifteenth century. FlOm a :.\IS. in the Royal Lilnary at Bru"eb. C' 1:\] :\IONTAIGI'\E'S LIBRARV 3 1 5 this bench is a row of small panels, above which ag-ain is a row of large panels, each containing a subject in the finest intarsia, as for example a portrdit of Duke Frederick, figures of Faith, Hope, and other virtues, a pile of books, musical instruments, armour, a parrot in a cage, etc. In the cornice above these is the word FEDERICO, and the date 1476. Opposite the window there is a small cupboard, and on the uppusite side of, the projection containing it there are a few shelves. These are the unly receptacles for books in the room. From its small size it could have contained but little furniture, and was prob.lbly intended for the purpose traditionally ascribed to it, namely as a place of retirement for the Duke when he wished to be alone. Another specimen of a library so arranged as to provide a peaceful retreat is afforded a century later by that of l\Iontaigne, of which he has fortunately left a minute description. [M y library is] in the third story of a Tower, uf whieh the Grounrl- room is my Chappel, the second story an Ap.utment with a withdrawing Room and Closet, where I often lie to be more retired. .\bove it is a great \\'ardrobe, which formerly was the most useless part of the House. I there pass away both the most of the Days of my Life, and most of the Hours of those Days. In the Night I am never there. There is "ithin it a Cabinet handsome and neat enough, with a tIre-place very commodiously contriv'd, and Light very fmdy lìtted. .\nd was I not more afraid of the Trouble than the Expence, the Trouble that frights me from all Business, I could very easily adjoY/1 on either side, and on the same Floor, a Gallery of an hundred paccs long, and tweh-e broad, having found ,rails already rais'd for some other Design, to the requisite height. Every pldce of retirement requires a Walk. My l'houghts sleep if I sit still; my Fancy docs not go hy itself, as when my Legs move it : and all those who study withuut a Book arc in the same Condition. The figure of my Study is round, and ha<; no more flat Wall than "hat is taken up by my T.lble, and my Chairs; so that the rem.lining pdrt<; of the Circle present me a view of all my books at once, set up upon Iì\e degrecs of Shelves round about me. It has thrce noble and free Prospects, and is si'l.teen paces J Diameter. I am not so continually therc in Winter; for my House is built upon an Eminence, as its Ndme imports, and no part of it is so much e pos'd to the Wind and Weather as that, \\hich plea<;es me the better, for being of a painful acceSs, anrl a little remote, as well upon the account of E'l.ercise, as being also there more retir'd from the Crowd. 'Tis there thdt I am in my Kingdom, as J The original \\ords are ' eile pas de vuide.' The substantive 'pas' must I thin!.. mean a foot, the It:ngth a fout makes when set upon the ground. The \\un] pace, the lenglh uf \\ hich i 1 ft. 6 in. or 3 ft., is inapplicable here. 3 16 LIBRARV IN PALAZZO HAIWERINI [CHAP. we say, and there I endeavour to make myself an absolute !t,[onarch, and so sequester this one Corner from all Society both Conjugal, Filial, and Ci,,'il l . The notices of libraries which I have collected have brought me to the end of the sixteenth century, by which time most of the appliances in use in the Middle Ages had been given up. I hope that I have not exhausted the patience of my readers by presenting too long a series of illustrations extracted from manuscripts. I ]ove, as I look at them, to picture to myself the medieval man of letters, laboriously penning voluminous treatises in the writing room of a monastery, or in his own study, with his scanty collection of books within his reach, on shelves, or in a chest, or lying on a table. \Ve sometimes call the ages dark in which he lived, but the mechanical ingenuity displayed in the devices by which his studies were assisted might put to shame the cabinet-makers of our own day. As the fashion of collecting books, and of having them bound at a ]avish expense, increased, it was obvious that they must be laid out so as to be seen and consulted without the danger of spoiling their costly covers. Hence the development of the lectern-system in private houses, and the arrangement of a room such as the Duchess l\Jargaret possessed at l\1alines. Gradually, however, as books multiplied, and came into the possession of persons who could not afford costly bindings, lecterns were abandoned, and books were ranged on shelves against the wall, as in the public libraries which I described in the last chapter. There is still in existence, on an upper floor in the Palazzo Barberini at Rome, a library of this description, which has probably not been altered in any way since it was fitted up by Cardinal Francesco Barberini about 1630. The room is 105 ft. long by 28 ft. broad, and is admirably lighted by two windows in the south wall, and seven in the gallery. The shelves are set round three sides of the room at a short distance from the wall, so as to leave space for a gallery and the stairs to it. The cases are divided into compartments by fluted Ionic columns 5 ft. high. These rest upon a flat shelf 14 in. wide, beneath which are drawers for papers and a row of folios. This I Essays f!f 1I1ichael Scigllettrde /llo/ltaigllt:. !\lade English by Ch. Cotton, Vol. III. pp. 53,5+, 8vo. London, 17+1. I have to thank my friend !\lr A. F. Sie\"eking for this reference. IX] LIBRARY OF DEA noys 3 1 7 part of the structure is 3 ft. high from the floor to the base of the columns. Above the columns is a cornice, part of which is utilized for books; and above this again is the gallery, where the arrangement of the shelves is a repetition of \\ hat I ha\'e described in the lower part of the room. Dwarf cases in a plainer style and of later date are set along the sides and ends of the room. Upon these are desks for the catalogue, a pair of globes, some astronomical instru- ments, and some sepulchral urns found at Præneste. The older woodwork in this library has never been paint- ed or varnished, and the \\'hole aspect of the room is singularly old-world and delightful. Another instance is afford- ed by the sketch of the library of Jolm Boys, Dean of Canter- bury, "ho died in 1625. It occurs on the title-page of his works dated 1622, and I may add on his tomb in Canter- hury Cathedral also, He clung to ancient fashions so far as to set his books with their fore-edge out\\ ards, but in other respects his book-shelves are of a modern type. J = = = == == = = = I ææ .. '" '" - !I "' "'- - - . Fig. 156. Dean Boys in hi!; Library, 1&.12. I have now reached the limit which I imposed upon myself when I began this essay. But before I conclude Jet me say a few la<;t words. I wish to point out that collectors and builders in the :\IiddIe Ages did not guard their manuscripts with jealous care merely because they had paid a high price to ha\'e them written; they recognised what I may call the per- sonal element in them; they invested them with the senses and 318 CONCLUSION [CHAP. IX the feelings of human beings; and bestowed them like guests whom they delighted to honour. Noone who reads the Plti/o- bib/oil can fail to see that every page of it is pervaded by this sentiment; and this I think explains the elaborate precautions against theft; the equally elaborate care taken to arrange a library in so orderly a fashion that each book might be accessible with the least difficulty and the least delay; and the exuberant gratitude with which the arrival of a new book was welcomed. In my present work I have looked at libraries from the technical side exdusively. It \\'ou]d have been useless to try to combine fire and water, sentiment and fact. But let me remind my readers that we are not so far removed from the medie\'al standpoint as some of us perhaps wou]d wish. \Vhen we enter the ]ibrary of Queens' College, or the older part of the University Library, at Cambridge, where there has heen con- tinuity from the fifteenth century to the present day, are we not mm'ed by feelings such as I have tried to indicate, such in fact as moved John Leland when he saw the library at Glastonbury for the first time? 1\Ioreover, there is another sentiment doscly allied to this by which members of a College or a University are more deeply moved than others-I mean the sentiment of association. The most prosaic among them cannot fail to remember that the very floors were trodden by the feet of the great scholars of the past; that Erasmus may have sat at that window on that bench, and read the very book which we are ourselves about to borrow, nut in these collections the present is not forgotten; the authors of to-day are taking their places beside the authors of the past, and are being treated with the same care. On all sides we see progress: the lecterns and the stalls are still in use and keep green the memory of old fashions; while near them the plain shelving of the twentieth century bears witness to the ever-present need for more space to hold the invading hordes of books that represent the literature of to-day. On the one hand, we see the past; on the other, the present; and both are animated by full, vigorous life. I D EX. Abingdon, Ber\"s, Benedictine IIou..;c at : cusIoms in force re_pecting books, 68 ; carrells set up, 98 -: Schoollihrary, 262 Actor and masks: relief repre enting in LaIeran Iu eum, Rome, 36 Agapetus, pope : hi intended college and lihrary, H AIIJans (S.): forlD of curse used, ï8; endowment of scriþtori1l1n, 80; lihrary huilI "';;2-3. r08; stained glas . 2.p .\Iençon: town library, 28; Alexandria: account of libraries. 6; in museum, ibid.; in temple of Serapi..., ; All Souls' Coli., Oxf.: lihrary statute. I . ;; special pro\ i_ion , I J8 Ambro ian Library, liIan: description, 2;1: may have heen copied hy \\'ren at S. Paul's, London, 282 analogi"",: a hook-des\.., 10;;. 19;, 2..3 Anne de Beaujeu: her library, 30J Antony, Mar\..: gives library at Pergamon to Cleopatra. 8 Apollo: temple and arca on Palatine Hill at Romc, r4; compo ition of the lihlar)". rH, 19; allu-i"lIs to, hy 0, id and Horacc, ibid. Apollonius Thyan>eriLed by!l;ibby, 3;; tocontaincodlás, ibid.; held by juri,t Ulpian to be part of the library,ibid.; description by Pliny of one sun\" in wall of a room, 38; on sarcophagus in I useo Nazionale, Rome, "ith ...hoemaker at \\ ork, ibid.; on do. in \"illa Balestra, Rome, "ith physi- cian reading, ibid. ; on tomb of Galla Placidia, 39; in Jewish synagogues, ibid. note; in Codex Amiatinus. ,,0, 4 r; ver,es composed for hi. own pre ses by Isidore, TIp of Se...ille, ..5; called jenestra by PachomlU , 6.., 6;;, note; alluded to by S. Benedict, 66; \\ord used for a library by the Cluniac , 6; ; placcd in charge of precentor, "ho is called al...o armarills, ibül.; same pro- vi_ions in force at Abingdon. 68; at Evesham, 69; "ord u...ed for a lihrary by the Carthusians, f)9; de crihed in Augu tinian Cu...tom..., ; I ; \\ hat this piece of furniture \Va , 8r-96; the arl11arillJIl CO/Ill/LIllie. 8:!; this de. scrihed and figured at Fos...a !l;uova, ibl l.; \,"orcester Cathcdral, 8..; Kir\..- stall, 8;;; Ieaux, Sf); at Titchfield, 8;; Durham, 9J; hook-pres es in cloi.ter at Durham and \\'esIminster, 90-94; in France, 9..; examples of vressc... at Hayeux, Obazine, and S. Ger- main l'Au"erroi , 9..-'}6; supenision of pres;, at S. Augustine's, Canterbury, 99 armarills (\\ ho i also Precentor): has charge of lihrary in Cluniac Houses, 6;, ;3; in Augw,tinian, ; I ; provides for horrowing as \\ ell as lending book among the I'remon'traten ians, ;2 Arts: hooks required for COUf'C in. at Camhridge, ...; 3 2 0 INDEX Ass!s!: library at, catalogued 1381, i3; analysis of this, 206, 207 Assur-bani-pal, King of Kineveh: library in his palace, 2 Astrolabe: in library of Anne de Beaujeu, 3 0 3 Athens: notices of ancicnt libraries at, :. ; library built by Hadrian, 6, 16 Attalus, King: note on his Ioa at Athens, 1 I, 110te Augustine (S.): directions about church library at Hippo, 63 Augustine (S.), Bencdictine House at Canterbury: extract from custumary on care of I\fSS., ï6; rules for use of carrells. 99; organisation of library in cloister, ibid. Augustinians: rules for books in force among. ï 1 AuglbtuS: builds lihraries in Rome, [2; porticus Octa iæ, ibid.; temple and area of Apollo Palatinus, q; their organisation, [8 Autun, Collège d', Paris: library at, 166 Bale, John, laments loss of mona>tic libraries, '2+6 Bamberg: chained book from monasIery, 159 banca or banclIs: meaning discussed, 2+'2 Bancroft, Abp, his library brought to Cambridge, 253 Barber Surgeons, Lond.; books in their library chained 1639, 265 Barberini: lihrary in their palace at Rome, 316 Bateman, \ViII., Bp of Norwich: his library statute for Trinity II all, 136; division of his library, 1++ Bayeux, Cathedral: press called Le Chartr;" described and figured, 9+; library at, 125 Beaulieu, Cistercian Abbey: book-room, 86; hook-recesses in wall of cloister, 89 Benedict (S.): passage in his Rule re- specting study, 66 Benedictines: decrees given to English monks of the Order by Ahp Lanfranc, 67; customs in force at S. Benoit-sur- Loire, 68, note; at Ahingdon, Berks, ibid.; at Evesham, \\' orcestershire, 69; their hooks hestoweel in wooden presses, 8+; arrangement allopted at Durham, 9 0 Benoit (S.)-sur-Loire: cUGtomsquoted,6 , note; endowment of library, ï9 Bicester: school library, 262 Bobbio: library, 10'2 Bodleian Lihrary, O"f.: description, as fitted up hy Sir T. Hodley, 185; chains taken off lï57, '26fi; inconvenience of chaining, 266; new bookcases on wall- system, 2ï5 Boethius: decoration of his library, 41 ; view of a library in MS. of his C011S. of Phil., 163, 16+ Bolton, Lanc.: school, 264 Book-room: in Cistercian Houses, 8+-89; at Fossa NuO\'a, 83 Boys, John: his library, 3Iï Brandolini, A.: epigram on library of Sixtus IV., 211 Bra<ænose Coli., O"f.: lihrary statute, r 37; chains taken off [ïSO, 266 breve or brevis = a hook-ticket: in Cluniac Customs, 6ï; in Lanfranc's decrees for Benedictines, 68 Brewster, \\'ill.: bequeathes books to All Saints' Ch., Hereford, 262 Budge, Dr \Vallis: note on Mesopota- mian discoveries, 4 Bury, Lanc.: lihrary in school, '26.3 Bury S. Edmunds: use of carrells, 98; cloister glazed \\ ith sIained glass, 100; library buill [+29-+5, 108 Busts in Roman libraries: see Portraits Cæsar, Julius: intends to build public lihrary in Rome, 12 Cæsarea: library. 62 Calder Abbey: portion of book-room, 88 Canterbury: see Christ Church. Canter- bury Canterbury Coli., O"f.: library furui hed from Christ Church, Canterbury, 1+.3 capm: box for carrying rolls, 30 Cardinal Coli., Oxf.: library.statute, [3ï Carols: see Carrell Carpenter. John (HI' of \Vorcester): his lihrary foundation, 126 Carpet: books to be laid out on, in Chaptcr House for annual audit in Cluniac Houses, 6ï ; in Benedictine, 68 Carrclls: in cloister at Durham, 9<'; detailed account of, with ground plan of a window, 96; at \,"e_tmilbler AhLey, 92.93; series of, in stone. at Glouct"_ter, 9Ó-9 8 ; general con ideration as to arrangement, 98; instances of their u e in \ arious houses, ibid.; by \I horn to be used, 99 C arthu ians : rules for books in force among, 69 Cartmel, Lanc.: books to be chained in church\larden's pew, 2 8 Cas ioùorus : hi CO,, X grm.dltJr men- tioned, -fO; intended college in Rome, H; monastery, library, and scriptorill1Jl aI Yivarium, ibid. Catharine (S.) Coli., Camb.: number of bools in library, 1-f5; ne\l cases, 28;; Cedar: s e Citrus Cesena: description of library, lIj9- 20 3 Chaining: booh chained in S. "ary's Ch., Oxf., cent. xiii., 132; at Peter- house, Camb., '3;;, q;;; Trinit} Hall, 136,168; I'\ew Coli., Oxf., 13ï; in- òiscriminaIe chaining forbidden, 13 8 ; 'y tem in use at Zutphen explained, 15. -159; in Stadtbibliothel at Xurem- berg, 163; at Sorbonne, Paris, 164; Collège d'Autun, 166; S. \ïctor, ibitl.; inconvenience of, at Oxf., I ï2; at Here- ford de cribed, I j 4-8; at 'Ierton Coli" Oxf., 181, 182; traces of, at S. John's Coli., Oxf., 18;;; at Cathedral Library, \Yells, 1!!9; at Ce ena, 203; on printed bool from Hungary now at Ghent, 204; chains bought for \-atican Library, 2'9; at Iedicean library, Florence, 238- 240; aI Grantham, 25ï; Cartmel, 2;:8; l;orton, 259; Chetham library, lan- chester, 260; \\ïmborne, 261 ; Dench- worth, 262; All Saints', Hereford, ibid.; Abingdon, Berls, ibid.; Bicester, ibid.; Guildford, 263 ; instance_ of late u_e of chaining, 264; Faculty of Iedicine, Pari , ibid.; Corp\l Christi Coil., Camb., ibid.; Gra}' Inn, ibid.; S. John's Coli., Gomille and Caius 4 011., Petf'lhou,e, Trinily Coli., Camb., 265; Library of Barber S\lrgeon , ibid. ; \\ ills of Sir :\1. Hale and 1. Scri\ ener, ibid.; chains taken off at variou places, 266; inc')1J\ eniencc of, at Bodleian, ibid., note c. L. IKDEX 3 21 Chair \lith de k: figured In ISS., 309- 3 12 Chapter-Hou e: space_ di,'ided off at \le t end for book-room in monasterie , !!j-89; bools read in neighbourhood of. 89 Charles V., King of France: hook-che t, 293; fits up library in Lom re, ibid. Chest for books: bought for Vatican Lihrary, 218; used by Simon, Abbat of S. Albans. 292; in France. 293 Chester Cathedral: arche, in cloi,ter, po"ibly u,ed for books, 89 Chetham. Humphry: prO\ ision of "ill, 259; library in 'Ianche,ter, 260 Chichele, Abp: builds library aI Can- Ierbury, 106; account of this, 190 Christ Church, Canterbury: cur e from a IS.. ;8; library-walk of cloister, 91; ets of nine holð. 92; carrell in u e, 99; gla s in cloi ter, 100; cata- logue, saec. xii., 102; library, 106; probable extent and arrangement of this de cribed, IQO-I94; HO\\Ie}- Harrison library, 256 Christopher Le Slocls (S.), Lond.: library, 244 Chrbt's Hospital, Lond.: library, 108 Churche : libraries built in or near, 61, 6-f Cirta: library, 62 Cistercians: rules for books, jO; e\ olution of bool-room, 84-89; plan of this at Fo sa :-';uo..-a, 8;.; Kirk tall, ibÙI.; arrangement of books in, at 'Ieau" 86; Titchfield, 8;; book-room at \\est end of Chapter House, Fume-" ibid.; Calder Abbey, H; FounIains, ibid. ; Beaulieu, 89; Hayle", ibitl.; Chester Cathedral, ibid. Citcaux: b00ks chained near Chapter I louse, 89; arrangelI'enI of Lools, saec. xv., 'o. -I06 ; permanent library, 109- 112 Citrll': identification of tree so called, 22, Iwt ; used to preserve rolls, 19 Clain aux: curse \I ed, ;8; books chained near Chapter House, 81); library. 112-4; catalogue of this discussed, 1Ql)-M; na- ture of fittings, 19M Clare Coil., Camb.: account of old librar}, 11'6; ne\\ ca_es put up 162j, 21 3 22 ibid.; their plan discussed, I8ï; new library fitted up, '28;; dass: meaning of word dbcussed, 2+.1 claustrlim sill< armaJ'io etc., ï 5 Cleopatra: receives lilnary of Pergamon from Antony, 8 Cloister: the centre of monastic life, 80; \\ ork interntpted by cold and bad weather, ibid.; activity at S. :\Iartin's, Tournai, 81; arrangements at Durham described, ()o; illustrated by reference to \\"estminster Abbey, 91 +; was glazed at Durham, 90; in other Houses, 100 Cluniacs: regulations in their Customs respecting books, 6ï; date of these Customs, 6R, note; book-room in their priory at !\Iuch \\' enlock, 87 Cobham, Thomas: library, Oxf., ,+8- ISI; stained glass in windo\\s, 2+'2 Codex, a book: how accommodated, 36, .n; figured on tomb of Calla Placi,\ia, 39 Codex Anliatinus: representation of armarium described, +0 Cold, in cloister, 80 ælllmPlla: a set of shelves, 87 comlllllllCS libri: meaning of term. 82 Corbie: note from MS. once belonging to, ïS, 1lote; injnnction to use a :\IS. at, carefully, ïï and 1lote; endowment of library, ï9 ,orlllla: used for the knobs of a roll, 28 Corpus Christi Coil., Camb.: hook chained 1523, 26+ Corpus Christi Coil., Oxf.: library statute, 13 ï, 1,18; provisions against indis- criminate chaining, 138; fittings supplied 151 i, 172; a type of the stall-system, ibid.; elevation of one bookcase, Ii 3 Cosma e Damiano: church of, in Rome, 25, '26 Crates (of l\Ia\1us.): his visit to Rome ami inAuence there, 1+ Creighton, Rob., Hp of \Vells: fits up cathedral library, 188 Croxden, Cistercian Abbey: book-room, H6 Cruas, on the Rhone: book-press in the church, 94 Cupboards: in thickness of \\ all, 313 INDEX Curses, un those \\ ho steal or damage ;\ISS., ïí Cuthbert, Abbat of \\'eannonth: his scribes paralyscrl with cold, 80 Damasus, Pope: his archivum or Record Office, +2 demonstl'atio: meaning discussed, '243 Demosthenes: statue of, to shew \\ ay of hol(Ting roll, '2 ï; replica of his statue at Knowle Park, ibid., note Denchworth : library in church, 262 De Rossi: theory respecting S. Lorenw in Damaso, +2; of the use of a triple apse, 63 Dcrr: library at, explored by Dr \\'. Budge, 4 desclls: nleaning di cu sed, 2+2 distil/clio: word used in catalogue of Dover Priory, 19+-196; meaning dis- cussed, 196, 2+3 uþe pa = cuver of a rull, 29; coloured purple, 29 Dolei, (;iovanninu dei: supplies book- cases to Vatican Library, '2IH domulicllla: a compartment of a book- case, '2++ Dover, Priory of S. Martin at: intro- duction to catalogue translated, I H Durllam: description of the b'Jok-presses and carrells in Ihe cloister, 90; arma- I ium CO/IlIUlllle, 93; plan of window and account of carrells, 96-99; library at, saec. xii., 10'2; enumeration of books at, saec. xiv., 103; library at, built I H 6, IOi; library litted up by Dean Sudbury, saec. xvii.. 189 Durham Coil., Oxf.: library, 142 Ely: endowment of scriPtoriulIl at, ï9 Emmanuel Co\1., Camb.: bookcases at, '25+; new cases in library, '28::- Endowment of libraries: at Corbie, ï9; S. l\Iartin des Champs, ibid.; S. Benoit- sur-Loire (Fleury), ibid.; at Ely, ibid. Entreatie to use books carefully, i6 'E"'''''TÚÀLO : use of word explained, 32, 1lott! Escõrial : built by Philip II., 26ï; de- scription of library, 26H; of bookcases, '269; caSes copied at Bibliothèque l\Iacarine, 2 i 3 Eton College: stained glass in Election Hall, 2.p; chains taken off 1719, 266 Eucherim., Up of Lyons: describe a private library, 43 Euripirle : said to have been a book- collect"r, ; line<, from the Frogs about him quoted, ibÙI. Euthydemus, follower of Socrates: his library, Evesham, Benedictine lIouse in \\" or- cestershire: cu_Iom' respecting bools, 6f) ; carre lis, 99 .fillestro = cupboard : in rule of S. Pacho- mius, 64; meaning of \lord discus ed, 6;., lIote Fleury, Abbeyat: see Renoit (S.)-sur-Loire fout/lls = cell: recepIacle for rolls in Roman libralies, 31 Fo"a Nuova: hool-press at, describcd and figured, !j2; plan and description of bool-room, H5 Fountains Abbey: pÜ!>ition ofbool-roonN at, 89 10xIails: bought to du!.I Vatican Library, 23 2 Francis (S.): reproves a brother "ho a ked for a p,alter, 72, lIote Franciscans: pro\isinns respecting books, 7 2 ; their librari", described in the l'hilobibloll, ibit!. Froidmont: glass in library, 242 frolls: used for the edge of a roll, 28; was evidently visible, H FUflle" Ahbey: bool-rooms at \Ie_I end of chapler.house, 87 Call (S.): library at, 102 Galla Placidia: book-pre" on her tomb, 39 Galien, S., Tours. church of: chained library at, 171!j, 266 Cenevii:ve, S., Paris: description of library, 28\1 (;efllmin (S.) des I'rès, Paris: library open to !.trangers, 7 ; e"pan ion of library at, 11+-6; fitting de-cribed. 289 (;ermain (S.) I' Auxerrois, church of: \I "Ullen prc . in, described, 1)5 (;hirlandajo, thc brothers: engaged to ,Iecorale \" atican Lihrary. 211; their \\1 .rk dcscribc.l. 21 3 IKDEX 3 2 3 Glass: in certain cloisters, 100 Gla!.tonbury: feelings of Leland on enter- ing Libra,y, 19+ Globes: in Vatican Library, 221); in library of S. Gene\ iève. 289 Gloucester Cathedral: librar} -\I alk of c1oi!.ter, 9 I; sets of nine holes, 92; !.tone can-ells dðcribed and figured, 96-98; libJ:uy, 107 Conville Hall, Camb.: curse from breviary used at. 79 Comille and Caius CoIl., Camb.: bool- cases at, 2 +; chaining of books be- (lueathed by Dr Caius, 26 Gorton: bookcase, 259 gliCdlls=a shelf, 87, lIote; used \lith same meaning at Dover Priory. r9+-196; a side of a lectem, 167 Grammar Schools: see Libraries. Grantham: library, 2;'7 Gray's Inn: bequest of bools to be chained, 26+ Gregory (S.) the Great: notice of his monastery at Rome. 44 Grünendaal: library, 108 Guildford: chain in library of Glannnar School, 1 7; further account of this, 26 3 Hadrian: library built by him in Athens. 16-18; similarity of plan bet" een it and Pergamon, r 8 Hale, Sir l\Iatt.: his books given to Lincoln's Inn 1676 to be chained, 26 IIa\l le!.moore, N.: builds library ami bookcasLs at Queen's College, Oxford, 256 Hayles, Cistercian Abbey: bool-room, 86; arches possibly used as book- recesses, 89 Herculaneum: library, 23-2 Hereford, All Saints' Ch.: library, 262 - Chapter Library: notes on, 17+; chaining described, 17+-8 Hippo: libralY, 63 Hobart, Kich.: his bookcase at King's College, Cambridge, 2 + 1I001}'\\00d, Iich.: builds library at Lincoln Cathedral, 276 lIoul, to bold up desk, 179 I ["race: advice 10 his friend Cd,us re'!,ecting the l'.iI.lIine lil'lar}, II) 3 2 4 INDEX Ho\\ley-Halrison Library, Canterbury, '2 6 Humphrey, D. of Gloucester: his l\ISS. at Oxford, 24i Ï1ldex=tickeI bearing the title of a roll. 28; of some bright colour, 9; used in Cicero's library, 33 hiLlore, Up of Seville: on library of Pollio at Rome, 12; on decoration of libraries, -+1; account of his 0\\ n library, -+5, -+6 hory: books 'HiUen on, 20 Jerome (S.): ad,ises consultation of church-libraries. 62; on library at Cæsarea, ibid.; collated there ISS. used by Origen, ibid. J erusal m: library, 62 J ef\'aulx, Cistercian Abbey: book-room, 86 Jesus Call., Camb. : equidistant \\ indows of library, 1-f8; glass in library. 2-f2; bookca..es, 2;;-f J e\\ s: used armaria in synagogues to contain the rolls of the law, 39, lIofe John (S.) the Baptist, Coll.. Oxf.: library statute at. 13i; library described, 18;; _ the Evangelist, Coll., Camb.: equidistant wimlu\\ s in Olll library, q8; contract for desks, 160; book chained at, 1;;6-+, 265; library huilt 1623-1628, 2-+8-2;;1 Jumi ges: curse from 1\IS. at, i 8 Juniper: bought to fumigate Yatican Library, 232 Kedellninster. Sir John: founds library at I angley, 25 8 Kempis, Thomas à: quotation from, on desolate condition of priest and convent \\ ithout bools. i!i; injunction to use 1\IS5. carefully, ii King's Coli., Camb.: library statute, I 3i; number of books in library Q53. 14;;; bookcase by bequest from X. Ho- bart, 25-f; Cole's account of library, 25;; ; chains taken off liii, 266 Kirkstall Abbey: thearmarÙtI1lCOlll11Ume, 1';5 Kouyunjik: library, discO\erell by La- yard, 2; criticised by Dr W. Budge, -+ Lanciani. R. : discoyers a private library in Rome, 22; describes record-house of Vespasian, 26 Lanfranc, Abp: decree respecting use of books, 67 Langley Iarye: library, 25 8 Lateran Iuseum, Rome: sculpture re- presenting actor with masks, 3 6 Layard: library discovered by him at Kouyunjik, 2 Leaver, James: gives press to Bolton school, Lancashire, 26-f Lectern-system: fittings in early lihraries so named, 151-153; at Zutphen, 1;;3- 159; Queens' Coli., Cam b.. I;; I, 1;;9; Pembroke Coll., S. John's Coli., Peter- house. Camb., 160; Lincoln Cathedral, - 161; IS. Ius. Brit., 162; 1\urem- berg. 163; the Sorbonne, Paris, rti-+; the Collège d'Autun, Paris, 166; l\Iona,tery of S. Victor, Paris, 166; Trinity Hall. Cam\)., 168; 1\IS. Fitz- "illiam !\Ius., 169; at l"niyersity of Leyden. 170; Ce,ena, 199-203; S. !\Iarl, Florence, 205; !\Ionte Oliveto, ibid.; Assisi, 206; Vatican. 225; Me- dicean Library, Florence. 235-2-f0; in private houses, 297-3 01 lectri1l1111l = desk, 16 I Leland, John: his feeling.. on entering library at Glastonbury, 19-+ Lepidus, Domitius: temple built by him in Rome, 13 lil'er= book: decision of the jurist Ulpian as to what is includell under this category, 3i Librarian: see Precentor-Armarius Lnm.\RIES, .\s,yrian: at Kouyunjik, discovered by Layard, 2-4; at Derr, 4 -of Cathedrals: 116-128; Lincoln, IIi, 161; Salisbury. 121; Old S. Paul's, 122; \Yells, 123; Lichfield, 12 3; 1\oyon, 12-+; Bayeux, 125; York, uS; Tro} es, 126; \Y orcester, 126; Rouen, 128 _, Christian: situated in or near churches, 61; at Jerusalem, 62; at C.-csarea, il>id.; at Cirta, ibid.; aI Hippo, 63; use of the triple apse, 63 _ of Colleges: statutes of Merton Con., O>.ford, 133; l'niversity, 133; 01 id, r.n; I'eterhouse. Cambridge, LIIIR,\I ided into library of reference and library for lending, i4; open to st rangers. i 5 ; books a necessary possession, ibid.; protection of books, i6; curses, ii; endo\\mentoflibraries, i9; \\ ork done and boo\..s kept in the cloister, 80; furniIure used, 81; arma- 1';'1111 COlllll11l1k', 82; aI Fo,sa !\uo\a, ibid.; at \\' orcester, :;..; evolution of Ci-tercian book-room, 8..-89; arrange- menIs in Benedictine Houses, 90; at We'itmin,Ier AbheY'91-94; supenision at S. Augustine's, Canterbury, 99; decoration. 100; gro\\ th of, 101; at S. Riquier, S. Gall, Hobbio. Lorsch, Durham, Canterbury, 102; construcIion of a special library, 106; at Canterbury, I:\DEX 3 "- -) LIBR,\RIb (colli.) ibid.; Durham and Gloucester, 10i: \\ïnche'iter, S. Albans, "'orcester. Bury S. Edmunds, S. Victor, Pari_, Franciscans of London, 108; Citeaux, 109"""112; Clairvaux, 112-11...; S. Ger- main des Près, Paris, I I...; destruction in England, 2...6; extension of their libraries in France in I ith cent. 28i; library of Jesuits at Rheims, 28ï-289; of S. Geneviève, Paris, 289; S. Ger- main des Près, ibid.; :\Ionte Cassino, 29<' -, parochial: at Grantham, 2;< i ; at Langley Marye, 258; Cartmel, ibid.; will of H. CheIham, 259; Gorton, ibid.; Turton, ibid.; "'imborne :\[iß5ter, 261; Dench\\orth, 262; All SainIs', Hereford, ibid.; Ahingdon, ibid. -, private: books kept in chests, 292; lower in Louvre fitted up as library. 293; illustration of this, 29...; a Cannelite in his study, 296; a scholar'. chair, 29i; lectern, 29i-9; Sidp of FOOlS, 29S; library of Margaret of Austria, 299-302; of Anne de Beaujeu, , 302; Italian lectern, 30..; \\ heel-desk, 30...-8; chairs \\ ith des\.., 309-312; desks used in Italy. 312; \\all-cup- boards, 31. ; scholar's room, 31...; study of Duke of t:" rbino, i6id.; of Montaigne. 315; Palazzo Barberini. 316; library of Dean Bo}s. 31i -, Roman (B.C.) : intenIion of Julius Cæ,ar to build a library, 12; library of C. Asinius Pollio, ibid.; decorated \\ ith busts of departed author,. ibid.; \\orks of Augustus. ibzil.; Por- ticus Octa\iæ, 12-1...; temple and area of Apollo, ...; other public librarie.., 15; of Tiberius, Ye_pasian, Trajan, ibid.: of Hadrian at Athen_, 16-18: organisation of Roman libraries, I ; composition of PalaIine libraI'}. ibid.; description by Ovid, ibid.; advice of Horace respecting, t9; library of Tiberius, ibid.; of Yespasian it, lemPlo Pads, ibid.; of Trajan (bibliollum Ulpia), ibid.: loan of books from public collections, 20; fittings, 36; private libraries: of Lucullus, 20, 2 I; fa"hicm for book -collecting denounce,] b} 21-3 3 26 LIBRARIES (COJlt.) Seneca, 21; library in Yia dello Statuto discovered by Lanciani, 22; at Hercu- laneum, 23; near Rome, as de cribed by :\Iartial, 31; record-house of Ves- pa ian, 26, 2 i; contents of Roman libraries, 2j-30; fittings of Roman libraries; discussion of words used, 3 0 -33; what the furniture so designated \\ as, 3+' 35; representation found at ::-';eumagen, 35; desk for rolls in Lateran luseum, 36; presses (armTii. ; n"ew cases supplied to south library 1623, 18+; chains taken off I í92, 266 :\Iesmin (Saint): curse from :\IS., ii, j8, and 'lote Ietellus, Quintus: hare in building the Porticus Octaviæ, 13; plan may have been derived from Pergamon, 1+ Michelangelo: builds Medicean Library, 23+; his sketch for the bookcases, 23 6 l\lickleth\\ aite, J. T.: his plan of West- min ter Abbey, 91 :\lona,tic influence at Oxf. and Camb., 1....2 IXDEX 3 2 7 )Iontaigne: VISitS Vatican Library 6 )Iarch, 1:;81, 230; describes his o\\n library, 315 \Ionte Ca ,ino: library described, 290 )Ionte Oli"eto, Benedictine Convent of: libral"}'. 205 )Iuch Wenlock, Cluniac Priory: book- room, 8ï Xavarre, Collège de: library, 16;; iIIetley, Ci tercian Abbey: book-room, 86 X eumagen near Trèves: representation of a library found at, 3,., and 1l0te Xew College, Oxford: library statute, '.H ""ills= pigeon-hole: receptacle for rolls in Roman libraries, 30, 31 Xoyon Cathedral: library, 12+ Xuremberg: chained bools in Stadtbib- liothek. 163 X uzio. )Iatteo: build library at Cesena. IY9 Obazine, in Central France: book-press describerl and figured, 95 Odo, Abbat of 5. )Iartin at Tournai: promotes work in cloister, 81 Ordericu \ïtaIis: his \\ ork stopped by cold, 80 ordo: a heIf, 2++ Oriel Coli., Oxf.: library statute, 133-13+ Ouen. Saint: library, 2++ Ovid: lines from Ihe Tristia describing Palatine library, 18 Oxford: destruction of MSS. I :;+9. +ï Pachomius (5.): provision of his rule, 6+, 6:;, "ote Palatine library, Rome: see Apollo Pamphilu : founds library at Cæsarea, 62 Parchment: story of iIs invention at Pergamon, 8 ParkhursI, IIp John: bequeathes books to GuildrOlrl school, 2/53 Paul, S., London, Cathedral: library, 12 ; library buill by Wren, 82-+ Paulinus, Bp of X ola: de cribes u,e of ap e in ba ilica built by himself. 63 Peace, library in Temple of, at Rome: -' e Vespasian / JlJnta=;;heh'e : 11'e and meaning di - cu 'ed. 32; in Cicero' library, 33; conclusion respecting, 3+ Peisi,tratus, tyrant of Athens: ,aid to have collecled a library, 5 Pembroke Coli., Camb.: library statute, I.W; library fittings, 160; bookcases at, :! .... Peñi,cola: library of Boniface XIII., ++ Pergamon: description of site, ï; founda- tion of library by Eumenes II., 8; given to Cleopatra by Antony, ibid.; plan of temple and precinct of AIhena, 9; ac- count of German exploration, 9-1 I ; plan po'sibly copied at Rome by Q. 'I etellus, 1+; described to Roman, by Crates of )lallus, ibid.; copied by lIa(lrian at Athens, 18; by Pupe Dama us at Rome, +2 Peter (S.), Liverpool, Ch. of: bools bequeathed by John Fell<, mariner, 181;", to be chained, 266 PeterboTOugh: cloister window, glazerl, 100 Peterhouse, Camb.: library 'tatutes, I.H- 136; di'cussion of catalogue dated 1+18, 1+5-1+8; lecterns in oM library, 160; bookcases put up between 16+1 and 16+8, 251; chaining of book- be- queathed by Dr Perne 1;,,88. 265 Peter (S.) )Iancroft, Xom ich: "ooden pres' in vestry, 96, ,wte Philobiblon: descliption of libraries of )lendicanIs quoted from, ;2; injunction to handle )ISS. carefully, ï(" 71ote. book-che t prescribed in. 29ï Pigeon-hole _ystem: used in ({oman libraries, + 7 Pilkington, Bp James: statutes for school at Rivington, 262 PlaIina, BarIulommeo: appointed li- brarian of Vatican, 208; engages a binder, 209; writes inscription in Latin library, 21."; rooms for himself and bis assbtants, 216; orders desks for Latin library, 21 ï; selecIs subjects for fres- coes in Ospedale di Santo Spirito, 21:; ; his a"j,tants, 231-2; prm irles all ar- ticles required for maintenance, 2.P Pliny (the younger): de,cribes armarilll/l sunk in \\all of his bedroom, 38 pllltclIs=shelf: use of "ord rli,cu>><"01 and illustrated, 3 2 . 33, .H 3 28 Pollio, C ..hiniu'i: huilds a library and an atrium libeltatis in Rome B.C. 39, 12 Polycrates. t} rant of Samos: said to have collected a library, + Pompeii:: reproduction of fresco she" ing way to hold roll, 27 Pont is, 'Ym.: builds staircase in Rouen Cathedral, 129 Porticus Octa\'iæ, 12-1+ Portraits of departed authors used to de- corate libraries:: at Pergamon. II; by C. A,inius Pollio, 12; by Augustus, 14; in private libraries, 35; inscriptions ac- companying them, ibid.; described by Eucherius, TIp of Lyons, in a private libraI'}, +3; in library designed by pope Agapetus, H Plecentol : caUed also armarills and en- trusted with care of books by Cluniacs, 67; Benedictines, 68; Augustinians, 7 I; Premonstratensians, 72; su pervises use of pre,s at S. Augustine's, Canterbury, 99 Premon tratensians: rules for books among. 'i 2 Promra/or biblio/heca11/111: officel ap- pointed by Augustus, 18 Protection of MSS.:: rule for holding a 1\IS., 76; hands to be clean, ibid.; handkerchiefs to be wrapped round, ibid.; entreaties to use carefully, ibid. ; curses on those who damage or steal, iï Queens' Coli., Camb. : number of books in library 1+72, 1+;<; equidistant win- dows of library, 1+8; library selected as type, 151; analysis of catalogue dated 1+72, t67 Queen's Coli.. Ox[: library built by IIawkesmoore, 2;<:' Ramsey Abbey, Hunts: bad weather in cloister at, 80 Remi, S., at Rheims: library belonging to, 286 Reserved library: in collegiate libraries, q;;; at Assisi, 207 ; at Yatic:lI1, 2 II Rheims: library of S. Remi, 286; of the Jesuits, 287 Riquier (S.): library, 102 IXDEX Ri\ington: chool library. 262; Bp Pil- kington's statute for, ibid. Roche. Cistercian Abbey: book-room. 86 roe, a \\ heel = a book-desk, 29+; ex- plained. 29;;; illustrated, 3 0 +-3 08 Rolls: dimensions, use, etc., 27; fa,tened to stick, 28; this decorated \\ ith knobs (co1"Jlua), ibid.; edges (frolltes) of roll cut, ibid.; ticket (;'ld",') appended. 29; closed \\ ith straps (/ora), ibid. ; wrapped in covets, ibid.; carried in a capsa or scrilliul1I, 30; receptacles for. 30-3+; desk for reading, 36; aJmaJ'illlll to contain, 37 Rome: see Libraries, Roman Rouen:: Cathedral library. 128-1. 0 Salisbury: Cathedral library, I'll Sarcophagus: in Mus. I'\az., Rome, with shoemaker at work in front of a pre", 3 8 ; in '"ilia Balestra, with ph} sician reading. ibid. scrilliulll: box for carrying rolls. 3 0 Scriptorium: endowment, at Ely, 79; at S. Albans, 80 Scrivener, Iatt.: bequeathes /;;<0 to Univ. Library. Camb., 1687, to buy chains, 26;; sedile: meaning di cussed, 2H Sellyng, Prior. at Canterbury: sets up carrells in the cloister, 99; glazes the windo\\s, 100; fits up library. 106 Seneca: denounces fashion for book- collecting, 2 I Slúp of Fools: lectern used in, 297 Shiryngton, 'Yalt.:: builds library at Old S. Paul's Cathedral, 122 UlÀÀI'ßos=tÏcket bearing the name of a roll, 29; used in Cicero's library. 33 Simon, abbat of S. Alb:ms: book-chest. 29 2 solaJ illlll = press, 207 Soruonne: library, I t1+; glass in ",indo\\, oflibrary,2+2 sþalera or spal/icra: a settle, 228 Stained glass: instances of, in libraries, 2+1 sial/a or sta//u1/l: meaning discussed. 2+2 Stall-syste"1: term explained, 172; type at Corp. Chr. CoIl., Oxf., ibid.; de- scri ption of these cases, 173 j chaining used. 17+-8; fittings at 1\Ierton Coli., O"r., li8-18;;; at S. John Ihe Baptist CoIl.. Trinity Coli., Bodl. Library, Oxford, IH.; at Clare Coli., Camb., J!j6; W t in ter AbLe}, 18i: Wells Cathedral, 1118; Durham Cath., 189: origin probably mona tic, 190: Christ Church, Cant., 190-..; Clairvaux, ((þ- 8; 110\, Ie} - Harrison library at Canter- bury, :-6 Student-monk_: at Oxr. and Camb., 1.f2 Sudbury, John, dean of Durham: fits up Frater as librar}, I&) labula, board CO\ ered \\ ith \\ ax and parchment to record loan of books, 139 tt'xlus = book-helf; at Ch. Ch., Canter- bury, 192, 2H IIIt'ca: a shelf or cuplK>ard, 8i, 1I01t' Theodmarus Ca>.!oinensis: his leiter to Charlemagne quoted, ;6 and 1Iole Tiberius, Emperor: his library in Rome, 1:-, 16; thi.. mentioned hy Aulus Gellius, 19: contained puhlic records, ibid. Tibur=TÏ\oli: story of lihrar} in Iemple of lIercules, o Tintern, Ci,t rcian A bhe} : Look-room, 86 Tilchfidd: book-room and arrangement, 8i titllllls = Iicket bealing the name of a roll, 28 Tournai: st'e Iartin (S.) Trajan: library in his forum in Rome, I;': statements of Aulus Gelliu and 'opiscus re pecIing, 19; described hy Xibby, .H tYlchora: applie(1 to a triple ap e, 63; u!o" of Ihe \\ onl by Dioscorides, 6.. Trigg, Fra, : founds library at GranIham, 25i TIÎnity Coli., Camb.: chaining of books given in 1601, 265; Wren's library built, 7i-2!j1 Trinity lIall, Camb.: lihrary,IatUle, 136; lihrary described, 168 Tro}cs: library in Cathedral, u6 TurIon: library, 259 l'dine, Giovanni da: supplies stained glas_ to 'Iedicean Lihrary, 35 l'lpian, jurist: decision.. respecting lihraries and their furniture. 3i I DEX 3 2 9 Ulpian library, at Rome: st't'Trajan II IlIbilicus = stick to which roll was fastened, 8 Uni,er ities: ,i,ited by Commi"ioner of Edward \'1., 2..i Univer,ity Coil., Oxf.: lihr:uy statut", 133 l:nÏ\ersity Library, Camh.; suhjects of books catalogued I.. 2", I H; diuo 1..;3, I..:;; hookcase, supplied to, li31-", 2 8 5 l:rbino: account of library, 33; pri,ate study of Duke, 31" '"arro, 1\1. Terentius: employed by C. Julius C=ar to collect books for his intended library, 12; his bust admiued into Pollio's library, ibid. '-atican Library of Sixtus 1\'_: descrip- tion of, 20R-,i 2; appointment of Platina as librarian. 08 ; selection of site, 209; fourfold division, 211; !,urchase of malerials, ibid.; engagement of arti!ots, ibid.; door of entrance made, I 2 ; Latin Library described. ibid.; its decoration, 13; Greek Library de- scribed, ibid.; its decoration, 215; Bihliotheca secreta descri bed, ibid.; Iltbliotkeca fOlltificia, ibid.; glazing of the \\ indo\\ s, 16; rooms for librarians, ibid.; bookcases for Latin library ordered, 21 i; for Bihlioth.-ca secreta, ibid.; catalogue-frames and coffer.. ordered, 218; cases for Bibliotheca fOlltificia ordered, ibid. ; chains bought, 219; information derÏ\'ed from cata. logues, 220-,,; contemporary fresco representing library, 225; arrangement of cases in Ihe four room , 226-9; glohes and brazier, 229; rule for good beha, iour in, 15 I 3, ibid.: visit of l\Iontaigne, 230; loans from, 230-1; staff of library, 23 I; maintenance of, 2.P - of Sixtus '-.: type of an ancien! Roman library. ..i; summary account of decoration, ..8; detailed do., 49-00 ,"c"ailles: lihraries of Louis X'ï. and larie Antoineue, 8i Yer,,,,: by 'Iartial, 10 he placed under his own portrait, .is; by Isidore of Sc, .lIe. [C.r the I'IL""- in his librar}, ..;;. 33 0 Vespasian : his library in Rome ill templo Pads, If.; statement of Aulus Gellius respecting, 19; his record-office. now church of SS. Cosma e Damiano, 25 \ïctor (S.), Paris: books bequeathed to. on condition of loan, i5; lihraryopen to strangcrs. ibid.; lines from ;\ISS. at, admonishing readers to be careful, i 6 ; curse habitually used at, ii, 'IOte; liblary built at, 1501-8, 108; catalogue of library analysed, 166-i Villa Balestra, Rome: sarcophagus, . 8 \ïvarium, near Squillac : monash:IY of Cas iodorus near, 4+ volllmell=roll, 2i-30; 00" for. 30; fittings of libraries adapted to, 3+; representa- tion of one of these, 35 Wall-system: name proposed. 26i; li- brary of Escõrial, 26j-2jO; Ambrosian Library at Milan, 2jl; Bibliothèque Iazarine, 2j2-2i4 Wells Cathedral: libnry at, 123; de- scribed, 188 \Vcssyngton, Prior: builds library at Durham, 10j \Vestminster Abbey: plan of cloi ter at, 9 1 ; account of library in, 91-9+; car- rells, 92, 93; r semblance to Gloucester, 9 8 ; lihrary fitted up 162. -4, 18i INDEX \Vheel-desk: see Toe Whethamstede, John: huilds library at S. Albans, lOt>; at Gloucester House, UXf.,1+2 Whittington, Sir R.: huilds library at Christ's Hospital 1421, 108 Williams, John, Bp of Lincoln: fits up dorter at \\' stminster Abbey as library 162 3-4, 18j; builds library at S. John's Coli., Camb.. 2+8- 2 5 1 \\ïmborne: Minster library, 26\ Winchester: position of library, 108 Winckelmann. J. J.: description oflibrary at Herculaneum, 25 \Vings, attached to bookcases: at Peter- house, Camb., 252; at University Library, 253; at Pembroke Coll., 25+ \\Torcester Cathedral: book-recesses in cloister at, 84; library at, 108; Bishop Carpenter's library-foundation, 126-8 Wren, Sir C.: visits Paris, 2i6; builds lihrary at Lincoln Cathedral, 2ji; at Trinity College, Cambridge, 2ij-281 : at S. Paul's Cathedral, London, 282-+ \\'ren, Iatt.: account of Pembroke Coli. library, 13Y, 160 York: CathedrallibralY, 12:; Zlltph n: library described, [53- 1 59 c,nIRRIDGF.: PRI....TED}lY J. ^ D c. F. CLAY, AT rHI-. t I\.ERSITY PRESS. l\ ;.